Managed Grazing in Riparian Areas

Livestock Systems Guide

Abstract

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This publication is designed to help farmers and ranchers identify and use locally appropriate grazing practices to protect riparian resources. Methods for protecting these environmentally fragile areas include keeping livestock from streambanks, properly resting pastures to restore degraded land, and determining the proper duration and season for grazing pastures. It examines adjusting general recommendations to fit your particular management objectives and environmental conditions.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Upland Land Management Practices and Riparian Area Protection
• Managed Grazing for Riparian Protection
• Summary
• Recommended References
• References
• Tables 1-5

Introduction

Most riparian areas in the U.S. evolved with animals feeding on the lush vegetation and trampling on the streambanks to get to water. Although the original grazers were bison, moose, and deer rather than cattle, sheep, and goats, this evolutionary pressure means that most native riparian plant species regrow following a period of grazing. (Mosley et al., 1998; Ohmart, 1996) When farmers and ranchers displaced these occasional grazers with continuously grazing livestock, riparian areas suffered. Provided with limited grazing area and little stimulus to move from one area to another, continuously grazed livestock trampled streambanks, congregated in the shade and cool breezes next to streams, and overgrazed the lush vegetation in these fertile areas.

Management intensive or rotational grazing seeks to protect land resources by mimicking the activities of wildlife. Instead of a herd of animals spreading out across a large pasture and grazing it throughout the season or year, livestock are grouped together and forced to graze a small pasture or paddock for a limited amount of time. When they have eaten about half the grass in the paddock, they are moved to another paddock and not allowed to return to the first paddock until the forage has grown back.

Research studies show that managed grazing can simultaneously enhance farm productivity, decrease input expenses, and protect the environmental conditions on the farm. (Macon, 2002; Herrick et al., 2002; Paine et al., 1999; Berton, 1998) Even government agencies and environmentalists, who implicate continuous grazing as a primary cause of riparian degradation, now join with farmers and ranchers in promoting managed rotational grazing as a way to protect riparian areas. (Lyons et al., 2000; Moseley et al., 1998; Leonard et al., 1997; Elmore, 1992)

Brush and weed management is the greatest potential environmental benefit that managed grazing provides to riparian areas. In Wisconsin, fisheries managers often contract with farmers to rotationally graze riparian areas. Brush removal by cattle maintains grassy buffers that are more effective in protecting water quality and providing fish habitat than are some woody buffers (L. Paine, personal communication). In various locations goats are used to control noxious weeds and non-native brush species in riparian areas, allowing for the growth of plants that provide healthy riparian conditions. (Pittroff, 2001; Luginbuhl et al., 2000)

This publication provides guidelines for using managed grazing to protect riparian areas. These guidelines are based on the understanding that upland and riparian areas are not mutually exclusive systems but are interrelated parts of the watershed. Thus, the riparian grazing practices discussed here work together with management intensive grazing of upland areas to maintain farm productivity, economic viability, and environmental health. If you are not already familiar with rotational grazing, Table 1 provides a comparison of rotational and continuous grazing methods. I also recommend that you refer to the following ATTRA publications prior to implementing practices discussed here:

• Sustainable Pasture Management
• Rotational Grazing
• Matching Livestock and Forage Resources in Controlled Grazing
• Nutrient Cycling in Pastures
• Assessing the Pasture Soil Resource

Grazing sheep. Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS

Also, prior to reading this publication, you may want to read the ATTRA publication Protecting Riparian Areas: Farmland Management Strategies for background information on the structure and function of riparian areas and how they provide environmental, social, and economic benefits.

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Upland Land Management Practices and Riparian Area Protection

As discussed in the ATTRA publication Protecting Riparian Areas: Farmland Management Strategies, good soil and water conservation practices on upland areas represent the first, and perhaps the most critical, step for the protection of riparian areas. Healthy riparian areas are able to capture runoff water, filter out sediments, recycle nutrients, decrease pathogen populations, and degrade some toxic chemicals. However, upland areas with bare ground, eroded land, and compacted soil limit the ability of riparian areas to perform these functions. Concentrated runoff from degraded upland areas can flatten riparian vegetation and wash in seeds of invasive or upland plants that compete with native riparian plant species, while eroded sediments can bury preferred, water-loving vegetation. (Debano and Schmidt, 1989) Runoff water can also contaminate riparian areas and streams with nutrients and pathogens carried in from agricultural areas or septic systems.

