Acquisition Safety - Fall Protection |
Introduction | Discussion | Recommendations | Conclusion | Resources |
Introduction |
Every year, work-related falls from elevations result in numerous critical injuries. In 2002, the most recent year for which statistics on workplace fatalities in the United States are available, the U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics lists falls to a lower level as the second most frequent cause of work-related fatalities (after highway incidents). Falls accounted for 13% of all workplace fatalities (714) in 2002. Review of the narratives from OSHA fatality data between 1991 and 2001 indicated that approximately 15% of recorded shipyard fatalities were due to falls from heights. The risk of falling from heights is inherent to Navy ship construction (drydocks) and aircraft maintenance sites and to any shipboard and shore facility work spaces containing scaffolds, platforms, weapons systems, auxiliary equipment, confined spaces, storage tanks, and other structures. The dangers of working at heights and the extra precautions needed to do so may mean that routine maintenance and inspections of equipment and structures that present fall hazards are carried out less frequently or may be less comprehensive than required. Falls from elevations also typically lead to negative publicity and contribute to the degradation of morale and mission readiness. In addition to harming personnel, conditions that contribute to severe fall injuries often result in expenditures for medical care, down time, and costly retrofits that could have been built-in during ship system planning and acquisition phases. Typical costs for a fatality range from $800,000 to $2,400,000, while the average cost of serious injury is more than $30,000. These are direct costs and do not include worker replacement, pain and suffering, employee morale, and other indirect costs. The following is a general cost profile that compares incorporating fall protection and prevention measures at various stages of design, construction, and maintenance:
Defense acquisition and construction programs and projects include many products and facilities that require work at elevated locations. These programs and projects must manage the potentially fatal risk of working at heights as an integral part of the design and process control that provides safe and effective defense systems. Defense acquisition regulations (DoD 5000.2) require planning and risk management for life cycle cost control and safety. Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR) require construction safety precautions consistent with the latest Army Corps of Engineer Safety Manual. Elimination or minimization of fall hazards can best be achieved by incorporating fall protection measures during planning and design phases. Fall protection and prevention measures must be considered during all phases of design, construction, use, maintenance, operation, and final disposal. |
Discussion |
Note: Although fall protection is very much a concern at all Navy shore facilities, this section will deal for the most part with fall hazards onboard Navy ships. Working Aloft or Over the SideMany areas on ships are inaccessible to maintenance, inspection, or repair crews from decks or built-in work platforms. This may mean climbing masts and kingposts or being suspended over the side of the ship on temporary scaffolding, from cranes, or in man baskets. The greatest hazard associated with working over the side or aloft is falling onto the pier or into a drydock or the water. Working aloft or over the side requires much preparation and extra precautions. These include filling out check lists, certifying cranes and aerial lift equipment, informing nearby ships, restricting the work area, and inspection of rigging, staging and personal protection equipment. Personnel must receive special training on working from heights and wear special harnesses secured to anchorages that can withstand the forces of a fall. In addition, extra personnel are needed as observers who can assist people working at heights or call for help in the event of an emergency.
Confined Spaces, Tanks, and VoidsWorking in confined spaces can involve fall hazards. Platforms inside confined spaces may not have adequate guardrail systems. Use of personal fall arrest systems may be complicated by the lack of adequate anchorage points inside confined spaces. Deep tanks on Navy ships generally span four to five frames, or bulkheads, which have sloping sides with multiple configurations and can be over 40 feet in depth. Typically, access is through a top hatch or elliptical passages with small diameters and no guardrails. Because of the damp atmosphere in many of these confined spaces, and their chemically corrosive nature, ladders can easily become corroded and subject to failure. Wet or oily residues can also contribute to personnel falling when they lose their grip or footing on slippery surfaces. In some cases "D"-holes cut into the tank baffle plates substitute for ladders but do not meet safe ladder criteria. In addition, the "D"-holes may be placed as much as three feet apart vertically, making climbing even more difficult. [For further information on confined spaces, see the Confined Spaces section of these Acquisition Safety web pages.] LaddersFalls down ladders are a common shipboard hazard. Many ladder mishaps occur while sailors and shipyard workers are attempting to move equipment or carry various items up and down inclined ladders. Typically, ship ladders are inclined at a 68 degree angle, which is fairly steep. Ladders are often built at an even steeper angle or are completely vertical to allow more room for other items in the space constrained ship environment. Steep angles make climbing the ladders awkward, especially while carrying bulky materials. Other factors which lead to falls from ladders are uneven surfaces, poor traction (lack of non-skid surfaces), lack of materials handling alternatives, lack of adequate lighting to see ladder rungs, and lack of guard rails, chains, or man ropes at hatch openings (first four steps). ScaffoldingDuring ship maintenance, repair, or construction, particularly in drydocks, it is often necessary to construct, erect, and use temporary scaffolding. Factors that increase the risk of falls from scaffolding are:
