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President Madison's 1812 War Message: A Documentary Review
Guiding Questions
- What kinds of documents shed light on President Madison's message?
- In what way does each document reflect on President Madison's case for having
Congress consider war with Great Britain?
Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, students will be able to:
- Cite the key points in President Madison's argument for having Congress
consider declaring war with Great Britain.
- Point to documents and corresponding events that shed light on Madison's
argument.
NOTE: Ten sections of President Madison's War Message that seemed most
likely to need clarification have been included below. Use any or all of them
with the class, or assign some (or all) to small groups. Unless otherwise noted,
all documents are from the EDSITEment resource American
Memory.
1. "THE WAR IN WHICH GREAT BRITAIN IS ENGAGED"
The situation of the United States as a neutral nation became increasingly
hazardous as the conflict between Britain and France, which embraced the whole
Western world, increased in ruthlessness and desperation. Both powers trampled
on neutral rights, but Britain, because it commanded the sea, was the greater
offender.
—From the article Thomas
Jefferson on Grolier
Online's The American Presidency, a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website
Internet Public Library
Students may not know that an international war, with Britain and France as the
central combatants, was waged in Europe from 1803 to about 1814. Students may
also wonder how the U.S. was affected by a war waged an ocean away. Hostilities
between Britain and France and their various allies resumed in 1803. In his third
State of the Union Address, delivered in Washington, D.C., on October 17, 1803,
President Thomas Jefferson reflected on the effect of this international conflict
on the United States. Share with the class the excerpt on the handout "President
Jefferson's Third State of the Union, 1803," in the PDF file (see
Preparing
to Teach This Curriculum Unit for download instructions), or use the complete
text, available online.
- What were Jefferson's concerns about how the European war might affect neutral
nations such as the U.S.?
- How did Jefferson expect the belligerents to conduct
themselves?
- What did Madison's War Message indicate about the state of relations
with Great Britain and France in 1812?
Questions for Analysis
What information or documents, if any, revealed so far in the lesson are helpful
in answering the following:
- In what ways was the U.S. affected by the European war? What differences,
if any, were there in the attitudes and conduct of the British and the French?
- What differences, if any, were there in the attitude and conduct of the U.S.
government toward the British and the French?
- Was there a bias in favor of
France on the part of Democratic-Republican followers of Jefferson and Madison,
as Federalists charged?
- How did American concerns change, if at all, from
1803 to 1812?
What kinds of additional information or documents would be helpful to the analysis?
Extending the Lesson
2. "A SERIES OF ACTS HOSTILE TO THE UNITED STATES AS AN INDEPENDENT … NATION"
For Madison and the War Hawks, the declaration (of war) amounted to
a second war of independence for the new Republic.
—James
Madison: Foreign Affairs on the EDSITEment resource The
American President
Students should understand that Americans were particularly sensitive to insults
from the great European powers. They were perceived as slights on the status
of the U.S. as a full-fledged member of the international community. Specific
incidents were perceived as more than slights. In March 1812, just months before
the declaration of war, President Madison presented to Congress a series of
documents purporting to reveal a British plot to foment a rebellion of the New
England states and dissolution of the Union. Some secondary accounts accuse
the president of using these documents as a way of building the case for war.
NOTE: The War Hawks were a group of young, nationalistic congressmen
who favored war with Great Britain. Students interested in learning more about
the War Hawks should see the first item under Extending
the Unit of Study, below. According to Donald R. Hickey's The War of
1812 (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1989):
The War Hawks hoped their legislative program would promote patriotism
and prepare the American people psychologically and militarily for war. President
Madison hoped for the same result, and he used the powers of his office to stimulate
the war spirit further. On March 9, 1812, …the president informed Congress that
a British plot to incite disunion in New England had been uncovered. The central
figure in this plot was a handsome, if simple-minded and pretentious Irishman
by the name of John Henry. …A French rogue… persuaded Henry to sell his correspondence
to the U.S. government.
…They persuaded the administration to buy the documents for $50,000—the
entire budget of the secret service fund.
