Drugs are related to crime in multiple ways. Most
directly, it is a crime to use, possess, manufacture,
or distribute drugs classified as having a potential
for abuse (such as cocaine, heroin, marijuana, and
amphetamines). Drugs are also related to crime
through the effects they have on the user's behavior
and by generating violence and other illegal activity
in connection with drug trafficking. The chart below
summarizes the various ways that drugs and crime
are related.
Drug-related offenses and drug-using lifestyles are
major contributors to the U.S. crime problem and
are the focus of this fact sheet.
Drug Use and Its Relation to the
Commission of Crimes
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS) conducts an annual National Household Survey
on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) that asks individuals living
in households about their drug and alcohol use and
their involvement in crimes (see table 1). Provisional data
for 1997 show that respondents arrested in the past
year for possession or sale of drugs and driving under
the influence had the highest percentage of illicit drug
use in the past year. Past year illicit drug users were
also about 16 times more likely than nonusers to
report being arrested and booked for larceny or theft;
more than 14 times more likely to be arrested and
booked for such offenses as driving under the
influence, drunkenness, or liquor law violations; and
more than 9 times more likely to be arrested and
booked on an assault charge.
Summary of relationship between drugs and crime |
Drugs/crime relationship | Definition | Examples |
Drug-defined offenses |
Violations of laws prohibiting or regulating the possession, use, distribution, or manufacture of illegal drugs.
| Drug possession or use. Marijuana cultivation. Methamphetamine production. Cocaine, heroin, or marijuana sales. |
Drug-related offenses |
Offenses to which a drug's pharmacologic effects contribute;
offenses motivated by the user's need for money to support continued use;
and offenses connected to drug distribution itself. |
Violent behavior resulting from drug effects. Stealing to get money to buy drugs. Violence against rival drug dealers. |
Drug-using lifestyle |
A lifestyle in which the likelihood and frequency of involvement in illegal
activity are increased because drug users
may not participate in the legitimate
economy and are exposed to situations
that encourage crime. |
A life orientation with an
emphasis on short-term goals
supported by illegal activities.
Opportunities to offend resulting
from contacts with offenders and
illegal markets. Criminal skills
learned from other offenders. |
Table 1. Percentage of past year illicit drug and alcohol users and nonusers reporting having been arrested and booked for breaking a law, 1997* |
| Illicit drug use in past year† | Drunk 51 or more days in past year |
Yes (4,147) |
No (20,358) |
Yes (1,023) |
No (23,482) |
In past year arrested and booked for (unweighted N): |
Larceny or theft |
1.6% |
0.1% |
1.8% |
0.2% |
Burglary or breaking and entering
|
0.9 |
‡ |
1.2 |
0.1 |
Aggravated assault
|
0.9 |
0.1 |
0.9 |
0.1 |
Other assault |
2.0 |
0.2 |
3.3 |
0.3 |
Motor vehicle theft
|
0.5 |
‡ |
0.7 |
‡ |
Robbery |
0.4 |
‡ |
0.8 |
‡ |
Arson |
0.2 |
‡ |
0.1 |
‡ |
Driving under the influence
|
2.8 |
0.2 |
4.8 |
0.3 |
Drunkenness or liquor law violation
|
1.5 |
0.1 |
4.0 |
0.1 |
Possession or sale of drugs
|
2.8 |
‡ |
2.4 |
0.3 |
* Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.
† "Illicit drug use" indicates use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including PCP and LSD), or heroin or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.
‡ Low precision; no estimate reported.
Source: HHS, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Main Findings 1997.
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The annual Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) National
Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) asks victims of
violent crimes who reported seeing the offender
whether they perceived the offender to be under the
influence of drugs or alcohol. According to the 1998
survey, 30 percent of victims could not determine
whether the offender was under the influence of a
substance. Of those who could make a determination,
about 31 percent reported that the offender was under
the influence of alcohol and/or drugs.
Arrestees frequently test positive for recent
drug use
The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Arrestee Drug
Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) Program measures drug
use among arrestees by calculating the percentage of
arrestees with positive urine tests for drug use. ADAM
data are collected voluntarily and anonymously at the
time of arrest in booking facilities in selected U.S.
cities.
