Fifteenth Century
Augsburg and Ulm
In the 1470's and 1480's Augsburg and Ulm were
the leading centers for the illustrated books North of the Alps.
In Augsburg, printers Johann Baemler, Gunther Zainer, Anton Zorg,
and Johann Schönsperger were followed by the noted Erhard
Ratdolt, whose career spanned more than forty years, beginning
with his work in Venice from 1476 to 1486 and continuing in his
native
Augsburg from 1486 to about 1516. In Ulm, printers such as Johann
Zainer, Lienhart Holle, and Conrad Dinckmut supported a number
of highly skilled "Formschneider," or block cutters, who worked
for the printers and anonymously produced the wood blocks used
to illustrate the books. Editions of Boccaccio, Aesop, Ptolemy,
and Terrence, flowed from these presses and the images that were
created in Ulm define the illustrated book in Northern Europe.
Late in the 1480's financial difficulties hit the industry and
Ulm lost
much of the investment which fueled its printing trade. Zainer
and Dinckmut stayed in business, but they were never again able
to produce illustrated books of a similar caliber. Many of the
woodcutters moved to Augsburg, Basel, or Nuremberg, where the trade
in illustrated books was picking up momentum.
The "Simplicity and Cleanliness" of Augsburg Design
Augsburg,1488
Albumasar was a ninth-century Arab astronomer whose systematic
analysis of the heavens resulted in a creation theory based on
the alignment of the seven known planets. Albumasar's Flores
astrologiae, published by the German printer Erhard Ratdolt,
is illustrated with seventy-three woodcuts, including twelve small
zodiac cuts, seven larger cuts of the planets, and numerous repeats.
Ratdolt is remembered as an innovator in the use of decorative
initials, woodcut borders, printing in gold, and color printing,
with which he experimented during his Venetian period and developed
further during the 1490s with Hans Burgkmair. These woodcuts of
Apollo and Venus racing across the northern sky are formed of simple
lines cut in outline. There is no background or border and very
little shading. The result is a clear narrative image created by
broad contours with a minimum of embellishment. The images are
representative of the German style developed during the late medieval
period and demonstrate what scholars David Landau and Peter Parshall
characterize in their book The Renaissance Print (1995)
as "the simplicity and cleanliness" of Augsburg design.
Initial Letter Decorated with Branch-and-Leaf Motif Augsburg,
1489
The first and only separately issued fifteenth-century edition
of Albumasar's book of conjunctions, a thesis on the creation of
the universe, was printed by Erhard Ratdolt in 1489. It was illustrated
with 268 woodcuts, most of which appeared in earlier books printed
by Ratdolt. Like the images in his Flores astrologiae, the
woodcuts of Capricorn (left) and Aquarius (right) are
characterized by thick contours or outlines used to define the
images and the use of parallel lines to model the forms of the
figures. These techniques, common to early German woodcuts of the
period, offer the viewer a simple representation of an image—in
this case an astrological sign. The clarity of the figures and
the creative manner in which they are presented suggest that the
designer and the woodcutters were skilled craftsmen. This opening
also shows a woodcut initial, an innovation for which Ratdolt is
well known. It is cut in the black ground manner and is decorated
with branch-and-leaf motif.
Woodcut with Color Wash
Augsburg,1490
This 1490 edition of the Passion of the Lord Jesus Christ is
illustrated by a woodcut initial letter and twenty-four hand-colored
woodcuts. This woodcut of "Christ Washing the Feet of the Apostles" is
one of the more successful in the group. Typical of the early 1480s,
the image has broad contours outlining the figures and parallel
lines modeling their forms. The spare background and the lack of
decoration is typical of German woodcuts of this period. In addition
to thick contours and parallel lines, the cutter uses hooked and
looped lines to accentuate the garments and to suggest a physical
presence beneath the folds. Using color wash to highlight parts
of an image was a common practice north of the Alps, particularly
to delineate foreground or background or add an ornamental touch
that the woodcutter was not able to accomplish with his knife.
This volume is the only recorded copy of this edition in America
and the only perfect copy extant.
Only Known Complete Copy
Ulm, 1491
This copy of the German language edition of Dye Siben Cursz,
a rare devotional book of hours dedicated to the Virgin Mary, is
the only known complete copy. It is illustrated with seven original
woodcuts, six of which are colored by a contemporary hand. This
woodcut illustrates the "Prayers for the Repose of the Souls of
the Faithful Departed." The outlines are simple and clear, and
the facial expressions and folds of drapery are crisp and precise
but uniform and enhanced by only a hint of shading. The delineation
of the landscape and sky, along with the hand coloring, add significantly
to the appealing effect of the woodcut design. Conrad Dinckmut,
the printer of this appealing volume, further enhances the attractiveness
of his book by using ornamental capitals in double line to complement
both the typographical design of the work and the delicate contours
of the figural woodcuts on the opposite page.