Unmanaged livestock grazing can degrade upland areas in three major ways:

• Livestock compact soil by trampling it, making paths, or repeately congregating in the same areas.
• Livestock without sufficient or good-quality forage will feed selectively on their preferred forages, reducing the ability of those species to survive or reproduce. This creates bare areas and promotes the growth of weeds.
• Congregating livestock deposit manure and urine in concentrated areas.

Unmanaged grazing practices can damage the structure and function of riparian areas in similar ways:

• Livestock transport seeds and vegetative propagules of noxious weeds into riparian areas.
• Most livestock selectively congregate in riparian areas, especially during hot weather.
• During hot, dry weather, livestock selectively graze on the more palatable species found in moist riparian areas, in preference to woodier or more mature plants found in upland areas.
• Livestock trample on moist riparian soil, causing soil compaction, hindering plant growth, and breaking down streambanks.
• Congregating livestock deposit manure and urine in and near streams.
• Livestock trample or congregate in streams, loosening bottom sediments and damaging stream channel shape and structure.

Table 2 provides more detailed information on the potential impacts of unmanaged grazing in riparian areas on soil and water resources, wildlife habitat, and human health and economic concerns.

While conservationists and other non-farm community members often blame farmers and ranchers for riparian degradation, these rural land managers may also be victims of poor upstream urban and suburban land management practices. Non-agricultural land use practices such as forestry, home building, road construction, and urban and suburban development can also decrease water infiltration and increase runoff, erosion, and contaminant transport into riparian areas. (Wang et al., 1997) These non-agricultural activities that can degrade downstream grazed pastures or rangelands include:

• Replacement of forests and fields by houses, roads, and parking lots that do not permit water infiltration and encourage rapid, short-term or flash flooding in streams and ditches.
• Artificial stream widening or straightening.
• Construction, road maintenance, logging, or other activities that expose bare soil to the forces of erosion.
• Poorly constructed or maintained septic systems.
• Industrial or municipal activities that involve disposal of toxic materials.
• Runoff of lawn chemicals, road salt, oil and tar from roads, yard waste, and other urban wastes.

Poor upstream land management practices can also degrade riparian areas by increasing the potential for:

• Flooding of pasturelands.
• Streambank erosion and the loss of pastureland into the stream.
• Transport of contaminated soil onto pastureland.
• Water contamination that could affect the health and productivity of livestock.
• Loss of dependable quantities of water to meet the needs of livestock.

The ATTRA publication Protecting Riparian Areas: Farmland Management Strategies discusses strategies for developing effective watershed management programs that recognize that everyone living in a watershed contributes to watershed problems and has a responsibility to find and implement solutions to these problems. This publication also provides a list of government programs that may be able to provide you with economic or technical assistance as you seek to implement riparian protection practices.

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Managed Grazing for Riparian Protection

Farmers and ranchers use managed grazing practices in various areas of the country to improve pasture productivity, increase livestock growth, and protect riparian areas. (Lyons et al., 2000; Clark 1998; Skinner and Hiller, 1996) The term "managed grazing" encompasses a range of strategies and philosophies. But the most critical component is management.

Most riparian grazing results suggest that the specific grazing system used is not of dominant importance, but good management is-with control of use in riparian areas a key item. (Clary and Webster, 1989)

Other critical components of riparian grazing practices include (Leonard et al., 1997; Clary and Webster, 1989):

• Combining managed upland grazing practices with good riparian grazing management.
• Installing alternative watering systems and controlling grazing to minimize deposition of manure in or near streams.
• Adapting grazing management practices to local conditions and to the species being grazed.
• Employing long-term rest from grazing when riparian areas are highly degraded.
• Employing short-term or seasonal rest to protect wet streambanks and riparian vegetation that is emerging, regenerating, or setting seed.
• Maintaining streambank structure and function by maintaining a healthy cover of riparian vegetation.
• Using a flexible approach that involves documenting mistakes so that they are not repeated.

Grazing management guidelines to accomplish these objectives are provided in Table 3.