Data collected from male arrestees in 1998 in 35 cities
showed that the percentage testing positive for any
drug ranged from 42.5 percent in Anchorage, Alaska,
to 78.7 percent in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Female
arrestees testing positive ranged from 33.3 percent in
Laredo, Texas, to 82.1 percent in New York, New
York. Male arrestees charged with drug possession or
sales were among the most likely to test positive for
drug use, while female arrestees charged with
prostitution, drug possession, or sales were among the
most likely to elicit a positive test result. Males and
females arrested for stolen vehicles, robbery, and
burglary also had high positive rates. Test results
further showed that opiate use demonstrated a positive
correlation to polydrug use: of the individuals who
tested positive for opiates, three-fourths also tested
positive for another drug.
Data collected from juvenile male arrestees in 13 cities
showed that, similar to adult arrestees, the highest
positive rates were found in juveniles charged with
drug sales or possession. Overall, however, juvenile
arrestees were less likely than adult arrestees to
test positive for drug use. For juveniles who did
test positive for any drug use, marijuana was
overwhelmingly the drug of choice. On average, half
of the juvenile males tested had positive results for
marijuana. In addition, it was found that juvenile
male arrestees who were in school were less likely
to test positive for drugs than those not in school.
This was particularly the case for cocaine and
methamphetamine.
Table 2. Percentage of State and Federal prison
inmates who reported being under the influence
of drugs at time of their offense, 1997 |
Type of offense | Federal prison inmates | State prison inmates |
Total of all inmates |
22.4% |
32.6% |
Violent offenses |
24.5 |
29.0 |
Murder |
29.4 |
26.8 |
Negligent manslaughter |
* |
17.4 |
Sexual assault |
7.9 |
21.5 |
Robbery |
27.8 |
39.9 |
Assault |
13.8 |
24.2 |
Other |
15.9 |
29.0 |
Property offenses |
10.8 |
36.6 |
Burglary |
* |
38.4 |
Larceny/theft |
* |
38.4 |
Motor vehicle theft |
* |
39.0 |
Fraud |
6.5 |
30.5 |
Other |
16.4 |
30.6 |
Drug offenses |
25.0 |
41.9 |
Possession |
25.1 |
42.6 |
Trafficking |
25.9 |
41.0 |
Other |
17.1 |
47.1 |
Public-order offenses |
15.6 |
23.1 |
Weapons |
24.4 |
22.4
Other |
8.1 |
23.3 |
* Too few cases in the sample to permit calculation.
Source: BJS, Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and Federal Prisoners, 1997.
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Incarcerated offenders were often under the
influence of drugs when they committed
their offenses
By the end of 1998, State and Federal prisons housed
two-thirds of the Nation's incarcerated population and
jails housed the other third. From 1990 to 1998, the
Federal prison population almost doubled, reaching
123,041 offenders. The State prison population also
increased significantly between 1990 and 1998, from
708,393 to 1,178,978 inmates. At year-end 1998, the
number of offenders in jails was 592,462, an increase
from earlier. This number includes people who were
awaiting trial and those whose sentences were 1 year
or less.
In 1997 the U.S. Bureau of the Census conducted
surveys of State and Federal prison inmates for BJS
and the Bureau of Prisons. These surveys asked
sentenced Federal and State prison inmates whether
they were under the influence of drugs at the time they
committed the offense that resulted in their incar-ceration.
The percentage of Federal and State prison
inmates who reported they were under the influence of
drugs at the time of the offense varied across the major
offense categories (see table 2). These same studies found
that drug offenders and robbers in State prisons were
those most likely to report being under the influence
of drugs at the time of the offense. State prison
inmates convicted of sexual assault and negligent
manslaughter were among those least likely to report
being under the influence of drugs. Federal prison
inmates were less likely, with the exception of murder
and weapons offenses, than State inmates to have
committed their offenses under the influence of drugs.
