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Dimensions of the Social
Environment: Housing
Overview
Associations between housing and health have been studied from several
perspectives. Most concretely, physical characteristics of housing have been
linked to adverse outcomes. For example, the presence of dampness and mold leads
to increased risk of respiratory and other illnesses (Platt et al. 1989; Packer
and Stewart–Brown and Fowle 1994). Dilapidated and abandoned housing in the
local area increases the risk of accidental injury among residents (Gielen et
al. 1995), is associated with increased emotional stress (Ellaway and Macintyre
2000), and may provide situational opportunities for high–risk behaviors (Cohen
et al. 2000). Population density and overcrowding have also been associated with
increased chances of contracting infections and sustaining injury (Agran et al.
1996; Acevedo–Garcia 2000).
Home ownership has been associated with reduced morbidity and mortality risk
(Filakti and Fox 1995; O’Campo et al. 1997). In most cases this housing variable
is regarded as a marker for general material well–being. It has been suggested,
however, that long–term exposure to specific health promoting or damaging
characteristics of housing itself is likely to account for some of the observed
health effects (Macintyre et al. 1998; Ellaway and Macintyre 1998).
There is also some evidence that poor housing conditions during childhood can
adversely affect health in later life. For example, Barker and colleagues (1990)
found an association between domestic crowding during childhood and later
stomach cancer mortality rates, suggesting that overcrowding may promote the
transmission of causative organisms among children that exert negative health
effects later in life. Similarly, Dedman et al. (2001) noted aspects of poorer
childhood housing conditions were associated with increased mortality risk from
common diseases in adulthood.
Our consultants suggested that we include these characteristics of housing in
our framework, as well as other aspects of residential patterns within
communities. Homelessness, for example, has known associations with
differentially poorer health (Barrow et al. 1999; Hwang 2001). Segregation by
race has been associated with adverse health outcomes among blacks (Williams and
Collins 2001; Jackson et al. 2000), as well as among whites in some cases
(Collins and Williams 1999). Similarly, concentration of poverty has been found
to be associated with elevated mortality risk (Waitzman and Smith 1998a).
We also include two other components within the housing dimension.
Regulations such as zoning and industrial/residential segregation can affect which residential areas are exposed to industrial pollution and other
health threats such as increased traffic. Financial issues specific to housing,
such as housing costs, the availability and characteristics of low–income
housing, mortgage lending practices, and community reinvestment initiatives are
also considered.
This table describes the components and indicators of the housing
dimension. Four housing components are identified:
- Housing Stock
- Residential Patterns
- Regulation
- Financial Issues
Within each component, several indicators are identified, and for each
indicator at least one data set is listed.
One or more of the
following files are available in Portable Document Format (PDF).
Learn more about
PDFs.
Components and Indicators |
Data Sources and Notes |
1. Housing Stock: Age |
Median age of housing units |
Census Bureau |
New private housing units authorized by building
permits as a percent of housing stock |
State and
Metropolitan Area Data Book
State of the Nation's Housing*
From Web site page, choose publications, then most recent edition |
Housing Stock: Scarcity |
Percent of housing units vacant |
Census Bureau |
Housing Stock: Value |
Median value, owner–occupied housing units |
Census Bureau |
Median sales price of existing homes |
State of the Nation's Housing*
From Web site page, choose publications, then most recent edition. |
Valuation of residential construction |
See Economic Dimension, Fiscal Capacity. |
Housing Stock: Characteristics |
Percent of housing units lacking complete kitchen
facilities, complete plumbing facilities, and/or telephone |
Census Bureau |
Percent of households reporting 1 or more
vandalized buildings in neighborhood; percent of households with
best/worst opinion of their neighborhood (10 point scale) |
American Housing
Survey
Data for each of 47 selected Metropolitan Areas are collected about
every 4 years, with an average of 12 areas included each year.