Book with Metal-Cut "Dotted Prints"
Cologne, ca. 1498
Horologium devotionis is a fourteenth-century Latin translation
of a popular devotional work about the life and Passion of Christ.
The volume is illustrated with eight metal cuts or "dotted prints," so-called
because the metal plate upon which the image is cut in relief is
decorated with a round metal punch used to create texture and pattern
in the image. Like woodcuts, metalcuts were placed in the same
form as type, and both text and image were printed at the same
time. Most historians of early prints place the origin of the dotted
print along the upper Rhine River, with Cologne being one of its
centers. This image of "Christ Being Nailed to the Cross" achieves
the compositional density and decorative range that was characteristic
of metalcuts produced during this period. The central image of
Christ stands out against the dotted foreground and backdrop, as
do his garment and the figures of his persecutors. Also notable
is the decorative border, with its branches, vines, and flowers
framing the entire event and focusing attention on the central
theme of the cut.
Nuremberg
The patronage of Emperor Maximilian I (1459-1519) was critical
to making the cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg centers of the German
printing trade during the first quarter of the sixteenth century.
His commissions for woodcut illustrations were executed by renowned
artists from all over Germany, including Albrecht Dürer, Hans
Burgkmair, Albrecht Altdorfer, Leonard Beck, Lucas Cranach, and
Hans Schäufelein. According to David Landau and Peter Parshall, "his
patronage had much to do with the evolution of commercial print
production in Germany, and particularly with the rise in importance
of professional block cutters, many of whom passed through Maximilian's
service at one stage or another" (The Renaissance Print,
p. 207).
Woodcut Design Attributed to Albrecht Dürer
Nuremberg, 1500
This edition of the Revelationes (below left) includes
eighteen pages of woodcuts loosely based on those in a 1492 Lübeck
edition (below right). Nuremberg designers expanded the
parameters of illustration by creating more complex compositions,
introducing
shading and perspective to their images, and emphasizing individual
human expression. A comparison between the two editions demonstrates
these qualities. In the Nuremberg image, neat rows of almost identical
nuns and priests are supplanted by two sets of individually portrayed
congregations in motion. The modeling of the folds of the garments
and the figures beneath is achieved by a combination of thin and
thick parallel lines and cross-hatching. Saint Birgitta in the
Nuremberg woodcut has finely rendered eyes, nose, and mouth. This
image was cut by a more skilled craftsman, who invests the image
with meaning and also beauty. Recent research suggests the design
is by Albrecht Dürer.
Sources for the Imagery of Ars moriendi
Leipzig, after 1500
Germany, ca. 1465
Ars moriendi is a genre of prayer book that records the
medieval church's rituals surrounding death. Two editions are displayed
for comparison: the Melchior Lotter edition printed around 1500 (left) and
the probable source of this image, a German book printed in about
1465 (right). The image represents the "temptation of
impatience," in which the dying man kicks his physician while his
wife pleads for patience, and a devil expresses pleasure at the
success of his intervention. The complex spatial composition of
both images is almost identical, except that the woodcut used by
Lotter is in reverse, as is typical when a design is copied from
an existing image and a new block cut. In both images, the border
pattern is the same, the use of parallel lines to create shading
is consistent, and the facial expressions are similar for all four
characters. The only significant differences are the greater use
of parallel lines in the later cut and a more complex floor pattern.
Rare Prayer Book Illustrating Life and Passion of Christ
Magdeburg,1500
Moritz Brandis, a provincial printer working in Magdeburg on the
Elbe River, was noted for publishing religious texts, missals,
prayer books, and local council documents. This rare survival of
his Meditationes de vita et passione Jesu Christi, known
in only two copies, is illustrated with sixty-seven woodcuts, created
in simple contours in outline with parallel lines added for background.
The image of the "Guards Gambling for Christ's Garments" effectively
captures the action of the scene and depicts Christ's persecutors
as consumed with greed and oblivious to the significance of the
events taking place around them. The rolling dice, the drawn weapons,
the torn knee in the pants of the man in the foreground, and the
determined expression of each of the men, reveal to the viewer
the chaos surrounding the Passion and the horror of the Crucifixion.
Rome
Unlike Venice and Florence in the last two decades of the fifteenth
century, Rome never became a center for the printing of illustrated
books. The three most important Roman printers of the period, John
Besicken, Andreas Freitag, and Stephen Plannck were German by birth
and training, and their publications reflected a Germany style
in book production. Also, Roman print culture did not evolve from
a fine arts tradition as occurred in Venice and Florence. No leading
school of painting contributed its influence to the woodcutters
and designers at work in Rome, and as a result, the woodcut there
did not take on the fresh characteristics of the Renaissance style
until after the turn of the sixteenth century.
