In selecting the appropriate boundary, regulatory and management
alternatives for the proposed Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary,
NOAA evaluated the environmental consequences of their implementation.
This section discusses the consequences of the status quo as well
as Sanctuary alternatives including those resulting from the preferred
alternative. The consequences of the proposed action are discussed
in the context of the predicted impacts to the affected activities
and existing jurisdictions, if any, for the affected activities
and the predicted impact to the resources and qualities of the
proposed Sanctuary.
A.
Introduction
[Part
IV TOC]
The seven boundary alternatives analyzed would protect resources
and qualities of the Monterey Bay ecosystem to varying degrees
of areal extent. Each boundary alternative is described on the
basis of distribution of encompassed resources, qualities and
human uses. Tables 26 summarizes, in comparative form, the percent
of resources and uses encompassed by each boundary alternative
relative to the entire study area (preferred boundary #5). The
environmental consequences of each boundary alternative are discussed
in the context of the preferred resource protection and management
regime.
Those alternatives that excluded critical components of the
ecosystem were not considered as they would not have met the
purpose of the MPRSA to protect special areas of the marine
environment on an ecosystem basis and to provide a coordinated
and comprehensive approach to their conservation and management.
B.
Boundary Alternative 1
[Part
IV TOC]
Boundary alternative #1 is based both on depth and distance
from shore and is designed to encompass the nearshore coastal
resources. The emphasis of this alternative is on land-sea interactions
and immediate coastal processes rather than the offshore marine
environment.
Active tectonic and sedimentary processes are incorporated
within this boundary alternative, but it does not include all
of these processes. The western boundary includes the Palo Colorado-San
Gregorio fault zone, the major tectonic boundary of the Salinian
block; structure and stratigraphy are considerably different
on either side of the line. The boundary incorporates mainly
the Monterey, Soquel and Carmel Canyons that principally cut
the shelf. Also, parts of the three sedimentary cells (Año
Nuevo-Northern Monterey, Southern Monterey, and Sur Cells) are
included. It would only provide a minimal buffer for the natural
resources of Año Nuevo and the Big Sur coastline. The
heads of the Carmel and Monterey Canyons would be included but
the deep sea environments of the Canyon complexes would be excluded
as would the areas above these canyons that are important as
feeding grounds for sea birds and marine mammals.
The groundwater basins for the Monterey Bay region are also
found within the boundary and all of the water quality studies
associated with issues resulting from point-source and non-point
source discharges can be addressed. However, offshore eddy,
current, "jet", upwelling and pollutant dispersion patterns
would not be incorporated within the boundary and thus would
receive less emphasis from Sanctuary-initiated research studies
and resource management initiatives.
Table
26: Environmental consequences of boundary alternatives
This alternative is designed to encompass all of the resources
in the immediate vicinity of the coastline (described in Part
II, Section II). The boundary includes the entire range of fish
and invertebrates found in the study area. The area also would
include the best areas for sighting cetaceans from shore (off
Point Lobos, Año Nuevo and Davenport) and important cetacean
and seabird feeding areas along the canyon edge.
However this alternative does not provide sufficient habitat
protection to migrating and foraging mammals and seabirds above
the Canyon in the open ocean. The northern portion of the boundary
would not include the northern limit of the sea otter range
or the fishery resources off Pigeon Point. Also the nearness
of the western portion of the boundary to the coast would not
provide the nearshore resources of Año Nuevo, Big Sur
and the kelp beds an effective buffer zone from potentially
harmful offshore activities.
The boundary encompasses the areas with the longest history
of research: the intertidal zone in Monterey Peninsula and around
Point Lobos. This would provide a clearer interpretation of
the entire range of habitat and community types typical of central
and northern California. Monterey Bay, and its adjacent coastline
would be the focus of the Sanctuary, and of the interpretation
program. The program could focus on the various coastal environments
and water quality protection issues. Offshore fisheries, such
as the trawlers and gill netters, would be excluded and not
available for study or inclusion in Sanctuary management programs
to protect offshore marine resources. All marine oriented recreational
opportunities (surfing, diving, sport fishing, boating, beachcombing,
nature viewing) would be well represented, except for any offshore
whale watching trips.
This alternative would preclude all State offshore oil and
gas drilling but have almost no impact on future Federal OCS
lease sales as the boundary approximately follows the three
nautical mile limit. Also, offshore vessel traffic would pass
beyond the western edge of the proposed boundary and thus be
subject only to the prohibition regarding discharges outside
the Sanctuary that enter the Sanctuary and injure Sanctuary
resources or qualities, not to the prohibition regarding discharges
within the Sanctuary. The limited extent of the geographical
buffer from this boundary alternative leaves the resources and
qualities of Monterey Bay quite vulnerable to routine vessel
traffic and oil and gas activities such as waste and discharge
disposal as well as more catastrophic events such as well blowouts
or tanker collisions.