Use Practices that Keep Livestock from Streams and Streambanks
As with upland grazing practices, livestock should be managed to ensure that they optimize forage use, graze evenly across paddocks, and do not congregate in any certain area. Constructing small paddocks that are more square than rectangular and placing water and any supplements at different corners of the paddocks encourages livestock to move around paddocks. Alternative water systems and controlled crossing areas are critical management tools for riparian areas. Providing livestock with water away from the stream keeps them from trampling and undercutting streambanks when they go to drink. It also can provide them with water that is cleaner, resulting in fewer veterinary bills and more productive growth. The appropriate watering system for your farm or ranch depends on the source of water, terrain of the land, and power availability for pumping. (Burns and Buschermohle, 2000; Fyck, 2000) For large farms, solar or wind power may be an effective source of energy for pumping water. Of the two, solar power is usually the more cost-effective since it is relatively easy to install, requires little maintenance, and remains reliable for a long time. (Morris et al., 2000; Buschermohle and Burns, 2000) Further information can be found in the ATTRA publications Solar-Powered Livestock Watering Systems and Freeze Protection for Solar-powered Livestock Watering Systems.

Cows crossing controlled stream. Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS

If livestock need to cross streams, provide them with controlled stream crossings in the form of bridges, ramps, or designated fords. For designated fords, cover the stream bottom with coarse gravel to provide the animals with firm footing, while discouraging them from congregating or wallowing in the stream. (Undersander and Pillsbury, 1999) In areas where streambanks or riparian vegetation is degraded and livestock exclusion is necessary to allow riparian areas to recover, solar-powered electric fences can provide a relatively inexpensive and low-maintenance method for setting up paddocks and exclusion areas. (Morris et al., 2000) Your local Natural Resources Conservation Service can provide technical—and possibly some economic assistance in the installation of stream crossings.

Controlled access point for stream crossing. Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS

Pastures that include a combination of riparian and upland areas should be grazed only when both areas have good-quality forages and temperatures are moderate. In arid areas, this usually occurs in late spring, while in more humid areas it occurs in late spring to late summer. If forage availability in upland areas is limited, livestock will selectively graze the riparian areas. They will also congregate in riparian areas during hot weather since the riparian areas are cooler. Unless grazing times are limited, animals will congregate along streambanks, causing soil compaction, vegetation loss by trampling and overgrazing, and water quality problems by depositing manure close to streams.

Adapt Grazing Management Practices to Local Conditions
Upland managed grazing seeks to integrate forage and livestock production. This requires producers to adapt grazing practices to the type of livestock being raised, local environmental conditions, and seasonal climate changes. Thus, dairy farmers in Wisconsin or New York use very intensive rotational schedules for their milking herds, while beef farmers in Colorado or New Mexico use a much more extensive longer-duration rotation schedule. The difference in the grazing practices of these two situations reflects differences between high-production dairy herds feeding on lush, rapidly growing forages and slower-gaining beef animals feeding on more sparse vegetation.

Similarly, guidelines for well-managed riparian grazing systems cannot be "one size fits all." Instead:

The effectiveness of a given system depends on how well it fits both the ecological conditions of the grazing area and the management requirements of the livestock enterprise. Too often a grazing system developed for a specific application has been used elsewhere without adequate consideration of local site conditions. (Elmore, 1992)

Adaptation to local conditions involves understanding the following characteristics of the riparian areas being managed:

• What is (or was) the native vegetation: forests, shrubs and brush; or grasses, sedges, and reeds?
• What is the stream order: a first-order headwaters or a higher order tributary?
• What is the stream channel geology: is it rocky, gravelly, or composed of sediments?
• Is it a cold (trout) stream or a warm-water stream?
• What are the climatic conditions: is it humid or arid? Are winters cold throughout the season, or do freeze-thaw conditions occur?
• During which season do the heaviest rains usually fall: when vegetation is actively growing or during times when vegetation is dormant or emerging?

You need to take these issues into consideration when you develop and implement riparian grazing practices. If, instead, you follow "to the letter" practices developed in an environment different from your own, your well-intentioned management efforts may prove to be ineffective or even detrimental to riparian protection. See Table 4 for guidelines in selecting managed riparian grazing systems appropriate to your locality and to the management objectives of your farm or ranch.