First Italian Book Illustrated with Woodcut Series
Rome, 1484
Cardinal Juan de Torquemada's Meditations on the life
of Christ, a cornerstone of Italian book illustration, is thought
to be the first Italian book illustrated with a series of woodcut
images. The first edition was printed in Rome in 1467 by the German
printer Ulrich Han. The copy displayed here is the fourth edition,
printed Stephan Plannck, Han's apprentice who took over the business
after his death. The designs of the thirty-three woodcuts, though
considered rough by some early critics, are distinguished by their
spaciousness, clarity, and economy of line, all important characteristics
of the Italian woodcut before 1490. These woodcuts of "Adam and
Eve in the Garden" and "The Annunciation" are simply constructed,
gracefully executed, and eminently accessible to the viewer. A
sensuousness in the lines that define Adam's torso and the fine
turn of Eve's ankle suggests a developed sense of artistic possibility.
This emphasis on the physical form demonstrates a new artistic
awareness that was developing in Italian woodcut design during
the early Renaissance.
Important Edition of Divine Comedy
Venice, 1491
This 1491 edition of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy is
considered by many bibliographers to be one of the most important
illustrated editions of Dante's masterpiece printed in the fifteenth
century. It contains three full-page woodcuts introducing each
of the books of Dante's poem and ninety-seven small cuts illustrating
the action of each canto. Framed by a monumental architectural
border, this large woodcut illustrating the beginning of Book 3, Il
Paradiso, translates into pictorial form Dante's beloved Beatrice's
vision, transmigration, and ecstacy as she ascends from earth to
paradise. The image exemplifies the "popular" style of Venetian
woodcut, which gets its name from the designer's decision to dress
its characters in contemporary costume, to use playful images to
decorate borders, and to populate the composition with animals,
birds, and flowers. The designer achieves this effect by the delicate
use of outline to construct forms rather than relying on shading
or parallel lines. This technique keeps the image open, less formal,
and emphasizes the popular nature of the design.
Cleverly Designed Woodcuts Created as Educational Aids
Florence, 1491-92
Calandri's Arithmetica is the first Italian arithmetic
book to contain illustrations that illuminate mathematical problems,
as well as being the first work to discuss long division. The woodcuts
contain many of the characteristics of Florentine designs from
this period, including the use of ornamental borders to frame an
image, simple contours to elucidate content, and sensitive physical
representations that depict human expression. In this illustration,
the borders of the woodcut are characterized by a freedom of line
and playful imagery. Composed of four individual blocks all of
different design, the borders are cut in a delicate yet casual
style, incorporating standard motifs of columns, urns, foliage,
branch-and-leaf patterns, cherubs, and birds. The hands counting
numbers are cleverly designed and sensitively convey motion. They
depict a physical reality typical of woodcuts produced in early
Renaissance Florence. The remainder of the woodcuts in this volume
illustrate mathematical problems, including examples of use to
builders, merchants, and farmers.
Master with Students
Florence, 1492
The subject of this woodcut, "The Master and His Seven Students," was
a common motif used in Italy to illustrate educational or scientific
books, much the way portraits of saints were used for religious
tracts. This image introducing Landino's manual for secretarial
writing is considered one of the finest woodcuts produced in fifteenth-century
Florence. The artist's consummate skill at drawing and composition
are perfectly matched by a woodcutter capable of creating
fine line cuts that translate expression and motion in a natural
and convincing manner. The ordinary nature of this composition
is heightened by the emphasis on the individual characteristics
of each of the figures. The thin ribbon-patterned border is a common
element of Florentine woodcuts. In A Catalogue of the Books
in the Library of C. W. Dyson Perrins (1914), Alfred Pollard
called this woodcut a "little masterpiece of quiet drama."
Treatise on the Use of the Astrolabe
Rome, ca. 1492-93
The frontispiece of Bonet de Latis's elementary treatise on the
use of the astrolabe is based on a Neapolitan model first used
in 1485. This illustration is a good example of how often woodcut
designs were copied, and how various styles were mixed and matched
by printers who did not have access to skilled cutters and designers.
The central image is defined by simple contour lines delineating
figures and repetitive parallel lines modeling both the sunburst
and the ornamentation on the architectural structure. The two sets
of borders are both in the Florentine style common after 1490.
The inner one is a common dart-patterned border cut directly on
the
woodblock. The outer, more elaborate border is constructed of
four
pieces placed
around the woodcut of the scholar and his patron. This border is
decorated with a hound-and-hare motif, jousting cherubs riding
boars, and candelabra designs decorating the sides. These borders
can be found on numerous Florentine woodcuts printed in the last
decade of the fifteenth century.