The Sanctuary could address the sources of point-source and
non- point source pollution that may affect nearshore Sanctuary
resources and qualities but would be limited in its ability
to manage the effects of these waste disposal activities on
offshore resources.
C.
Boundary Alternative 2
[Part
IV TOC]
Boundary alternative #2 would integrate many important coastal,
nearshore, and deep ocean canyon resource zones into one management
regime. These zones include Monterey Bay, the Big Sur coastal
area, Año Nuevo, the adjacent continental shelf, slope,
and rise as well as certain highly productive shoreline and
intertidal areas, such as Pescadero Marsh and Elkhorn Slough,
and the deep ocean environments of the Ascension, Monterey Bay,
Big Sur and Partington Canyon complexes and a portion of the
abyssal plain off Monterey.
The coastline boundary is contiguous with 32 units of the California
State Park System and Beach System and Ecological Reserves.
These units include the Point Lobos State Reserve, Hopkins Marine
Life Refuge, Pacific Grove Marine Gardens Fish Refuge, Carmel
Bay Ecological Reserve and the Julia Pfeiffer Burns Underwater
Park with protection extending to subtidal marine habitats.
Also, five Areas of Special Biological Significance (ASBS),
established by the State of California, would be included in
this alternative. In addition, all major research/education
institutions in the region are encompassed within the boundary.
The boundary includes Año Nuevo, the most important
rookery and resting area for pinniped species in central and
northern California, including the largest breeding population
of Steller sea-lions south of Alaska, as well as many colonies
of sea birds. The northern boundary would also encompass the
northern range of the Southern sea otter, extending to Pigeon
Point.
Pescadero Marsh and Creek are important nesting areas for the
snowy plover, a species of special concern in California. One
fifth of the State's breeding population of snowy plovers are
found in the Monterey Bay region. Pescadero Marsh is the largest
coastal wetland between San Francisco Bay and the Elkhorn Slough.
Also, the northern portion of the boundary is designed to encompass
valuable commercial fishing grounds including a portion of the
dover sole fishery between 400 and 1400 m and the nearshore
trammel net and trawl fishery for halibut. Pigeon Point is also
the site of the greatest sport and commercial salmon fishing
within this boundary alternative early in the season.
The oil and gas resources to the north of boundary alternative
#2 would still be available for leasing. In all areas of the
Central California Planning Area, NOAA would work closely with
MMS to determine any additional technological safeguards that
may be necessary to protect the resources and qualities of the
Sanctuary from any potential environmental injury.
Offshore vessel traffic would pass within the western edge
of the boundary alternative. Thus vessel traffic within the
Sanctuary would be subject to the Sanctuary prohibitions on
discharges and deposits within the Sanctuary. However, the resources
and qualities of the Monterey Bay area would still be vulnerable
to catastrophic events such as vessel collisions or groundings
and subsequent spill of oil or hazardous materials. The extent
of the potential injury would depend on the season and corresponding
current pattern, location and size of the spill.
The western portion of the boundary is constrained primarily
by depth and geomorphic parameters. The boundary coincides with
the termination of the Monterey Canyon on the ocean's abyssal
plain at the Paleo Subduction Zone. Within this boundary the
very active tectonic (fault rupture, earthquakes, landslides)
and sedimentary processes (turbidity flows, landslides, littoral
drift) of the Monterey Bay region take place. Three major sedimentary
cells (Año Nuevo-Northern Monterey Bay, Southern Monterey
Bay, and Sur cells) are present, terminated by Monterey, Carmel
and Sur Canyons respectively. The entire Monterey Canyon system
consisting of Ascension, Soquel, Monterey, and Carmel Canyons
are included as well as the Fan-Valleys of Monterey Canyon.
The western portion of the boundary encompasses the deep ocean
floor where cold-seeps that nourish abyssal, biological communities
were recently discovered (EEZ News, October, 1989). These deep-sea
communities have only recently been investigated and usually
only in association with deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Many birds
and mammals are found feeding in the deep waters over the Monterey
Canyon. Many of these species are endangered or threatened and
almost the entire population of ashy storm-petrels feed during
summer and fall within the 1000 fathom (2000 m) isobath which
is encompassed by the central and northern portions of the boundary
alternative.