…Federalists considered the whole affair a tawdry political gimmick…
The Henry affair proved to be a tempest in a teapot. The letters were hardly
worth $50,000 and scarcely a cause for war. It was common practice in those
days for governments to use amateur spies…. The real significance of the Henry
affair was …that it showed the administration's determination to whip up support
for its war policy. "We have made use of Henry's documents," Monroe
(James Monroe, Secretary of State) told the French minister, "as a last means
of exciting the nation and Congress."
On March 9, 1812, President James Madison delivered a message to Congress.
I lay before Congress copies of certain documents…. They prove that
at a recent period, whilst the United States, notwithstanding (despite) the
wrongs sustained by them (the states), ceased not (continued) to observe the
laws of peace and neutrality towards Great Britain, and in the midst of amicable
(friendly) …negotiations on the part of the British Government, …a secret agent
…was employed in certain states …for the purpose of bringing about resistance
to the laws; and eventually, in concert with a British force, of destroying
the Union and forming the Eastern part …into a political connection with Great
Britain….
Students can read a small selection of "Edited/Annotated
Documents about John Henry," in the PDF file (see Preparing
to Teach This Curriculum Unit for download instructions), and consider their
relevance and importance.
Questions for Analysis
What information or documents, if any, revealed so far in the lesson are helpful
in answering the following:
- In what way was the "Henry" incident considered a threat to American independence?
- What evidence, if any exists, would be necessary to show that the administration
attempted with the "Henry" incident or at any other time to "whip up support
for its war policy"?
- What documents would be needed to prove that the administration had a war
policy?
What kinds of additional information or documents would be helpful to the analysis?
Extending the Lesson
The documents Madison submitted along with his message of March 9 are found in
the Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 12th Congress, 1st Session,
under the page heading British
Intrigues, page 1161. A series of letters follows, ending on British
Intrigues, page 1183. Interested students can review any or all of the documents.
3. "A SERIES OF ACTS HOSTILE TO THE UNITED STATES AS A … NEUTRAL NATION"
Discuss with the class what it means to be a neutral nation. From 1803 to 1814,
our most important trading partners were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars. The U.S.
frequently declared a desire to remain neutral. Why was it difficult for the U.S.
to remain neutral? American complaints about threats to neutrality often
mentioned The Orders in Council issued by the British king. Read with students
the first seven paragraphs of the Orders
in Council of Nov. 11, 1807, as published in the American
State Papers, Senate, 10th Congress, 2nd Session Foreign Relations: Vol. 3,
p. 269.
- What does the document cite as the impetus for the new British policy?
- What was the new British policy?
- What is the tone of the document?
- What accommodations did the British offer in the seventh paragraph?
For more information on the neutral status of the United States, share the
secondary account Entanglement
in World Affairs on The Mariners' Museum,
a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website Internet
Public Library.
NOTE: Succeeding mini-lessons will provide examples of some of the alleged
hostile acts.
Questions for Analysis
What information or documents, if any, revealed so far in the lesson are helpful
in answering the following:
- In what ways, if any, were the policies of the British government insults
to the neutral and/or independent status of the U.S.?
- Why were the accommodations offered by the British considered insufficient
by the U.S. government?
What kinds of additional information or documents would be helpful to the analysis?
Extending the Lesson
Students can view many documents from Great Britain starting with the Orders
in Council of Nov. 11, 1807 and then using the PREV IMAGE | NEXT IMAGE function
on the page.
4. "SEIZING AND CARRYING OFF PERSONS"
To Americans the most grievous British wrong was the revival and vigorous
application of the centuries-old system of impressments….
—From Blum, et.al. The National Experience (New York: Harcourt,
Brace, and World, Inc., 1963), 170.
Impressment, the kidnapping of sailors—American and others—into the
ranks of the Royal Navy, is often cited as an insult that particularly aroused
the ire of the American people. How can one find the answer to such questions
as:
- Why was impressment perceived as particularly heinous?
- How serious a problem was impressment?