Example of the Florentine "Large-Style" Woodcut
Florence, 1493
This rare, anonymous collection of sermons originally attributed
to Saint Augustine was at the time Rosenwald purchased it the only
copy in an American collection. Like the woodcut of the "Master
with his Seven Students" (no. 12) this portrait of the
saint in his study illustrates the essential elements of Florentine
style during the 1490s. The distinctive decorative black-ground
border, the finely cut contours of the figure and his study, and
the simple composition rendering the author at work create an intimate
scene appropriate to the text of the sermons. Augustine's halo,
his monk's tonsure, and the bishop's miter resting on the edge
of the desk each signify a stage of his life and signal his eventual
canonization. This image is considered one of the finest Florentine
woodcuts of the "large style" printed in the fifteenth century
and has been as highly praised as the "Master and His Seven Students."
Only Recorded Copy of Edition
Brescia, ca.1487
This is the only recorded copy of this undated edition of Aesop's Fables printed
in Brescia about 1487. It includes forty-three of the sixty-seven
cuts that appear in another edition, dated March 7, 1487, issued
by the same printer. The image illustrates the tale of the "Country
Mouse and the City Mouse," a well-known fable that extols the joys
of the pastoral life and warns of the risks of urban living. What
is most striking about this woodcut is the scale of the characters
and the open environment in which they are placed. The setting
is well defined, uncluttered, and spacious. The steward, in contemporary
costume, is simply drawn but effectively portrayed, and the mice,
aware of the intruder, seem to be in motion. All is accomplished
with the sparse use of black line and no shading. The image is
enclosed by a thin fish-scale border style that was adopted by
many Florentine printers in the 1490s.
Elements of the Venetian Style
Venice, 1493
Illustrated with sixty-seven woodcuts, this edition of Aesop's Fables exemplifies
the various influences that characterize the Venetian woodcut during
the final decade of the fifteenth century. The architectural border
framing the image of the "Country Mouse and the City Mouse" is
a common element of Venetian woodcuts. In this case it is adopted
from a
border design first used by Francesco Tuppo in his 1484 edition
of Aesop printed in Naples. The composition of the central image,
clearly cut in fine outline, is based on the 1487 edition (no.
15). Given the prominence of Venice as the center of printing
and publishing in Italy during the last decades of the fifteenth
century, it is not surprising that the artistic design of the Venetian
illustrated book was influenced by books from towns such as Naples,
Verona, and Brescia. The four-piece border, the architectural headpiece,
and the sparsely drawn lines are all design elements that first
appeared elsewhere in Italy but were very quickly adopted and became
part of the developing Venetian style.
Giunta Edition of the Malermi Bible
Venice, 1494
Printed in Venice in 1494, this is the third edition of LucAntonio
Giunta's Biblia italica. Called the Malermi Bible after
its translator, the first edition appeared in 1490 and was illustrated
with 384 woodcuts. It was previously printed in 1492 and in 1494,
and both editions were illustrated with 430 woodcuts. This edition's
opening of the Biblical book of Genesis illustrates the "popular" style
of the Venetian woodcut at its most impressive. The two pages are
framed by a four-piece monumental architectural border cut in outline
and decorated in an open and playful style. On the left, the border
encloses a series of woodcuts in outline representing the six days
of creation, and on the right, the border encloses two columns
of text and a large initial letter "N"also cut in fine line. Characteristic
of the Bible is the thoughtful integration of text and image. In
addition to the large initial letter "N," the book is filled with
floriated and historiated initial letters and carefully cut black-ground
woodcuts of saints and prophets that are placed throughout the
text and greatly contribute to the typographical harmony of the
volume.
Most Notable Rosenwald Purchase of Sale
Florence, 1495
Piero Pacini's edition of the Epistles of the Evangelists is
considered the greatest Florentine illustrated book of the fifteenth
century. It is the most notable book that Mr. Rosenwald purchased
at the
Dyson Perrins sale. The book contains 144 large woodcuts, all but
8 original to this text, 24 small cuts of saints and prophets,
and a series of 14 different border styles. The large number of
images, along with the quality of the designs and cutting, makes
this work a treasure house of Florentine design and one of the
truly important sources for the study of the Renaissance woodcut.
This title leaf is one of the most striking of the period and reflects
the influence of Florentine painting on woodcut composition. This
influence is also visible in the 144 large woodcuts where the styles
of the artists Donatello, Alessandro Botticelli, and Domenico Ghirlandaio
can be identified. In addition to compositional format, the woodcuts
exhibit convincing representations of the human form in motion
and nearly always succeed in focusing the attention of the viewer
on the dramatic action of the Gospel story. This volume is one
of two known copies of the book.
