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Introduction
Home
- List of Acronyms
- List of Cooperating Sponsors
- Conversion Tables
Part One
Section I:
Commodities
- Commodity Availability
- Commodity Characteristics
- References
Section II:
Food Commodity
Fact Sheets
- Beans, Black
- Beans, Great Northern
- Beans, Kidney (Light Red, Dark Red, All types)
- Beans, Navy (Pea Beans)
- Beans, Pink
- Beans, Pinto
- Beans, Small Red
- Bulgur (BW)
- Bulgur, Soy Fortified (SFBW)
- Corn (bagged, bulk)
- Cornmeal
- Cornmeal, Soy-Fortified (CMSF)
- Corn Soy Blend (CSB)
- Corn Soy Milk (CSM)
- Corn Soy Milk, Instant (ICSM)
- Lentils
- Non Fat Dry Milk (NFDM)
- Peas
- Rice
- Rice (Parboiled)
- Sorghum
- Sorghum Grits, Soy-Fortified (SFSG)
- Fortified Refined Vegetable Oil
- Wheat
- Wheat Flour
- Wheat Soy Blend (WSB)
- Wheat Soy Milk (WSM)
Section III:
Storage/Shelflife
Specifications
- Storage Specifications
- Storage Inspection Checklist
- Shelf Life of Agricultural Commodities
- References
Section IV:
Controlling
Damage to Food
Commodities
- Cleaning and Inspecting
- Insect Control
- Rodent Control
- Reference Chart for Controlling Damage to Food Commodities
- References
Part Two
An Overview
Part Three
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Part II: Guidelines for
Selecting Food Aid Commodities: An Overview |
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Updated
January 2006
I.
INTRODUCTION
The
Commodities Reference Guide
(CRG) provides relevant information about food commodities that are
used in PL 480 Title II programs. Part One of the CRG contains Sections
I through IV, which contain descriptions of food commodities available
through PL480, Title II and their nutritional values and physical
properties. Part One also includes important general information
regarding the safe and effective storage and use of rations for use in
Title II programs. Part One may be found online at
http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/crg.
Part
Two provides programming
information and considerations for selecting food aid rations for
different program scenarios, including an overview and five program
modules. The overview consists of a description of USAID's Office of
Food for Peace (FFP) mandate,the types of programs it has approved and
outlines the general approach to selection of food commodities used in
the modules. The five program modules are the following: Module 1:
Maternal Child Health and Nutrition; Module 2: Food for Work; Module 3:
Food for Education; Module 4: Non-Emergency Humanitarian Assistance ,
and Module 5: Emergency. Part III consists of five annexes, which
include USAID and select food security definitions, a resource list of
indicators, and tables for use in calculating food aid ration packages.
The
information presented in
Part Two is not intended to substitute for the detailed guidance
provided annually by the Office of Food for Peace, the monetization
manual, or the USAID food aid and food security policy paper. For
guidance on the development of proposals see FFP's Title II
Guidelines for Development Programs or PVO
Guidelines for Title II Emergency Food Proposals and Reporting
(Draft). Additional information can be found at the Food Aid Management
website.
Examples provided in this section are meant to be illustrative and do
not attempt to cover all the ways in which rations may be used in
programs. Part Two provides links to relevant program and policy
documents as well as key web sites useful to cooperating sponsors (CSs)
implementing Title II food aid programs.
II.
OFFICE OF FOOD FOR PEACE'S MANDATE AND PROGRAMS
The
overarching goal of the PL
480, Title II resource is to improve the food security of vulnerable
populations around the world, either by the direct distribution of food
aid commodities or the use of local currencies generated by the sale of
these commodities. Food for Peace has the responsibility for
administering PL 480, Title II food aid programs. This responsibility
includes the review and approval of CS food aid program submissions,
monitoring of program implementation and reporting to the U.S. Congress
on progress made against established performance indicators. The CSs
are generally U.S. and local PVOs and international organizations, such
as the World Food Program (WFP).
Development
and emergency food
aid activities complement one another in achieving USAID's strategic
goal of long-term food security. In crisis prone regions, for example,
emergency food aid is used to rapidly respond to reduce human suffering
caused by natural and man-made disasters while simultaneously laying a
broader foundation for longer-term food security. Similarly, in
development activities food aid helps to mitigate emergencies. An
intermediate program supported by Food for Peace is the Short Term
Development Program or Transition Activity, which takes a program from
an emergency function to a more long-term development activity. A brief
explanation of development and emergency food aid programs are as
follows:
A.
DEVELOPMENT FOOD AID PROGRAMS
PL
480, Title II development
food aid constitutes the single largest source of USAID funding for
food security programs. As a development tool, food aid is a flexible
resource that can be used for direct feeding or monetized (sold) to
generate local currency for development activities. Food aid is usually
one component of a multifaceted development program and is used to help
achieve program objectives. The majority of Title II development
programs support the following major areas: (1) household nutrition and
health; (2) agricultural productivity and natural resources management;
(3) education; and (4) non-emergency humanitarian assistance for
vulnerable groups.
1.
HOUSEHOLD NUTRITION AND HEALTH
Household
nutrition depends not
only on sufficient quantity and quality in the household diet and food,
but also on health, child care, and the environment of care (e.g.,
water and sanitation). Activities to improve household nutrition can
aim to do so in various ways, for example an objective could be: to
reduce malnutrition, increase micronutrient consumption, promote
breast-feeding, improve ante-natal care, and ensure immunization
against preventable diseases. Title II food assistance directly
supports interventions that aim to improve nutritional status and
mother and child survival worldwide. Guidance for food aid components
for activities that support Maternal Child Health and Nutrition (MCHN)
can be found in Module 1 - MCHN Programs.