The southern boundary is drawn to encompass a shallow sublittorial
habitat west of Point Sur. This Sur platform is heavily fished
with different gear types for rockfish, dover sole, swordfish
and thresher sharks. It is also a well known area to divers
for its abundant and varied populations of benthic invertebrates.
A recent benthic survey of the area discovered an extraordinary,
diverse and abundant benthic community on this rocky platform
(Cordell Expeditions, 1990). This boundary encompasses a major
portion of the Sur Canyon and the Partington Canyon complexes
and is contiguous with the southern boundary of the Julia Pfeiffer
Burns Underwater Park and ASBS.
This southern area contains a pristine environment that is
relatively uncontaminated when compared with more developed
areas such as San Francisco Bay. The high water quality of this
southern area provides the Sanctuary research program with an
opportunity to contrast pollutant studies between developed
versus undeveloped land/sea interfaces. However, kelp beds and
sea otter habitat to the south would be outside this boundary
alternative.
Throughout the entire area, the oceanic circulation is highly
variable. Many complex current patterns exist within this boundary.
For example, the Dungeness crab species is not produced locally,
rather it is advected into local waters by prevailing currents
(W. Graham, preliminary data, unpublished Master's Thesis, U.C.
Santa Cruz). The influencing current during the relevant months
(April- July) is the southerly flowing California Current. The
Dungeness crab fishery is the most important commercial crab
fishery on the West Coast. However the fishery has been greatly
reduced due to a number of possible causes including overfishing
in northern Monterey Bay (Dahlstrom and Wild, 1983), changes
in ocean currents, increase in parasites that destroy the crab's
eggs, and a decrease in water quality from adjacent land uses,
leaving a small fishery in the Moss Landing area. To re-establish
a fishery for the Santa Cruz region, the larvae need to recruit
to local waters from north of Monterey Bay and produce an adult
population that will approach self-maintaining.
Wind-driven, coastal upwelling occurs north and south of Monterey
Bay and upwelled waters from these areas may be advected into
the Bay. These nutrient-rich waters play a vital role in sustaining
the high productivity of the Monterey Bay ecosystem. One locus
of upwelling is the coastline south of Monterey, where currents
and "jets" occur and may concentrate plankton, food for fishes,
birds and mammals. These areas are encompassed by this boundary
and provide an opportunity to plan research studies to investigate
these oceanographic mechanisms.
Consideration of the physical oceanographic dynamics is important
to protect the area's resources and qualities from possible
contaminants transportable by currents and eddies. Main coastal
current direction varies seasonally, so transport can come from
either north or south. Coastal currents can transport dissolved
or suspended materials at the rate of 10-20 miles/day. For example,
the oil spilled by the Puerto Rican in October/November 1984
traveled 20 miles overnight. Thus, this boundary alternative
is extremely vulnerable to offshore activities occurring to
the north and south.
D.
Boundary Alternative 3
[Part
IV TOC]
Boundary alternative #3 is a variation of alternative #2 with
a southern extension. All of the resources, uses and management
considerations described above for boundary #2 would be incorporated.
This discussion only references those additional resources,
uses and management considerations involved with a southern
extension of the boundary.
The southern portion of the boundary is designed to coincide
with the southern boundary of the California Sea Otter Refuge
and encompass the undeveloped and protected coastline along
the Los Padres National Forest. This would provide an opportunity
to integrate management and research plans on land and sea interactions
across relatively pristine representatives of the two environments.
In addition to the resources and features encompassed by boundary
alternative #2, this southern extension encompasses additional
concentrations of bird, fish and mammal habitat, and particularly
offshore concentrations of marine mammals.
Located around Big Creek, Lopez Point and Grimes Point are
unusually dense and diverse populations of encrusting invertebrates,
including the hydrocoral, Allopora californica. Large areas
of Giant Kelp and Bull Kelp are found along this southern coastline.
Lopez Point is an important breeding and nesting area for large
colonies of Pelagic and Brandts Cormorants, Western Gulls and
Pigeon Guillemots. Around Lopez Point are large concentrations
of squid and a rich area for the salmon fishery. An ASBS is
located around the mouth of Salmon Creek. Large concentrations
of harbor seals use the beaches north of Plaskett Rock as a
haulout site. Cape San Martin is important as a haulout area
for California sea lions and is also a mainland breeding site
for the northern elephant seal. This boundary would also encompass
two additional research centers, namely the U.C. Landels-Hill
Big Creek Natural Reserve and the U.S. FWS Field Research Station
at Point Piedras Blancas. Finally, this southern extension would
provide more protection to the California sea otter by encompassing
the entire range of the Official California Sea Otter Refuge.
Although this third alternative would provide additional protection
to the resources and pristine habitats to the south, this boundary
alternative would leave resources vulnerable to potentially
disruptive activities to the north.