- Did the British have legitimate grievances that led to impressments?
If desired, begin by sharing the digitized image of A
Letter of Impressment Protection on The
Mariners' Museum, a link from the EDSITEment resource Internet
Public Library. Most of it is legible and can be read aloud, if desired. In
the document, one Sam Bishop bears witness that one William Smith, an American
seaman, was indeed born in the United States.
- Why did Mr. Smith carry such a document? (In hopes of preventing his impressment
into the Royal British Navy.)
- Why was impressment a particular problem between England and the U.S.? (English
was the language in both countries. British deserters attempted escape on
American ships. Britain was the world's greatest naval power, with serious
manpower needs. When Britain chose to increase its manpower through kidnapping,
it logically targeted American sailors.)
For background on impressments, read the Secondary
Account: Impressment of American Sailors also on The
Mariners' Museum. President Madison was quite familiar with the longstanding
problem of impressment from his service as Secretary of State for Thomas Jefferson.
In compliance with a Senate resolution of November 1807, Madison presented a report
on impressment to Congress in February 1808. Students can benefit from viewing
the first page of the report where Secretary
of State Madison's Summary Chart of Impressments Begins, 1808 (page 36). What
observations can students make about the information on the chart? Now look at
the page where Secretary
of State Madison's Summary Chart of Impressments Ends with a Tally of Totals
(page 45). Note that in the previous two years, 697 sailors had been impressed,
of whom 595 were Americans. Twenty-three were British subjects.
Questions for Analysis
What information or documents, if any, revealed so far in the lesson are helpful
in answering the following:
- Did the British have legitimate grievances?
- Why were Americans particularly angry about impressment?
- Is there any evidence to suggest that Americans were protecting sailors
who had deserted the British navy?
- Were there any changes in impressment policy or practices from 1808 to 1812?
What kinds of additional information or documents would be helpful to the analysis?
Extending the Lesson
Interested students can search the American
State Papers for "impressed" and "impressment" to see the frequency of documents
on the subject and to link to documents for research. Students can view pages
using search or browse or by starting with Secretary
of State Madison's Summary Chart of Impressments Begins, 1808 and then using
the PREV IMAGE | NEXT IMAGE function on the page.
5. "HOVER OVER AND HARASS OUR ENTERING AND DEPARTING COMMERCE … AND HAVE WANT
ONLY SPILT AMERICAN BLOOD"
This sentence could refer to a number of incidents. For most Americans it probably
brought to mind the incident of the U.S. frigate Chesapeake. Share with
students a secondary account of the Chesapeake incident such as The
Chesapeake Affair of 1807 and American
Reaction to the Chesapeake Affair on The
Mariners' Museum, a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website Internet
Public Library. Now share with the class Commodore
Barron's Inquiry into the Presence of Deserters aboard the Chesapeake, also
on The Mariners' Museum. The Chesapeake
Affair occurred on June 22.
- Why did Commodore Barron's Inquiry into the Presence of Deserters aboard
the Chesapeake take place (April, 1807)?
- What were Commodore Barron's conclusions?
- What, if any, important information was missing from or incorrect in his
report?
- What is the tone of his report? How does that tone reflect the nature of
U.S./British relations?
Admiral Berkeley's Orders to
Search the Chesapeake (on The Mariners'
Museum) were received by Captain Humphrey of H.M.S. Leopard from
the British vice-admiral on June 1, 1807.
- What were Admiral Berkeley's orders?
- What is the tone of the orders? How does that tone reflect the nature of
U.S./British relations?
- What accommodations, if any, concerning the search do the orders specify?
If desired, students also can read the Messages
Exchanged between the Chesapeake and the Leopard, June 22, 1807,
also on The Mariners' Museum.
- What is the tone of these messages?
- What, if anything, do they reveal about the state of U.S./British relations?
- What, if anything, do they reveal about the attitude of the two captains
concerning their part in the incident?
Students can read an edited, annotated version of the "Report
to the House of Representatives on the Frigate Chesapeake," in the PDF file (see Preparing
to Teach This Curriculum Unit for download instructions), or the complete
text, available online.