Table 3. Percentage of Federal and State prison
inmates who committed their offense to obtain
money to buy drugs, 1991 |
Type of offense | Federal prison inmates | State prison inmates |
Total of inmates |
10% |
17% |
Violent offenses |
18 |
12 |
Homicide |
3 |
5 |
Sexual assault |
0 |
2 |
Robbery |
27 |
27 |
Assault |
2 |
6 |
Property offenses |
9 |
27 |
Burglary |
32 |
30 |
Larceny/theft |
13 |
31 |
Fraud |
7 |
25 |
Other |
8 |
14 |
Drug offenses |
9 |
22 |
Possession |
7 |
16 |
Trafficking |
10 |
25 |
Other |
7 |
20 |
Public-order offenses |
6 |
5 |
Source: BJS, Comparing Federal and State Prison Inmates, 1991.
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Offenders often commit offenses to support their
drug habit
Another dimension of drug-related crime is
committing an offense to obtain money (or goods to
sell to get money) to support drug use. According to
the 1991 joint survey of Federal and State prison
inmates, an estimated 17 percent of State prisoners and
10 percent of Federal prisoners reported committing
their offense to get money to buy drugs; of those
incarcerated for robbery, 27 percent of State prisoners
and 27 percent of Federal prisoners admitted
committing their offense to get money to buy drugs
(see table 3). In 1997, 19 percent of State prisoners and 16
percent of Federal inmates said that they committed
their current offense to obtain money for drugs. These
numbers represent a slight increase from the 1991
figures.
Drugs Generate Violent Crime
Trafficking in illicit drugs tends to be associated with
the commission of violent crimes. Reasons for the
relationship between drug trafficking and violence
include the following:
- Competition for drug markets and customers.
- Disputes and rip-offs among individuals involved in
the illegal drug market.
- The tendency toward violence of individuals who
participate in drug trafficking.
In addition, locations in which street drug markets
proliferate tend to be disadvantaged economically and
socially; legal and social controls against violence in
such areas tend to be ineffective. The proliferation of
lethal weapons in recent years has also made drug
violence more deadly.
Table 4. Drug-related homicides, 19911998 |
Year | Number of homicides | Percentage drug-related* |
1991 |
21,676 |
6.2% |
1992 |
22,716 |
5.7 |
1993 |
23,180 |
5.5 |
1994 |
22,084 |
5.6 |
1995 |
20,232 |
5.0 |
1996 |
15,848 |
4.9 |
1997 |
15,289 |
5.1 |
1998 |
14,088 |
4.8 |
* Drug-related homicides are those murders that occurred specifically during a
narcotics felony, such as drug trafficking or manufacturing.
Source: Table constructed by ONDCP Drug Policy Information Clearinghouse
staff from the FBI's Crime in the United States: Uniform Crime Reports,
19911998.
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Although the number of drug-related homicides has
been decreasing in recent years, drugs still remain one
of the main factors leading to the total number of all
homicides (see Table 4). According to the Federal Bureau
of Investigation's (FBI's) Crime in the United States:
Uniform Crime Reports, the number of homicides that
occurred in 1994 during a narcotic drug law violation
(such as drug trafficking or possession) or because of
brawls influenced by narcotics totaled 1,450, whereas
in 1998 this number was reduced to 795. Despite this
decrease, murders related to narcotics still rank as the
fourth most documented murder circumstance out of
24 possible categories.
The Drug/Crime Relationship Should
Be Interpreted Cautiously
The drug/crime relationship is difficult to quantify
because:
- Most crimes result from a variety of factors
(personal, situational, cultural, economic); even
when drugs are a cause, they are likely to be only
one factor among many.
- What is meant by "drug-related" varies from study
to study; some studies interpret the mere presence
of drugs as having causal relevance whereas other
studies interpret the relationship more narrowly.
- Reports by offenders about their drug use may
exaggerate or minimize the relevance of drugs;
drug-use measures, such as urinalysis that identifies
only very recent drug use, are limited.
Conclusion
The evidence indicates that drug users are more likely
than nonusers to commit crimes, that arrestees
frequently were under the influence of a drug at the
time they committed their offense, and that drugs
generate violence. Assessing the nature and extent
of the influence of drugs on crime requires that
reliable information about the offense and the
offender be available and that definitions be
consistent. In the face of problematic evidence, it
is impossible to say quantitatively how much drugs
influence the occurrence of crime.