Employ Long-term Rest from Livestock when Riparian Areas are Highly Degraded
While grazing and riparian restoration can coexist in many areas, in highly degraded areas livestock exclusion is necessary to initiate the recovery process. The duration of the necessary rest period depends on the amount of degradation, the local environmental conditions, and whether active restoration practices are being implemented in addition to providing the area with rest from livestock. Ultimately, the objective of providing rest is the recovery of the streambank and its functional riparian plant community. (Clary and Webster, 1989)

Before discussing methods for resting and restoring riparian areas, let's examine some typical characteristics of severely damaged riparian areas (Shock, 2000; Moseley et al., 1998; Platts and Raleigh, 1984; Whitaker-Hoagland et al., 1998):

• A low water table and decreased water storage capacity.
• Slow vegetative growth and poor forage production.
• Limited vegetation and roots to help protect and stabilize banks.
• Change in vegetation species and types, replacement of native vegetation by exotic vegetation, or replacement of water-loving vegetation by upland vegetation.
• In areas with woody riparian areas, reduced numbers and health of trees, combined with limited shade and higher temperatures of stream water.
• Excessive sediment in the channel from bank and upland erosion.
• Reduced or eliminated late-summer stream flows.
• Poor fish habitat because of poor water quality and/or poor channel morphology.
• Poor wildlife habitat quality.
• High coliform bacteria counts from upland waters or adjacent land.

Areas that are badly degraded or have been abused for many years will take a long time to recover. Similarly, riparian areas in more fragile environments, such as arid regions or areas with long winters, will take a longer time to recover than areas with more moderate climates or more humid conditions. In western ranges, degraded areas should be rested until vegetation provides a complete cover over the soil surface and at least half of the vegetation is composed of natural species. (Winward, 1989) For riparian areas across the country, the rest period should also allow for the establishment of sufficient vegetation to stabilize the streambank, filter sediments, and allow nutrient recycling. Management practices that favor riparian area revegetation include (Askey-Doran, 2002; Oversby and Smith, 2001; Undersander and Pillsbury, 1999; Briggs, 1993):

• Checking to see whether seed sources for native plants are still present in the area. If they are, allow these plants to reestablish naturally for one year.
• Being aware that weed growth will surge for a time after livestock are excluded from the riparian area. If seed sources for native plants are present, these plants will be able to compete with upland plant species as soil conditions improve and the water table rises.
• Providing weed control, especially if invasive or noxious weeds are present. If you prefer not to use herbicides, you can smother weeds with organic matting. Desired plants can be planted through this matting. In less degraded areas, grazing once or twice in the late summer can control weeds.
• Using the natural regeneration of plants to guide your choice of plants to use for assisted revegetation.
• Planting native grasses and forbs if riparian vegetation is not able to regenerate naturally.
• Stabilizing streambanks with rip-rap or fast-growing plants before revegetating other portions of the riparian area.
• Allowing new plants to become well established before allowing livestock to graze in the revegetated area. This establishment period may last several years, especially in arid or severely degraded areas.

Grazing Duration
You can rotationally graze riparian areas that have established a high water table and a diverse cover of water-loving vegetation while not harming, and in some cases even benefiting, riparian conditions. However, the length of time that an area can be grazed and the duration of rest periods between grazing cycles depends on the plant species growing in the riparian area, the type of livestock you are grazing, the amount of prior degradation, local environmental conditions, and your production objectives. Providing riparian areas with sufficient rest for critical plant species to regrow and reproduce is central to maintaining riparian health. In fact, several leading researchers and practitioners stress that timing rest periods appropriately and providing a sufficient duration of rest are more important than the specific grazing practice used. (Leonard et al., 1997; Elmore, 1992)

Graziers often use stubble height to monitor upland pasture conditions and to help them make decisions regarding when to rotate livestock. Stubble height can also be used as a management tool in riparian areas. The recommended height of forage residues following grazing differs according to environmental conditions. (Clary and Leininger, 2000) For example:

• Four-inch (10 cm) stubble will usually maintain plant vigor, trap sediment, and protect soils from compaction when trampled.
• In woody streambanks, moving livestock after they have grazed the forage to 6-8 inches (15-20 cm) may be necessary to ensure that they are not feeding on willows or other riparian trees because of a lack of non-woody forages.
• Stubble height is not a useful guide in areas where streambanks are rocky or where woody vegetation dominates in the riparian zone.