- What is the tone of the report? What attitude about the incident does it
reflect?
- In what ways, if any, does the account agree with the information presented
so far in this lesson? Disagree?
- If there are differences, what are they? How can the differences be explained?
The Chesapeake incident probably provided the strongest single impetus
for President Jefferson's Embargo of 1807.
Extending the Lesson
According to Morris and Morris's Encyclopedia of American History (New
York: Harper Collins, 1996):
The British 38-gun frigate Guerriere overhauled (1 May 1811)
off Sandy Hook the American brig Spitfire and impressed a native-born
American. Captain John Rodgers, commanding the U.S. 44-gun frigate President,
was ordered (6 May) to cruise off Sandy Hook to give protection to American
vessels. En route Rodgers sighted a ship he mistook for the Guerriere
(actually the craft was the British 20-gun corvette Little Belt)… The
pursuit ended in an evening engagement (16 May) off Cape Charles. The broadsides
of the President disabled the Little Belt, killing nine and
wounding 23 of her crew. (P. 137-138)
Use the “FIND” function on your browser to find "Little Belt"
in the American
State Papers: INDEX TO FOREIGN RELATIONS. VOL. III. Read about the American
investigation into this incident, one that was not unlike the Chesapeake Affair,
with the roles reversed. Americans had killed British subjects.
6. "…OUR COMMERCE HAS BEEN PLUNDERED IN EVERY SEA, THE GREAT STAPLES OF OUR
COUNTRY HAVE BEEN CUT OFF FROM THEIR LEGITIMATE MARKETS"
President Madison referred to exports when he said, "The great staples of our
country have been cut off from their legitimate markets." Reports to Congress
found in the American State
Papers (Volumes 1 and 2) document U.S. exports from each state. Analyze the
documents with the whole class or assign the following sets of charts to groups:
Set 1
- Exports by State for Fiscal 1806 (Total value of exports 101,536,963)
- Exports by State for Fiscal 1807 (Total value of exports 22,430,960)
- Exports by State for Fiscal 1808 (Total value of exports 16,022,790)
Set 2
- Exports by State for Fiscal 1811 (Total value of exports 61,316,833)
- Exports by State for Fiscal 1812 (Total value of exports 38,527,936)
Set 3
- Exports by State for Fiscal 1814 (Total value of exports 6,927,441)
- Exports by State for Fiscal 1815 (Total value of exports 52,557,753)
Questions for Analysis
What information or documents, if any, revealed so far in the lesson are helpful
in answering the following:
- In what years were there significant changes in total exports?
- In what way, if any, do the data by state help explain why objections to
the War of 1812 were strongest in the New England states?
- In what way, if any, do the data support the contention that the War of
1812 was fought to bolster American commerce?
- Is it possible to tell from the export data which states suffered the most
from declines in exports in 1807 and 1812? Is it possible to tell from the
export data which states suffered the least?
- What information would be helpful in determining a relationship between
voting patterns/party affiliation by state and maritime commerce?
- What information would be helpful in determining a relationship between
voting patterns in the House and Senate on the 1812 Declaration of War?
- What other conclusions can be drawn from the data? What kinds of additional
information would be helpful in drawing conclusions?
- What data would be necessary to determine if the Embargo of 1807 benefited
American manufacturing or agriculture in any way?
What other kinds of additional information or documents would be helpful in
analyzing the relationship between commerce and other events/conditions/movements
in the U.S. during this period?
Extending the Lesson
- Students can conduct additional research to deepen their analysis of American
commerce during the presidential terms of Jefferson and Madison. A great deal
of useful information for research about American commerce and navigation
before, during, and after the War of 1812 can be found using:
- Students can gather information about voting patterns in presidential elections
and in the House and Senate on the 1812 Declaration of War from the following
resources:
- House
of Representatives: June 3, 1812, Declaration of War The vote in the
House was 79-49, the closest vote ever on a declaration of war. Use the
link to look at the names of those who voted for and against the 1812 Declaration
of War. How did War Hawks vote? If desired, use the Biographical
Directory on the EDSITEment resource Congress
Link to find the states and parties of those voting. Did the representatives
tend to vote along party lines? Did representatives from certain regions
tend to vote as a bloc?