Why Statistics on Drug-Related Crime are Difficult To Interpret: Homicide as an Example
Homicide statistics illustrate the difficulties
in quantifying the drug/crime relationship.
Homicide, like most types of crime, can be
related to drugs in any of the ways described
in this fact sheet. Data on homicides are more
complete than on other offenses because
homicides are more likely to be reported to
the police and tend to be more thoroughly
investigated. The two examples of drug-related
homicide statistics given here demonstrate some
of the difficulties of quantifying the relationship
between drugs and murder.
The FBI Crime in the United States:Uniform
Crime Reports present data on two types of drug-related
homicides.
- Murders that occur during a felony narcotics
offense (such as drug trafficking).
- Murders that occur during brawls influenced
by narcotics.
Percentage of all homicides that are drug-related
per FBI statistics, 19941998 |
Type of drug-related homicide | 1994 | 1995 | 1996 | 1997 | 1998 |
Narcotic drug law offenses |
5.6% | 5.1% |
5.0% |
5.1% |
4.8% |
Brawls influenced by narcotics |
1.0 |
0.9 |
1.1 |
0.7 |
0.8 |
Source: FBI, Crime in the United States: Uniform Crime Reports, 1998.
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The FBI does not include as drug-related a
murder that occurs during a robbery or a burglary
committed by someone under the influence of
drugs or a murder that occurs during a robbery
committed to obtain money to buy drugs. In
these cases, the homicide is recorded by its
relationship to the most serious offense only, and
robbery and burglary are more serious than drug
trafficking in the FBI offense classification and
in most State laws. Thus, current FBI homicide
information may not categorize a large number of
drug-related murders as so related. However, the
FBI is developing an enhanced reporting system,
the National Incident-Based Reporting System, to
report all crimes committed during an offense. This
system has been implemented in only a few States
so far.
The following example further illustrates the
difficulties of estimating drug-related homicides.
Drug-related homicide rates as defined using
differing criteria in four cities, 1990 |
| Percentage drug-related |
City 1 | City 2 | City 3 | City 4 |
Definitional criteria |
36.0% |
25.7% |
39.0% |
44.6% |
Committed during commission of a narcotics felony | | x |
x |
x |
Dispute between dealers |
|
x |
x |
|
Offender under the influence of drugs |
|
|
x |
|
Victim under the influence of drugs |
x |
|
x |
|
Source: Data were obtained by the ONDCP Drug Policy Information Clearinghouse. |
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The percentage of homicides thought to be drug-related
reflects both the frequency of such crimes
as well as how the relationship is specified.
"What proportion of homicides is drug-related?"
This simple question is difficult to answer. The
FBI's definition is specific but limited. Cities
or police departments may have broader but
inconsistent definitions. For offenses not as
reliably reported or as thoroughly investigated
as homicides, the question is even more difficult
because complete information is not systematically
available at the national level for any definition of
"drug-related."
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Sources
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Main Findings 1997, SAMHSA, Office of Applied Studies, April 1999.
U.S. Department of Justice
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Alcohol and Crime, NCJ168632, April 1998.
Comparing Federal and State Prison Inmates, 1991, NCJ145864, September 1994.
Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and Federal Prisoners, 1997, Special Report, p. 3, table 1. NCJ172871, January 1999.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Crime in the United States: Uniform Crime Reports, 1998, October 1999.
Crime in the United States: Uniform Crime Reports, 1995, October 1996.
National Institute of Justice
1998 ADAM: Annual Report on Drug Use Among Adult and Juvenile Arrestees (PDF), NCJ175656, April 1999.
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This fact sheet was prepared by Michele Spiess and Deborah Fallow at the Drug Policy Information
Clearinghouse. The data presented are as accurate as the sources from which they were drawn. Responsibility
for data selection and presentation rests with the Clearinghouse staff. The Clearinghouse is funded by the
White House Office of National Drug Control Policy to support drug control policy research. The
Clearinghouse is a component of the National Criminal Justice Reference Service. For further information
about the contents or sources used for the production of this fact sheet or about other drug policy issues, call
18006663332
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