Downloadable data in SAS and ASCII formats. |
Housing Stock: Gentrification/gatedness |
Percent of home loans to high–income borrowers
made in low–income areas of central cities |
State of the Nation's Housing*
From Web site page, choose publications, then most recent edition. |
Housing Stock: Rental vs. owner occupied |
Percent of occupied housing units that are owner
occupied |
Census Bureau |
2. Residential Patterns: Homelessness |
Estimated homeless population |
U.S. Conference of
Mayors*
From this Web site page, select Hunger and Homelessness from Reports
and Publications |
Residential Patterns: Number of institutional facilities |
Number of homeless shelter beds; number of months
wait for public housing and Section 8 vouchers |
U.S. Conference of
Mayors* |
Residential Patterns: Segregation |
Racial/ethnic: Indices of dissimilarity, isolation,
delta, absolute centralization, and spatial proximity |
Census 2000 Special Report
Iceland J., D.H. Weinberg, and E. Steinmetz. Racial and Ethnic
Residential Segregation in the United States: 1980–2000. |
Economic |
See Economic Dimension, Income. |
Residential Patterns: Vacancy rates |
Percent of housing units vacant |
Census Bureau |
Residential Patterns: Crowded housing |
Mean number of persons per room |
Census Bureau |
Residential Patterns: Population density |
Persons per square mile |
Census Bureau |
3. Regulation: Zoning policies |
Percent of households perceiving undesireable
commercial, institutional, or industrial use as a problem or bothersome |
American Housing
Survey
Data for each of 47 selected Metropolitan Areas are collected about
every 4 years, with an average of 12 areas included each year.
Downloadable data in SAS and ASCII formats. |
Regulation: Industrial/residential segregation |
Segregation indices for blacks, whites and Hispanics
from high employment and hazardous manufacturing industries |
Industrial and
Residental Segregation: Employment Opportunities and Environmental
Burdens in Metropolitan Areas
Anderton D.L., and K.L. Egan. |
4. Financial Issues: Housing costs |
Cost of living index, housing and utilities; average
950 sq ft apartment rent, 2400 sq ft new home price, house payment,
monthly energy costs |
American Chamber of Commerce Researchers
Association*
Quarterly and annual average data may be purchased as downloadable
spreadsheet or hardcopy. |
Basic family budgetary need for housing |
Economic Policy Institute:Hardships in
America*
From this Web site page, choose Basic Family Budget Calculator; select
a metropolitan area of interest or download budget tables for all
areas in Excel. |
Consumer expenditures on housing |
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)
From this Web site page, select Consumer Expenditures; select Tables
Created by BLS; select current MSA tables grouped by region in text
format or PDF. |
Percent of income spent on mortgage/rent |
American Housing
Survey
Data for each of 47 selected Metropolitan Areas are collected about
every 4 years, with an average of 12 areas included each year.
Downloadable data in SAS and ASCII formats. |
Median gross rent as a percent of household income |
Census Bureau |
Financial Issues: Low–income housing |
Percent of total housing: Percentage of households receiving federal
housing assistance |
American Housing
Survey
Data for each of 47 selected Metropolitan Areas are collected about
every 4 years, with an average of 12 areas included each year.
Downloadable data in SAS and ASCII formats. |
Percent of total housing: Percent of home loans to low–income borrowers |
State of the Nation's Housing* |
Ratio of low–income units to low–income workers: Ratio of low–rent
units and Section 8 units to low–income families |
Housing Authority Profile
Can be calculated by using data on low–rent units and census data. |
Financial Issues: Mortgage lending practices by race/ethnicity |
Share of all home loans made to minority borrowers |
State of the Nation's Housing* |
Home loan denial rates by race |
See Economy, Financial Services |
Financial Issues: Community reinvestment initiatives |
Expenditures for housing and community development |
Census of Governments
From this Web site page, select State and Local Government Finances;
select year of interest. Downloadable spreadsheet or
comma–separated–value files. |
*Links to non–Federal organizations are provided solely as a service to our users. Links do not constitute an endorsement of any organization by CDC or the Federal Government, and none should be inferred. The CDC is not responsible for the content of the individual organization Web pages found at this link.
Date last reviewed:
05/12/2006
Content source: Division for Heart Disease and Stroke
Prevention,
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and
Health Promotion |
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