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The First American Party System: U.S. Political Parties: The Principle of Legitimate Opposition
Guiding Questions
- What are the chief characteristics of legitimate political opposition in
a democracy?
- What are examples that demonstrate each of those qualities?
- What are the essential elements of an organized political party?
Learning Objectives
After this lesson, students will be able to:
- Cite critical factors leading to the development of the Federalists and
Democratic-Republicans.
Background for the Teacher
Though intended for the teacher, all or part of the following background information
may be useful for some students.
Your students are undoubtedly familiar with the trappings of today's political
parties (advertisements, campaign events, party symbols, and the like). The
Federalists and Republicans of the first U.S. party system had few of the superficial
elements that we commonly associate with political parties. However, they did
develop the organizational underpinnings that enabled them to establish bases
of support and to promote their policies, programs, and philosophies.
In his introduction to the History of U.S. Political Parties (Schlesinger,
Arthur M., gen. ed. History of U.S. Political Parties. 4 vols. New York:
Chelsea, 1973. xxxiii), Arthur Schlesinger says, "The political parties of the
United States are the oldest in the world." There had been groups referred to
as parties before this time, but what had not existed were political parties
representing legitimate opposition to one another, a "system under which one
political party operated and another opposed the government" (Schlesinger, xxxiii)
while being recognized as a legitimate part of the political landscape.
In The Idea of a Party System, Richard Hofstadter defines legitimate
democratic opposition as "responsible, effective, constitutional opposition"
(University of California Press, 1970. p. 4). He goes on to explain each element
of his definition:
…When we speak of an opposition as being responsible, we mean that
it contains within itself the potential of an actual alternative government—that
is, its critique of existing policies is not simply a wild attempt to outbid
the existing regime in promises, but a sober attempt to formulate alternative
policies which it believes to be capable of execution within the existing historical
and economic framework, and to offer as its executors a competent alternative
personnel that can actually govern. (Hofstadter, p. 4).
In other words, a party in opposition must provide a viable alternate program
and personnel with the potential to carry out that program.
…When we speak of an opposition being effective, we mean not merely
that its programs are expected to be capable of execution, that its alternative
policy is real, but that its capability of winning office is also real, that
it has the institutional structure and the public force which make it possible
for us to expect that sooner or later it will in fact take office and bring
to power an alternative personnel (Hofstadter, p. 5).
A party in opposition must have a structure that enables it to engage the public
through communication and organization so that eventually it can come to power
by way of election and attempt to implement its program. The tension between having
a program and being effective (that is, having the potential to rise to power
through popular election), often results in changes to the party program in the
face of events and changes in popular opinion.
…When we speak of an opposition being constitutional, we
mean that both government and opposition are bound by the rules of some kind
of constitutional consensus (Hofstadter, p. 4).
A party in opposition questions the policies of the governing party and not the
legitimacy of the government itself since both parties observe the same set of
ground rules, the Constitution. In turn, the party in power does not question
the legitimacy of opposition. (The power of the incumbents to limit opposition
was tested by the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. Although the question of their constitutionality
has never been resolved by the judiciary these laws contributed to the defeat of the Federalists in the elections of
1800 and the demise of the Federalist Party. The complementary EDSITEment curriculum
unit Certain
Crimes Against the United States: The Sedition Act touches on these issues.)
It is essential to realize that the two-party system was a work in progress
during the first quarter-century of our republic.
The idea of a legitimate opposition—recognized opposition, organized
and free enough in its activities to be able to displace an existing government
by peaceful means—is an immensely sophisticated idea, and it was not an idea
that the Fathers found fully developed and ready to hand when they began their
enterprise in republican constitutionalism in 1788 (Hofstadter, p. 8).
Until about 1814, when the country experienced a period—the so-called "Era of
Good Feelings"—in which only the Democratic-Republicans were able to effectively
mount a national campaign, both parties were attempting to eliminate the other.
After 10 years of "good feelings," the need for opposition proved so strong that
a second two-party system, more clearly articulated than the first, developed.
This unit of study concentrates on the programs of the Federalists and Republicans
in the context of events contemporaneous to their formation. During the 1790s
each of the parties created an organization necessary to constitute legitimate
opposition and achieved control of the federal government (Adams in 1796, and
Jefferson in 1800).
In this lesson, students will look at examples of legitimate opposition in
the Early Republic. Classes completing the other lessons in the unit should
keep in mind the concept of "responsible, effective, constitutional opposition"
as they review the party programs. They should note the various structural elements
used in creating opposition (such as letters and newspaper articles) and the
events that influenced party policies and philosophies.