E.
Boundary Alternative 4
[Part
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Boundary alternative #4 is presented in response to public comments
during the scoping meetings and is justified on the basis of
providing a continuous management regime between the Gulf of
the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and the proposed Monterey
Bay National Marine Sanctuary. This alternative is a variation
of alternative #2 with a northern extension. All of the resources,
uses and management considerations described above for boundary
#2 would be incorporated. This discussion only references those
additional resources, uses and management considerations involved
with a northern extension.
A continuous Sanctuary would ensure that the resources of the
Monterey Bay area would not be exposed to any discharges between
the Gulf of the Farallones NMS and the proposed Monterey Bay
NMS which are allowed under existing but not under Sanctuary
regimes. Migratory species would also be better protected within
a continuous Central California marine sanctuary. This northern
extension encompasses additional fish, seabird and marine mammal
habitat particularly offshore concentrations of seabirds.
This alternative would also encompass the coastal resources
of the San Mateo Coast including the James V. Fitzgerald Marine
Reserve Area and ASBS as well as the fishery resources and industry
in Half Moon Bay and Princeton Harbor. Finally, the recreational
and public interpretation facilities of the Golden Gate National
Recreation Area could be incorporated into the programs of the
Sanctuary as well as large numbers of historical and cultural
sites particularly shipwrecks off of the Golden Gate.
Although this fourth alternative would provide a jurisdictional
link between the Gulf of the Farallones and Monterey Bay NMSs,
it does not encompass the nationally significant marine resources
to the south.
F.
Boundary Alternative 5
[Part
IV TOC]
Boundary alternative #5, the preferred alternative and study
area, includes all of the resources uses and management considerations
discussed above for boundary #2 as well as both the extensions
south and north described for alternatives #3 and #4 respectively.
This alternative is slightly different from that proposed in
the DEIS/MP in that a small area of approximately 71 square
nmi. off the north coast of San Mateo County and the City and
County of San Francisco has been excluded.
This alternative represents a total combination of all the
different public comments and resource information gathered
during the scoping process, preparation of the DEIS/MP and public
hearings. The excluded area encompasses the anticipated discharge
plume of the combined sewer overflow component of the City and
County of San Francisco's sewage treatment program, the shipping
channel providing access to and from San Francisco Bay, and
the Golden Gate dredged material disposal site associated with
this channel. NOAA has determined that the nature and level
of these activities are not appropriate for inclusion within
a national marine sanctuary. By excluding this small area from
the Sanctuary, NOAA will be able to focus Sanctuary management
on the long-term protection of other areas that contain nationally
significant resources and qualities and are less heavily impacted
by human activity. By excluding the anticipated discharge plume
of the combined sewer overflow from the sanctuary, a buffer
zone has been created protecting sanctuary resources and qualities
from the discharge.
Only a couple of commenters suggested that the alternatives
include an even larger boundary extending from the State of
Alaska to the Mexican border and out to 200 miles. This suggestion
was determined to be beyond the scope of reasonable analysis
for the DEIS/MP for the proposed Monterey Bay National Marine
Sanctuary and therefore was not considered further. Boundary
alternative #5 would encompass the greatest number of nationally
significant resources while providing additional protection
against potential threats from inside and outside the study
area.
G.
Boundary Alternative 6
[Part
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Boundary alternative #6 is based on excluding areas offered
by now canceled Lease Sale 119 for development of hydrocarbon
resources. The exclusion of all of Lease Sale 119 from the boundary
alternative would make available any oil, gas or mineral resources
in the southern portion of the ex-Lease Sale area (Figure
17). This area has geological characteristics that may have
resulted in the generation and accumulation of commercial volumes
of hydrocarbons (Mullins and Nagel, 1982). Economically recoverable
hydrocarbon resources could possibly exist and, under this alternative,
be available for development.
NOAA would coordinate with MMS during all phases of the OCS
development planning process, including prior to the exploration
plan approval, to determine any additional technological safeguards
or environmental monitoring that may be necessary to help protect
Sanctuary resources and qualities.
Oil and gas offshore operational technology has advanced considerably
since the 1960's (Baker, 1985) and the experiences from past
blowouts and spills have served as the catalyst for the relatively
strong Federal OCS oil and gas regulatory regime that now exists.
The Department of the Interior, MMS, final rule for oil and
gas and sulphur operations in the OCS, (30 CFR Parts 250 and
256) provides the regulatory regime for more performance standards,
and new and updated requirements for operational and environmental
safety. The Director of MMS shall require "on all new drilling
and production operations and, wherever practicable, on existing
operations, the use of the Best Available and Safest Technologies,
which the Director determines to be economically feasible, where
ever failure of equipment would have a significant effect on
safety, health, or the environment, except where the Director
determines that the incremental benefits are clearly insufficient
to justify the incremental costs of utilizing such technologies."