Only Copy in America
Florence, ca. 1495
This image of the "Master and His Disciple" is designed in typical
Florentine style, framed by a black-ground, dart-patterned border.
The two figures caught in debate are dressed in finely contoured
costumes cut with considerable care, and each figure is rendered
with distinctive facial features. The woodcut's architectural element,
with its complex brick pattern and shading, defines the space and
provides perspective. The free-spirited manner in which the lines
of the floor are cut suggests a confident craftsman skilled at
evoking fine details with the flick of his knife. Other than a
woodcut initial letter, this illustration is the only one used
by Libri in the printing of this tract. The ownership mark of the
shield within a wreath that is stamped below the woodcut is yet
to be identified. One of four known copies, this printing of a
rhetorical exercise by Francesco Berlinghieri is the only example
in an American library.
A Medieval-Style Woodcut
Rome, after 1495
The woodcut on the title page of this rare sermon printed by Johann
Besicken and Sigismundus Mayer in Rome around the end of 1495
illustrates the stoning of Saint Stephen, the first Christian martyr.
This image clearly demonstrates the differences in style between
Roman woodcuts influenced by German traditions and those designed
and printed in Venice and Florence. In this woodcut, the figures
are cut in thick contours on a single plane and parallel lines
are used for shading. The image of the young man carrying a basket
of stones lacks the fluidity of motion or the natural grace of
its Florentine counterpart. The landscape is only suggested by
varied parallel lines and blank space. Unlike Venetian and Florentine
cuts printed before 1500, the image has no ornamentation or decorative
border to enhance its artistic quality. This medieval style produces
a much different effect than the compositional arrangements and
skilled craftsmanship of Venetian and Florentine woodcuts.
Famous Woodcut Binding Designed in Ferrara
Milan, 1496
Produced in Ferrara during the last years of the fifteenth century,
this famous woodcut was designed specifically as a binding. It
was printed and then pasted to the boards that protected the volume.
It has no relationship to the text, printed in Milan. The border
designs and patterned ornaments of this woodcut binding are produced
in the black-ground manner in Florentine style, probably in the
shop of the noted printer Lorenzo di Rossi, who worked in Ferrara
for forty years. The image of "Saint George and the Dragon" is
likely based on a painting by the Ferrarese master Cosimo Tura.
The outline design of the figures, flowers, urns, and cherubs suggests
the influence of the "popular" design of Venetian woodcuts. The
image is a powerful example of the various influences that contributed
to the evolving style of the Italian woodcut in the late fifteenth
century. This copy is one of only two known and is the only copy
in an American collection.
Rare Florentine Edition Illustrated with Venetian Woodcuts
Florence,1496
This edition of the Accounts of the Evangelists was based
on Piero Pacini's edition of the Epistles of the Evangelists printed
fourteen months earlier (no. 18). The first leaf of the
text is illustrated with a half-page woodcut of the "Last Judgment," cut
in outline and enclosed by a full-page, black-line architectural
border in the "popular" style of the Venetian woodcut. This well-known
design was first employed by Venetian printers in 1492 before Bartolommeo
di Libri used it in this Florentine edition of 1496. It lacks the
sophistication of Pacini's designs, in which the borders were more
carefully defined, and the figures were rendered with more individual
characteristics and natural body movements. However, the design
is an excellent example of the fluid nature of the printing trade
in Italy and the movement of woodblocks and woodcut designs from
printer to printer. It also demonstrates how local styles, once
circulated, were absorbed by designers in other printing markets.
This volume is the only copy of the book in the United States and
one of only several known surviving copies.
Composition Based on Contemporary Paintings
Venice, 1497
The "Agony in the Garden" is one of the most complex
of the eleven woodcuts that illustrate this text devoted to the
Passion of Christ. The spacious arrangement of the image created
on such a small scale reflects the compositional influence of religious
paintings of the period. The fully developed landscape comfortably
encompasses the five figures, with Christ as the focal point. The
simple outlines are delicately cut and clearly convey the story
of Christ receiving the cup of the passion while the Apostles sleep.
At least three different hands were involved in the cutting of
the eleven images for this text. The mixed quality of the images
may be related to the nature of the publishing enterprise operated
by Lazarus de Soardis, who was known to have worked with many other
Venetian printers. It is likely that some of the cuts used in this
book came from de Soardis's associates and were originally designed
for other publications.
Savonarola's Art of Dying Well
Florence, after June 1497
This rare illustrated edition on the art of dying was written
by the Florentine priest and reformer Girolamo Savonarola, whose
rhetoric and political philosophy challenged de Medici Florence
in the 1490s. The central image of "The Triumph of Death" is cut
in simple contours without embellishment but with great imagination
and flair. Screaming across the sky, death leaves nothing in its
wake, not peasant, patrician, pope, or nun. The woodcut is framed
by a four-part Florentine style border first used by Bartolommeo
di Libri in his 1495 edition. The thick, elaborate, black-ground
border decorated with classical motifs is a powerful contrast to
the simple outline design of the central image. This second edition
printed by Libri is one of five known copies in America, two of
which are in the Library of Congress.