- Wednesday,
June 17, 1812, Entry (The Senate Passes the Declaration of War) in the Journal
of the Senate of the United States of America, 1789-1873 The vote in
the Senate was 19-13, the closest vote ever on a declaration of war. Use
the Biographical
Directory to find the states and parties of those who voted for and
against. Did the senators tend to vote along party lines? Did senators from
certain regions tend to vote as a bloc?
- Dave Leip's Atlas
of U.S. Presidential Elections, a link from the EDSITEment resource
Explore D.C., provides
a wealth of data on presidential elections. Use the pull down menus to find
information on every presidential election and particularly those from 1800
to 1812.
7. "… GREAT BRITAIN … FORMALLY AVOWED (DECLARED) A DETERMINATION TO PERSIST
IN THEM (INSULTS TO AMERICAN MARITIME RIGHTS)"
The British insisted that American ships would continue to be seized
until France lifted all restrictions on British trade.
—James
Madison: Foreign Affairs on the EDSITEment-reviewed website The
American President
Share with the class the edited version of "President
Madison's State of the Union, 1811," in the PDF file (see Preparing
to Teach This Curriculum Unit for download instructions), or the complete
text, available online.
Questions for Analysis
- What was the state of foreign affairs according to President Madison?
- What is the tone of Madison's remarks about the British? About the French?
What differences, if any, do you detect ?
- What insults to American commerce or neutrality did Madison cite?
- What actions did Madison say the country was undertaking?
- What sense did Madison communicate about the chances of war? With whom?
8. "WARFARE JUST RENEWED BY THE SAVAGES (NATIVE AMERICANS) ON ONE
OF OUR EXTENSIVE FRONTIERS"
Hostilities between Native Americans and American settlers were a longstanding
problem on the frontier. A long history of accusations existed that the British
were inciting such hostility. In the American State Papers, Indian Affairs: Vol.
1, p. 108, students can get an idea of the kind of reports received in Washington
by reading the Extract
of a Letter from Governor Harrison to the War Department at Vincennes, September
17, 1811 (located in the middle of the page) and the Extract
of a Letter from J. Rhea, captain 13th regiment of infantry, dated Fort Wayne,
March 14, 1812
Questions for Analysis
What information or documents, if any, revealed so far in the lesson are helpful
in answering the following:
- What were the accusations against the British in North America? Were they
valid?
- What inducements did the British offer to the Indians?
- What indications were there of Indian sympathies? Were they more favorably
disposed to the British or the Americans (or neither)?
- What is the tone of the American documents?
- Could the American documents have been false accusations used for propaganda
purposes by those in favor of war with the Indians and/or the British?
- Was the motive of those in favor of war the acquisition of additional land
from the Indians? The safety of Americans living on the frontier? Both? Another
motive?
What kinds of additional information or documents would be helpful to the analysis?
Extending the Lesson
Many documents—such as the following—indicate the long history of accusations
that the British incited the Indians to hostile actions:
- Letter
from Captain Thomas Pasteur to Major General Wayne, November 3, 1794 What
were the "great inducements" for joining the British Army? Does the handbill
seem like part of a large conspiracy, as charged? What makes you think so?
What has been happening to the Indians? Is there any indication that the Indians
were more favorably disposed to the British or the Americans?
- Letter
from William Hull, Governor of the Michigan Territory, to Henry Dearborn,
the Secretary of War, November 24, 1807 How would you characterize Hull's
attitude toward the Indians? In what ways, if any, was the British approach
to Indian Affairs—according to this letter by an American—less effective
than the American approach? Were the British and Americans in a bidding war
for Indian loyalty?
- Extracts
of a Letter from William Wells regarding evidence that British officers were
inciting Northwestern Indians to hostilities, February 10, 1812
Does the letter indicate whether the Indians were more likely to support the
British or Americans should a war begin?