Seasonality of rotational grazing practices in healthy riparian areas
Besides duration of grazing, the time of year when livestock are allowed access to riparian areas is also critical to maintaining and restoring riparian health. Factors that determine the appropriate time to graze animals in riparian areas include:

• Riparian soil moisture following snowmelt, rainfall, and heavy streamflows.
• Dominant type of riparian vegetation and its periods of peak growth and dormancy.
• Reproductive characteristics of critical riparian plants: do they reproduce vegetatively or by seed? If by seed, when does it set?
• Freeze and thaw cycles during the winter.

Riparian areas should not be grazed when they are wet and most vulnerable to compaction. In the northern U.S., this means excluding animals from riparian areas during late winter snowmelts and spring rains and not allowing animals in until the soil dries. Similarly, in areas with heavy late-season rains, livestock should be moved out of riparian areas in the fall.

Timing of riparian grazing is important for preventing erosion and the degradation of soil and water quality. In the spring, grazing should be delayed until vegetation completely covers the riparian soil. This ensures that animals do not dislodge bare soils and cause erosion. Fall grazing can be used in some areas if it is carefully monitored, leaving enough vegetation at the end of the season to protect against spring runoff and erosion. Thus, riparian areas should either be grazed in the early fall to allow for forage regrowth before winter or grazed later in the fall, but only on a limited and well-monitored basis.

Timed grazing can also be used to protect healthy vegetative growth in riparian areas. Periodic grazing can be used to remove the apical meristems or top portions of grasses and sedges. This promotes vegetative reproduction by stimulating the sprouting of additional stalks or tillers. (Mosley et al., 1998) However, in areas where annual plants are critical components of the riparian ecosystem, grazing should not occur when these species are setting seed.

Table 5 provides a summary of environmental conditions to consider when deciding which seasons are most appropriate for riparian grazing in your area.

Understand How Different Livestock Species Graze
Grazing managers should understand the grazing patterns of the animals they manage. (Stuth, 1991) Different species prefer different forages and graze them to different heights. Species that forage on shrubs and trees may do so at different stages in the plants' growth. Different livestock species also have different herding and camping characteristics. Grazing management practices should be designed to work with an animal's natural preferences and instincts. (Leonard et al., 1997)

Grazing livestock in riparian areas on hot days should be avoided since animals tend to congregate on streambanks where they find shade and cooling breezes. Conversely, on cool days, cold air pockets found in riparian areas will discourage livestock from grazing or congregating in these areas. (Moseley et al., 1998) Sheep tend to cause less damage to riparian areas than cattle because they do not like to congregate in low-lying areas where they feel vulnerable to predation. (Glimp and Swanson, 1994) In contrast, large herbivores, such as cattle, are "central place foragers," with their central place being near water. (Stuth, 1991)

Specialized grazing management practices can also successfully control weeds and non-native woody species. By understanding the growth habits and reproductive cycles of noxious and non-native plants in relation to those of desired riparian plants, the timing and duration of livestock grazing can be managed to favor their feeding on weeds or unwanted brush. (Paine and Ribic, 2001) Changing or combining livestock species can also help control weeds. For example, goats can be used to control blackberries, multiflora rose, honeysuckle, and many other troublesome plants. (Luginbuhl et al., 2000) In California, goats are used to control yellow star thistle (Pittroff, 2001), and in Wisconsin, a research study is using Scottish Highland cattle in rotational grazing to help control prickly ash, multiflora rose, wild parsnip, and box elder. (Shepard, 2001) For more information on the use of multispecies grazing for weed control, see the ATTRA publication, Multispecies Grazing.

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Summary

Management intensive rotational grazing provides farmers and ranchers with a method for productively managing their livestock while protecting ecologically important riparian ecosystems. To be effective, these management practices must be flexibly implemented based on knowledge of local climate, native riparian vegetation, current riparian health, and livestock behavior.