Stephan Plannck's Second Edition of the Meditations
Rome, 1498
Like Stephan Plannck's 1484 edition (no. 9), this 1498
printing of Cardinal Juan de Torquemada's meditations on the life
of Christ is illustrated with thirty-three woodcuts. However, each
of them was newly designed and cut for the smaller format of this
book. The composition of this image of "The Annunciation" compresses
the design that appeared in the previous editions. The interior
setting is more detailed in this new cut, with the addition of
double arches and windows and a curtain in the background. The
sloping floor provides a sense of perspective, an element missing
in the original cut made more than thirty years earlier. In addition
to the architectural features, the image is enhanced by the ornamental
designs on the front of the kneeler on which Mary rests, the delineation
of the Angel Gabriel's wings, the quality of Mary's hair, the folds
of the garments, and the finely cut facial features of both figures.
The judicious use of varied parallel lines to create shading and
texture gives the woodcut a dimensionality rarely found in other
illustrated books from Plannck's press.
Biblical Story of Joseph
Florence, 1500
This volume contains four "rappresentazioni," printed
tracts and plays celebrating lives of saints and telling biblical
stories. These eight- to twelve-leaf pamphlets were a favorite
of the Florentine
public during the last years of the fifteenth century, and, as
competition among publishers increased, woodcuts were added to
bolster sales. This woodcut is the most interesting of the images
that illustrates The Story of Joseph, Son of Jacob, printed
by Bartolommeo di Libri around 1500. The woodcut illustrates the
tale of "Joseph and Potiphar's Wife." The image freezes the moment
as Joseph turns from the advances of Potiphar's wife, who is clasping
his cloak and pulling the young man toward her. The woodcut design
is perfectly balanced and conveys the desperation of the scene
with both force and sensitivity. The shading near the woman's face,
the use of parallel lines to accentuate the movement of the characters,
and the varied border styles used to frame the image create a simple
but compelling rendering of the story, well suited to the subject
of the text.
Basel
The first illustrated book containing woodcuts to appear in Basel
was printed by Bernhard Richel in 1476. In that year he published
an edition of Spiegel menschlicher Behältnis decorated
with large woodcut initial letters and 273 woodcuts. Richel's woodcuts
show influences of both Gunther Zainer's Augsburg edition of the Speculum
humane salvationis printed in 1473 and the Netherlandish block
book, Biblia pauperum, of the 1470s. After Richel's death
in 1482, Nicolaus Kesler took over the business. Kesler is best
remembered today for printing an edition of the Epistoles of
Saint Jerome, which contains the famous woodcut by Albrecht Dürer
of St. Jerome removing the thorn from the foot of a lion. Dürer
spent nearly two years in Basel, between 1492 and 1494, and he
is reputed to have made some woodcut designs for Michael Furters's Der
Ritter vom Turm, 1493, and Sebastian Brandt's Das Narrenschiff, printed
by Johann Bergmann von Olpe in 1494.
Woodcut Attributed to a Young Albrecht Dürer
Basel, not before 1497
The woodcut of "The Christ Child and the Four Evangelists" that
decorates this Basel edition of Guillermus Parisiensis's commentaries
on the Epistles is executed in a robust manner, especially in
its depiction of the Christ Child and the garments of St. John
at the lower left. The body of the child is clearly rendered in
round contours and by the delicate use of variable parallel lines.
The face of Christ is believable, and the spare use of black lines
at the neck and shoulders captures a reality completely lacking
in the fifty-three illustrations in the remainder of the book.
This woodcut has been attributed to artist Albrecht Dürer
because the technique used to create it resembles his technique.
The attribution is supported by the fact that Dürer made designs
for the printer Nicolaus Kesler between 1492 and 1494, when Dürer
lived and worked in Basel.
Image of Adam and Eve
Basel, 1498
This well-illustrated edition of the Revelations attributed
to Methodius was edited by Sebastian Brandt, author of the famous The
Ship of Fools. Its printer, Michael Furter, was among Basel's
first generation of printers and spent his entire twenty-nine-year
career working there. His edition of the Revelations is
illustrated with fifty-five original woodcuts. The images differ
in quality, and it appears that at least two different hands cut
the blocks. This woodcut of "Adam and Eve in the Garden" is cut
in a free, almost sensuous, style, in which a combination of round
and angular contours outlines the figures. The rendering of the
physical form of Adam and Eve is further enhanced by the use of
varied parallel lines to model their figures, a Renaissance technique
that accentuates the form of the human body. Great attention is
also paid to Adam and Eve's hair, especially to Eve's flowing mane,
a design cut in fine detail, which attests to the block cutter's
skill. However, the renderings of the Tree of Knowledge and the
limited detail of the landscape are less successful and exhibit
characteristics of medieval style.