(30 CFR Part 250.22). Numerous regulations exist to help prevent
blowouts during the different phases of oil and gas activities
and which require adequately trained personnel during OCS operations.
However, it is NOAA's mandate under the MPRSA to identify special
areas of the marine environment of special national significance
due to their resource or human-use values and provide authority
for comprehensive and coordinated conservation and management
of these marine areas. Since Monterey Bay was considered for
National Marine Sanctuary status in December 1979, NOAA has
appraised the physical, geological, chemical and biological
resources of the Monterey Bay area as part of an entire ecosystem.
The distinct and complex bathymetry, current patterns and ocean
structure induce upwelling of productive nutrient-rich waters
that, in turn, are directly responsible for the abundant and
diverse biological resources that are distributed from as far
north as Año Nuevo and Pigeon Point to south of the Big
Sur coastline. The combination of this ecosystem's resources
and human uses in the proposed Monterey Bay National Marine
Sanctuary meet all of the criteria set by NOAA for meeting the
standards of the MPRSA.
Scientific evidence and public opinion are still divided regarding
the effects of oil and gas activities on the nationally significant
natural resources of the Monterey Bay area despite the available
technology and operational regulations used in developing the
OCS.
In general, boundary alternative #6 would not only exclude
the majority of biological resources that are part of the Monterey
Bay area ecosystem but leave the Monterey Bay area vulnerable
to oil spills, blowouts, noise and visual disturbances and pollution
from aquatic discharges. Specifically: (a) There would be no
buffer for Año Nuevo or fishing grounds in two canyons
to the north of Monterey Bay, (b) Scenic beauty north of Monterey
Bay would be substantially altered, (c) The threat of oil spills
(50% probability of 0.69 estimated mean number of spills of
greater than 1000 barrels from activities directly associated
with oil and gas activities in the central California OCS Planning
area) and the discharges (estimated 302,000 barrels of muds
and cuttings and 225 million barrels of formation waters), despite
MMS controls, would certainly affect Sanctuary resources and
qualities due to south flowing current and minimal amount of
time for chemical and physical weathering processes. Due to
the mandate of the MPRSA to protect Nationally significant natural
resources and qualities from an ecosystem perspective and the
reality of the threat to these resources in the Monterey Bay
area, NOAA is proposing to eliminate concern for any adverse
environmental impacts that may occur in the Sanctuary from oil
and gas activities by prohibiting these activities within the
proposed Sanctuary boundary (Alternative #5).
H.
Boundary Alternative 7
[Part
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Boundary alternative #7 is also based on excluding areas offered
by ex-Lease Sale 119 for development of hydrocarbon resources.
Like boundary alternative #6 this scenario would exclude all
of ex-Lease Sale 119 as well as additional areas adjacent to
ex-Lease Sale 119 and all the area south of Monterey Canyon
exclusive of state waters. This alternative makes the economically
recoverable hydrocarbon resources that possibly exist in these
areas potentially available for future development.
This boundary alternative encompasses the same coastal uses,
resources and qualities described for boundary alternative #1
and in addition focuses on encompassing the main features of
the Monterey Canyon at depths below 500 fathoms.
The same drawbacks advanced for boundary alternative #6 regarding
both offshore technology and NOAA's statutory authority under
the MPRSA apply to boundary alternative #7. This boundary alternative
would leave the Monterey Bay area vulnerable to oil spills,
blowouts, noise and visual disturbances, and pollution from
aquatic discharges.
Specifically, there would be no buffer for Año Nuevo
or fishing grounds in the canyons to the north of Monterey Bay,
there would be no buffer for Point Sur or fishing grounds in
Partington Canyon to the south of Monterey Bay and significant
portions of primary commercial fishing areas notably Rockfish
longline fisheries, trawling zones off Santa Cruz, and similar
longline fisheries off Point Lobos would be excluded.
Significant seaward extensions of Ascension and Partington
submarine canyons would be excluded, as would significant areas
of habitat for migrating and foraging animals above and below
Monterey Canyon. Important areas of upwelling, oceanic currents,
eddies and jets north and south of Monterey Canyon would also
be excluded.
The scenic beauty north and south of Monterey Bay would be
substantially altered if oil and gas activities were to occur
and the threat of oil spills and drilling discharges would be
extended to exceptionally pristine ocean environments south
of Monterey Canyon.