Aircraft MaintenanceWorking on aircraft presents unique fall hazards because of slippery surfaces on the wings, tail, and fuselage. Combat aircraft are typically "thin skinned" and don't readily accommodate anchorages for tying off fall arrest gear. Aircraft maintenance aboard ship can complicate the issue of providing suitable fall protection because of the issues of space, time, and limitations of shipboard support structures. |
Recommendations |
Incorporate Fall Protection And Prevention During Planning And Design Phases Provision for secure handrails at tops of ladders and handrail extensions that can be collapsed when hatches are closed (see diagram at right) Use of control panels and displays at ground level instead of at heights Remote technology, like lamps that rotate downward for service and maintenance Designs that minimize the need for personnel to climb masts like triangular sails and masts that rotate from their bases Ladders and safety rails built into systems with location of ladders and access points away from edges or protected by guard rails. Hatch guards that include circular openings (shown on left)
Ladder designs that consider movement of personnel and materials in order to lower life-cycle costs and risks to crew and maintenance workers Using man lifts where possible instead of ladders Designing in deck and other edge protection or use of portable edge protection or rails Safe means to raise tools and equipment to elevated work platforms Designs that minimize the need for maintenance on elevated systems like long life paint systems and tanks that don't need routine painting As part of the Rapid Cure Ship Tank Coatings Program, the Navy has utilized advanced coatings to the extend service life of:
Designs that include readily accessible anchorages for scaffolding and fall arrest systems. An example is to build permanent anchorage points into the inside of ship hulls on which to hang scaffolding. Remote inspection of equipment and structures at heights Use of treads with high coefficient of friction for ladders Use of D-hole connectors in tanks; "Beamer" - mobile anchorage point for I or T beams; and "first man up devices."
Conveyors that eliminate the need to carry materials on ladders or to haul up tools and equipment Use of robotic inspection devices to enter fuel tanks, eliminating the hazards of manned entry Replacement of scaffolding with mobile lifts where feasible Routine implementation of system safety review and root cause analyses of all fall mishaps to identify and remedy high-risk fall hazards. |
Conclusion |
Ship design must consider life cycle costs and risks. Acquisition programs are required to consider the support equipment and facilities as well as the primary platform and plan for safe and efficient maintenance. These issues must be considered in the design and fielding of new systems and equipment. System Safety programs identify fall hazards that have persisted from prototype to prototype, singling out hazards that indicate fall mishaps to come. Safe designs are seen as efficiency improvements and cost-avoidance opportunities. Systems are designed for safe maintenance and efficiency in accordance with human systems integration requirements (fitting the equipment design and tasks to the worker) and Key Performance Parameters (KPPs). Incorporating fall protection during the planning and design phases of any new acquisition decreases operation and maintenance costs compared to the cost of retrofitting fall protection into an already built system. Including fall protection in an original design also helps meet key performance parameters for life cycle costs and availability by reducing operational costs per unit of time. |
Resources/Best Practices |
Fall Protection Resources/Best Practices
DoD/Navy Instructions and Regulatory RequirementsASTM F-1166-07 DoDI 5000.02 Guidance Notes for the Application of Ergonomics to Marine Systems American Bureau of Shipping Mil Std 882, System Safety
MIL-STD-1472F OPNAVINST 5100.23 Series OPNAVINST 5100.19 Series Fall Protection Design Guidance DocumentsFall Protection for Aircraft Maintenance & Inspection Work US Department of Labor Protection Standards Website General Fall Protection ReferencesEllis, J. Nigel PhD, CSP, PE Introduction to Fall Protection Third Edition American, 1999 Application of Human Systems Engineering Guidelines to Improve Safety, Access and Maintainability in Aircraft Carrier Storage Tanks Application of System Safety to Prevention of Falls from Height in Design of Facilities, Ships and Support Equipment for Weapons Systems Maritime Fall Protection Issues Presentation at the National Safety Congress NIOSH (2000) Review of Worker Death by Falls Fall Protection Regulations29 CFR Part - http://www.osha.gov/comp-links.html
Fall Protection Standards
Information on Robotic Tank InspectionAmerican Nuclear Society 8th Topical Meeting on Robotics and Remote Systems |
How to Contribute |
We need input from the Defense Acquisition community to address each of the ten Acquisition Safety challenges that are the subject of this website. Grow with us as we share information on how to meet the above challenges through the Defense Acquisition Process. Through the exchange of ideas, information resources, and improvements in methodology and design, these challenges can and will be met. To submit general information or information on Best Practices, or to submit a success story, please send an email to safe-webmaster@navy.mil with the subject line "Acquisition Safety." |
Last Modified: Tuesday, August 25, 2009