Paris
The source of many French woodcuts during the period
of early printing was the illuminated manuscript. The highly developed
French style of illumination was distinctive in its use of contemporary
French
costume and unique border decoration. The style was also notable
for particular facial characteristics used to distinguished the
numerous saints, heroes, and historical figures represented in
many woodcut images. Some of the earliest French printers were
trained as illuminators, including Pierre Le Rouge and Antoine
Vérard, whose printed books are illustrated with border
designs and elaborate woodcuts in outline, taken freely from the
manuscript tradition.
Remarkable Illustration of the Beginning of the End
Paris, 1493-94
This woodcut of the "Signs of Judgment Day" is the first in series
of fifteen cuts illustrating the final coming of Christ that were
designed for Antoine Vérard. The woodcuts are part of a
much larger series devoted to the way of life for Christians and
designed in the French style. This image demonstrates more artistic
imagination than the others that illustrate this book. It depicts
the sea rising to the mountain tops moments before it inundates
the land and consumes the earth. The powerful form of the rising
sea, cut in thick contours, is enhanced by the shading and the
placement of the fish throughout the rising column of water. The
figures of fish, an early Christian emblem for baptism or cleansing,
was a readily recognizable motif to late medieval viewers. The
rough mountain landscape capped with two standing trees complements
the vertical thrust of the image and successfully balances the
composition. The sparseness of the background with its open sky
also contributes to the this stark presentation of the end of the
world.
A Complex Composition in a Small Format
Paris, 1495-96
This commentary on the Ten Commandments, originally attributed
to Nicolaus de Lyra, is known in only eight copies, this being
the sole copy in America. This woodcut of "The Crucifixion" is
cut in outline with shading produced by parallel lines that give
form to the figures represented in the image. It is highlighted
in part with a yellow wash and a drop of blue applied to Christ's
halo, accentuating His divinity. The woodcut is framed by an architectural
border designed as part of the block. Like the application of watercolor,
borders are commonly used in French woodcuts of the period to embellish
an image and focus attention on it. The clever use of a zig-zag
pattern in the border also directs the viewer's eye to the action
of the central figures in the scene. The woodcut is greatly enhanced
by the design of the figure of the soldier in the right foreground.
His costume, physical features, and facial expression are all typical
of the French style and suggest that a well-trained hand was responsible
for the woodcut.
By the Famous Printer Guy Marchant
Paris, 1495-96
This first edition of this mathematical text by Archbishop of
Canterbury Thomas Bradwardine was printed by the famous French
printer, Guy Marchant. It is illustrated with six woodcuts, three
of which are displayed. "The Virgin and St. Anne," "François
Villon," and "The Advocate" reflect a number of the elements that
are characteristic of the French style. The highly developed landscape
in "The Virgin and St. Anne" creates a sense of space and perspective,
a practice typical of the manuscript tradition and translated to
the format of the late medieval woodcut. The images of "François
Villon" and "The Advocate" are also cut in outline with an emphasis
on the natural pose of the figures, their contemporary costume,
and distinctive facial characteristics. Guy Marchant was
famous for creating images of all social classes, including chambermaids
and matrons, merchants and farmers, priests and lawyers. All of
them were rendered with a realism that was recognized by the public
and fueled a demand for this style of woodcut image.
Netherlandish Woodcut Design
Deventer, between 1490 and 1492
Seventy-three editions of Cordiale quattuor novissimorum were
published in Europe between 1470 and 1501. This popular text contains
Christian commentary on the four final stages of human experience:
death, judgment, heaven, and hell. This a title-page woodcut of
the "Mass of St. Gregory" is a complex image showing the saint
kneeling before an altar and witnessing the miraculous appearance
of Christ To his left is a bishop holding Gregory's mitre and staff
of office, and to his right is his deacon, who is helping in the
celebration of the mass. The transubstantiation of bread and wine
into the body and blood of Christ is graphically represented by
the blood flowing from Christ's pierced breast into the chalice
below. The image is executed in the northern style common to Netherlandish
woodcut design. The block is cut in outline with thick contours
and parallel lines for shading. The composition is all on one plane,
with little ornamentation or embellishment. First advocated by
Saint Gregory, the doctrine of transubstantiation is fundamental
to the Roman Catholic mass.
Color Image of Episode from Passion
Antwerp, 1488
Gerard Leeu's illustrated edition of the Meditations contains
seventy-five woodcut images, all colored by a contemporary hand.
This edition appears to be the source for the Brandis edition (no.