- Great
Britain from Canada by causing handbills offering great inducements
- Great
Britain in Canada to excite the Indians against the United States
- Great
Britain in exciting the Northwestern Indians to hostilities
- Hostile
Movements
- Means
supposed to be taken by the Governor of Canada to excite the Indians
The Index
to the Extracts of Letters to the War Department is a series of extracts of
letters from the Northwest. Senders include Governor William Henry Harrison, who
later became a war hero in battles against the Indians and the British as well
as president of the United States. Use the PREV IMAGE | NEXT IMAGE function on
the page to view documents between the first
page and last
page.
9. "CONSTITUTION WISELY CONFIDES TO THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT"
President Madison, as a strict constructionist of the Constitution, never formally
asked for a declaration of war. Instead, he asked Congress to consider the issues
he raised in his message and to decide a course of action. Why? Review ARTICLE
1: Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, available on the EDSITEment resource
The Avalon Project.
10. "I ABSTAIN (REFRAIN) AT THIS TIME FROM RECOMMENDING TO THE CONSIDERATION
OF CONGRESS DEFINITIVE MEASURES WITH RESPECT TO THAT NATION (FRANCE), IN THE
EXPECTATION THAT THE RESULT OF … DISCUSSIONS BETWEEN OUR MINISTER … AT PARIS
AND THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT WILL SPEEDILY ENABLE CONGRESS TO DECIDE WITH GREATER
ADVANTAGE ON THE COURSE DUE TO THE RIGHTS, THE INTERESTS, AND THE HONOR OF OUR
COUNTRY"
Napoleon's clever diplomacy and outright deception kept the American government
from reinstating the embargo on France and from including France in its 1812 Declaration
of War. Napoleon announced the end of French restrictions on American commerce
on November 1, 1810. In accordance with American policy, President Madison repealed
the embargo of France. Share with the class the edited, annotated "Repeal
of the Embargo of France (and Not Great Britain)," in the PDF file
(see Preparing
to Teach This Curriculum Unit for download instructions), or the complete
text, available online. Napoleon did not announce the conditions he had attached
to the end of French restrictions. His navy continued to seize American ships.
According to The Encyclopedia of American History:
Napoleon's duplicity was revealed after Joel Barlow, whom Madison
had named minister to France, arrived at Paris (19 Sept. 1811) in order to seek
clarification… The Duc de Bassano, Napoleon's foreign minister, showed Barlow
the "Decree of St. Cloud," supposedly signed by Napoleon 28 Apr. 1811. It stated
that his earlier decrees had been declared nonexistent in regard to U.S. vessels
since 1 Nov. 1810. The decree had never been published and, despite French assurances,
had never been communicated to the U.S. government. (P. 156)
Students can read the cover letter Joel Barlow wrote when he sent the "Decree
of St. Cloud" in Barlow
Transmits Document He Had Never Seen Before from the American
State Papers (Foreign Relations: Vol. 3, p. 613). Barlow's letter is followed
by a series of Letters
Confirming That No One Recognizes The French Document (American
State Papers, Foreign Relations: Vol. 3, p. 614).
Discussion and Analysis
- How had the edicts of France and Great Britain been affecting American commerce
in 1810?
- How had the edicts of France and Great Britain been affecting American neutrality?
- In what way was President Madison changing U.S. policy? Why?
- Presidents Jefferson and Madison had been ardent supporters of the French
Revolution. What would you need to know to evaluate the charge that their
policies were biased in favor of France?
Extending the Lesson
For a secondary account about the diplomacy of the United States with France and
Great Britain during the presidencies of Jefferson and Madison, read Entanglement
in World Affairs on The Mariners' Museum,
a link from the EDSITEment-reviewed website Internet
Public Library. Locate discussions in Congress about the various documents
discussed in Entanglement in
World Affairs (such as the Milan Decree) by using the Search function in A
Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation.
Selected EDSITEment Websites
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