The Genesis of Political Opposition in the United States (Optional Introduction)
Before the birth of opposition political parties, divisions among American political
leaders developed over the ratification of the Constitution. The EDSITEment resource
Harp Week features a cartoon, The
Looking Glass for 1787, that demonstrates the depth of feeling over the issues.
(If desired, use the Cartoon
Analysis Worksheet on the EDSITEment-reviewed website Digital
Classroom to aid in your discussion.) The cartoon's precise meaning has been
somewhat obscured by time, and we would now regard it as tasteless in its scatological
humor. However, it demonstrates the depth of the divisions that arose over ratification,
even though the opposing groups had not yet evolved into true political parties.
The goals of each group in the cartoon were limited, with the Federalists working
for ratification and the policies it implied. Although the Anti-Federalists outnumbered
the Federalists in Connecticut’s Council of Twelve depicted in the cartoon,
Connecticut became one of the first five states to ratify the Constitution.
Political Opposition Defined in Action
In the following activity, students will examine one primary document representing
the characteristics Hofstadter uses to define legitimate opposition. The issues
behind this and later documents are the core of the other lessons in the unit.
The aim here is to provide a definition and concrete examples of legitimate opposition
in the early years of the first American party system.
Discuss with students Hofstadter's characterization of political parties as
“responsible, effective, [and] constitutional.” Review the meaning
of each term while emphasizing that the first two-party system was a work in
progress. Much of what was done in the name of party during this early period
will appear similar to modern party activities; some will seem unsophisticated,
some even unethical by present-day standards.
Together with the class, you will analyze the 1801 document To
the electors of the Southern district of the State of New-York, on the EDSITEment
resource American Memory, to see how it
embodies the ongoing development of “responsible, effective, [and] constitutional”
opposition. (NOTE: As with most American Memory documents, the link above leads
to an image of the original document with links to larger images and a transcription
of the full text. A link to bibliographic information is offered on the transcription
page.) If desired, you may choose to use the annotated excerpts provided in
the handout "To the Electors of the Southern District of the State of New York,"
(see Preparing
to Teach This Curriculum Unit for download instructions), rather than the
full document.
Not only will this teacher-led analysis introduce the key elements of legitimate
opposition, but it will also serve as a model for primary document analysis
in the subsequent lessons. In Lesson
Three, below, students will complete a similar analysis in small groups.
If desired, use the Analysis
of Primary Sources on The Library of Congress,
a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website American
Memory, as an introduction. You may also find the Written
Document Analysis Worksheet, on the EDSITEment resource Digital
Classroom, an effective aid to analysis.
Being responsible in opposition means having a viable program, one
that can readily replace that of the party in power. The paragraph beginning
with "Examine the history of the general Government for the last four years"
asks voters to consider the Republican program on the basis of its criticism
of Federalist policies. In the next paragraph, the author goes on to outline
the general Republican program.
Being effective in a democracy means having the potential to garner
enough public support to assume office. That requires communication of the party’s
program. To
the electors of the Southern district of the State of New-York was a broadside,
defined in American Memory
as "Single-sheet notice(s) or announcement(s) printed on one or both sides,
intended to be read unfolded." Other methods of communication are exemplified
by the following documents:
- Newspapers: Speech
of Mr. Jefferson at his inaugural, Washington, March 4, 1801, published
in the National Intelligencer, an organ of the Republican party.
- Pamphlets: To
the electors of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1799, a Federalist pamphlet
opposing the election of Thomas M'Kean as Governor of Pennsylvania.
- Leaflets/Letters: Circular,
New York, an 1804 Republican leaflet—in this case, from a Committee
of Correspondence, another organizational tool—addressed to a set of
specific recipients. This copy of the leaflet went to a Capt. Joseph Mowle.
Being effective also requires an institutional structure, an organization. The
extended title of the document mentions the General Committee of New York, an
arm of the Republican Party at the state level.
Being constitutional means that parties in and out of power abide
by the ground rules set by the Constitution. The passage and application of
the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 by the Federalists in power threatened legitimate
opposition. Note the sentence in the document “To the electors of Pennsylvania…”
beginning, "Taxes were increased."
Assessment
Students who have completed this lesson should be able to respond effectively
to the following:
- What are the chief characteristics of legitimate political opposition in
a democracy?
- What are examples that demonstrate each of those qualities?
Once you have reviewed the discussion points, ask students to consider additional
ways in which a political party strengthens its base of support
among voters and discipline among those members who are elected to office. Ask
them to write a one-page paper in which they explain why communication is essential
to creating and sustaining a political party.
Selected EDSITEment Websites
Standards Alignment
View your state’s standards
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