8) because that book's size, binding, and many of the illustrations
are similar. This woodcut of the "Guards Gambling for the Garments
of Christ" is quite different from the uncolored version in the
Brandis edition. Although the characters are not as well designed
or as threatening as those that appear in the Brandis one, the
use of color and contrast is a very effective device in conveying
the ominous quality of this Passion story. The black background
and the bright colors of the figures create a striking portrait
of the guards fighting one another for the garments. The small
size of these images tested the skills of the designer and woodcutter.
The thick contours of the outlines, the limited use of decoration
and shading, and the use of color are consistent with Netherlandish
style of the period. This copy is the only one in an American library.
Flemish Design First Used by William Caxton
Westminster [London], after July 1499
This copy of the "The Most Excellent Treatise of the Three Kings
of Coleyne" appears to be the only known complete copy. It was
printed by Wynkyn de Worde, William Caxton's assistant and successor.
The woodcut of "Christ on Calvary" appears Flemish in style, an
attribution consistent with the beginnings of Caxton's printing
career in Bruges in the 1470s. Many Flemish influences appear in
the image, the most powerful being the rendering of the human form
in motion. The way in which Christ's body falls to the right as
it receives the thrust of the spear, and the postures of the thieves,
one with his dangling arms and legs and the other arched over his
cross, reflect a plasticity of the human form common in Flemish
designs. Also, the exposure of the hind portion of the horses out
to the edge of the image is a very strong compositional element
that draws viewers into the scene, making the them participants
in the events of the Crucifixion and not simply bystanders.
Seville and Pamploma
German and Italian influences on the development of Spanish printing
and illustration are important considerations when examining Spanish
books. Many of the first printers in Spain were born and trained
North of the Alps and their woodcut reflected these traditions.
Thick outline, looped and angular cuts which define the garments,
and consistent shading patterns are all techniques used by German
block cutters. Compositional elements and ornamental schemes reflect
styles brought by the Italian printers and designers who moved
South from Naples in the 1490's. Spanish style also evolved from
the influences gleaned from Arabic decorative design patterns and
letter forms that are distinctly non-European in form.
Spanish Design with Arabic and Venetian Influences
Seville, 1499
This book appears to be the second Seville edition of Rodrigo
Fernández de Santaella's 1498 instructions for the service
of the mass. It is illustrated with this woodcut of the "Mass of
St. Gregory" enclosed in a four-part woodcut border. The image
has compositional similarities to the one appearing in the Cordiale
quatour novissimorum (no. 32). It contains many of
the instruments of Christ's passion and illustrates the transubstantiation
of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. A distinguishing
feature of this woodcut is the design of vines and flowers that
appears on the face and side of the altar, suggesting Arabic ornamentation.
Also, the black-on-white design of the floor gives the image an
Italian feel. Borders of dissimilar design were often combined
to frame Spanish woodcuts during the late medieval period. The
practice reflects an individuality of style, the limited access
that printers had to skilled cutters, and the lack of woodblocks
available during the first two decades of book illustration in
Spain.
Spanish Book on Holy Trinity
Pamplona, ca. 1499
This book is the second Spanish printing of Petrus de Castrovol's
commentaries on the nature of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ.
This illustration of the Holy Trinity is the book's only woodcut.
It depicts the crucified Christ in the arms of the God the Father,
with the Holy Spirit represented as a dove, perched on the Father's
right shoulder. The angel to the right is pulling back a curtain,
a gesture that suggests the revelation of the mystery of the Trinity.
The woodblock was cut in outline with a minimal use of shading
to delineate the body of Christ and the gown of the Father. This
clear and clean cut, straightforwardly designed and without embellishment,
depicts the central theme of Castrovol's text. The woodcut is enclosed
by four different floral borders, cut in black ground. Such decorative
borders are important elements of Spanish book illustration at
the end of the fifteenth century. Their various styles document
the influence of Italian, Arabic, and German styles on their design.
By Printer Trained in Naples
Seville, 1500
Ricoldo da Montecroce was fluent in both Arabic and the tenets
of the Koran, and his Improbatio Alcorani became an influential
source of information on the laws of the Koran and Islam for Western
theologians. His book is illustrated with this one woodcut, an
initial letter, and a printer's mark. The image is well balanced,
and the figures and the interior setting are well defined. The
composition is reminiscent of the Florentine woodcut of the "Master
and his Seven Students" (no. 12). The thick outlines,
the looped and angular cuts which define the garments, and the
consistent shading patterns are all techniques used by German block
cutters. However, the ornamentation of the image is distinctively
Spanish. The Arabic designs on the door, the distinctive style
of the costumes, and the use of a Spanish type below the image
are all elements of Spanish woodcut style at the end of the fifteenth
century.
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