Rotational grazing can also be installed incrementally to obtain the most benefit from each change. For example:

• First, install alternative watering systems away from streambanks. This will increase animal productivity by ensuring access to clean water while protecting riparian areas by encouraging animal congregation around the troughs rather than on streambanks or in streambeds.
• Alternatively, install controlled stream access points. Encouraging animals to drink or cross streams in specific, managed locations will cut down on random trampling of streambanks, and will also decrease the risk of animal injury.
• Secondly, improve upland forage quality through a combination of rotational grazing, overseeding, and fertility management. As upland forage quality improves, animals will be less likely to selectively feed on riparian plants.
• As you install fences for rotational grazing, set up sufficient paddocks to keep livestock out of riparian areas during times when these areas are most vulnerable to degradation. High-risk times include when the soil is wet or partially frozen, when plants are emerging or setting seed, or when plant cover is limited because of dry conditions.

While the guidelines provided in this publication can assist you in the design and initial implementation of productive and environmentally beneficial riparian grazing practices, locally appropriate management requires ongoing monitoring of livestock and riparian health. It also requires the flexibility to revise management practices based on your observations and management objectives. Cooperative Extension Educators, Natural Resource Conservation Service grazing specialists, and other experienced graziers can help you monitor and adjust your grazing practices. Grazing groups provide an excellent opportunity to learn from the experience of others, while providing you with the opportunity to ask questions about practices you are trying out on your farm. For a list of grazing groups in the US and suggestions for starting a group, see the ATTRA publication Grazing Networks for Livestock Producers.

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Recommended References

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References

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Shock, C.C. 2000. Riparian Areas. Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University. www.cropinfo.net/ripiarian.htm

Skinner, Q.D., and J.D. Hiller. 1996. Riparian Zones Then and Now: An Enhanced Environment Created by Agriculture. p 68–172. In: W. Lockeretz (ed.) Proceedings: Environmental Enhancement Through Agriculture, Center for Agriculture, Food and Environment, School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Medford, MA.

Sovell, L.A., B. Vondracek, J.A. Frost, and K.G. Mumford. 2000. Impacts of rotational grazing and riparian buffers on physiochemical and biological characteristics of southeastern Minnesota, USA, streams. Environmental Management. Vol. 26, No. 6. p. 629–641.

Stuth, J.W. 1991. Foraging behavior. In: R.K. Heitschmidt and J.W. Stuth (eds.) Grazing Management: An Ecological Perspective. Timber Press, Inc., Portland, OR.

Undersander, D., and B. Pillsbury. 1999. Grazing Streamside Pastures. University of Wisconsin Extension, Madison, WI. 16 p.

Wang, L., J. Lyons, P. Kanehl, and R. Gatti. 1997. Influences of watershed land use on habitat quality and biotic integrity in Wisconsin streams. Fisheries. Vol. 22, No. 6. p. 6–12.

Whitaker-Hoagland, J., M. Howery, A. Stacey, R. Smith, S. Tully, R. Masters, D. Leslie, Jr., and S. Stoodley. 1998. Managing riparian areas for wildlife. p. 55–61. In: M.S. Cooper (ed.) Riparian Area Management Handbook. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. Division of Agricultural Services and Natural Resources. Oklahoma State University and Oklahoma Conservation Commission. http://www.okstate.edu/OSU_Ag/e-952.pdf (PDF / 3.3 MB)

Winward, A.H. 1989. Appendix III. Calculating ecological satus and resource value ratings in riparian areas. In: W.P. Clary and B.F. Webster (eds.) Managing grazing of riparian areas in the Intermountain Region. Genenal Technical Report INT-263. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. p. 10–11.

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Tables 1-5

Sources: Angermeier, 1997; Elmore, 1992; Clary and Webster, 1989

Source: Sovell et al., 2000; Belsky et al., 1999; Leonard et al., 1997; Beegle et al., 1998

Sources: Undersander and Pillsbury, 1999; Fitch and Adams, 1998; Moseley et al., 1998; Elmore, 1992

Sources: Undersander and Pillsbury 1999; Fitch and Adams, 1998; Mosley et al., 1998; Leonard et al., 1997; Clark, 1998; Clary and Webster, 1989; Elmore, 1992

Sources: Undersander and Pillsbury 1999; Mosley et al., 1998; Leonard et al., 1997; Elmore, 1992

Managed Grazing in Riparian Areas
By Barbara C. Bellows
NCAT Agriculture Specialist
Tiffany Nitschke, HTML Production
IP 223
Slot 234

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