2.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Agricultural
productivity and
natural resources management efforts promote sustainable farming
practices, more productive and diversified farming techniques, and
improved post-harvest management and marketing. Under this sector,
Food-for-Work (FFW) and Cash-for-Work (CFW) programs may be used to
generate employment and construct infrastructure that has the potential
to improve agricultural productivity or income, and, in turn, household
nutrition. FFW is typically targeted seasonally as well as
geographically, focusing on areas and seasons that are most food
deficit. For example, food assisted community infrastructure projects
can provide short term employment to keep farmers near their fields and
families, forestalling migration in search of wage work elsewhere. Food
for Work programs are largely used to support development efforts, but
are also used to support reconstruction after emergencies . A part of
the Title II development portfolio includes support to microenterprise
credit activities often managed by women and women's groups. Module 2 - Food for Work Programs provides
principles and examples of how rations are selected for FFW activities.
3.
EDUCATION
USAID
uses food aid to help
improve educational opportunities by providing school snacks and meals
and take-home incentive rations. These Food-for-Education (FFE)
programs are used to encourage school enrollment and attendance, and to
improve students' attentiveness-especially for those who receive no
breakfast at home. Food insecure communities with poor school
attendance and low-test scores are usually selected as the primary
target for this type of assistance. Some programs specifically target
girls. Principles and examples of ration selection in FFE programs are
provided in Module 3 - Food for Education
Programs.
4.
NON-EMERGENCY HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE
NEHA
is designed to respond to
crises as well as to feed those who are not able to take advantage of
development activities in their communities. It exemplifies a
longer-term effort to provide safety nets to vulnerable populations
while providing a rapid response to rapid onset disaster. Beneficiaries
include orphans, the elderly, patients in hospitals and families
affected with HIV/AIDS. NEHA is generally provided through direct
feeding programs and, frequently, in conjunction with other assistance
activities. Principles and ration selection guidelines for NEHA
programs are described in Module 4 -
Non-Emergency Humanitarian Assistance Programs.
B.
EMERGENCY FOOD AID PROGRAMS
Typically,
emergency relief
activities are a combination of general and targeted food distribution.
General food distribution provides food rations for the whole
population most affected by a disaster, including refugees and
internally displaced populations (IDPs). Targeted food distribution
provides food only to a selected group who is the most vulnerable
within the larger emergency-affected population. Common groups for
targeting include: young children, especially those under five; orphans
or unaccompanied children; pregnant and lactating women; the elderly,
sick, or handicapped; and those identified as malnourished. Targeted
food distribution activities can be implemented in one or more of
several ways : supplementary feeding, therapeutic feeding, and
food-for-work.
Emergency
food aid programs may
use a combination of components and should evolve over time based on
information from continuous needs assessments. For example, an
emergency activity that begins as a general feeding program serving all
members of a population may evolve over time into a food-for-work or
food-for-agriculture activity targeted to only a portion of the
population. This evolution should correspond to recipients' growing
self-reliance and facilitate the transition from relief to sustainable
development.
While
planning emergency
activities, CSs and USAID endeavor to: (1) design relief interventions
that do not promote aid dependency; (2) target food aid so that it
reaches the most vulnerable populations in a timely manner; and (3)
incorporate activities that ease the transition from crisis to recovery
by linking relief to development. Examples of the use and selection of
food aid commodities for emergency situations may be found in Module 5 - Emergency Programs.
C.
MONETIZATION
Monetization
involves the sale
of donated commodities overseas followed by the use of the funds to
support some humanitarian or development activity. For a detailed
treatment of monetization activities, see the USAID
Monetization manual.
Back to Top of Page
III.
WHEN TO USE FOOD AID
There
are many factors that
determine if food aid is appropriate. While each CS has developed its
own set of programming documents, several USAID-supported technical
assistance projects have worked with CSs and USAID to harmonize their
practices. Any new PVO entering the field today has the benefit of the
collective experience of counterparts who have been implementing food
assistance programs for decades.
A
primary concern in all Title
II food aid programs is that the food aid not be a disincentive to
local food production or markets and that it not disrupt a country's
usual marketing requirements (UMR). To determine if food aid will be a
production disincentive for local farmers, PL 480 legislation requires
that a Bellmon analysis and determination be conducted. It is also
important to emphasize that food aid should not displace fundamentally
sound dietary practices of the recipient population. The basics on the
Bellmon analysis and determination are identified below.
BELLMON
ANALYSIS AND DETERMINATION
Disincentive
(Bellmon) analyses are
presented with development (non-emergency) project proposals to the
local USAID Mission Director. The analysis must show that:
- The
commodity is suitable for monetization or distribution in that country;
- There
are adequate storage facilities in the recipient country;
- Commodity
distribution or
monetization will not act as a substantial disincentive or interfere
with domestic production or commercial marketing of the commodity.
Guidance on
how to carry out the Bellmon analysis may be found online at http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/bellmon.htm.
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IV.
GUIDELINES FOR COMMODITY SELECTION
FFP
recognizes that there is no
such thing as "one size fits all" in program design and that no one
ration can be appropriate for every context. For this reason, Part Two
provides general guidelines, allowing for flexibility in different
situations. Specific documents on how to design, manage, monitor and/or
evaluate Title II programs can be found in the Resource List at the end
of this chapter. The guidelines below pertain to all five program
modules set forth in this CRG, which are as follows:
Module
1: Maternal Child Health and Nutrition Programs
Module 2: Food for Work Programs
Module 3: Food for Education Programs
Module 4: Non-Emergency Humanitarian
Assistance Programs
Module 5: Emergency Programs
With
the
exception of Module 5 -
Emergency Programs, the modules correspond to the beneficiary
categories of the annual estimate of requirements (AER) of food
commodities for development activity proposals (DAP) or previously
approved activities (PAA) used by CSs.
The
principles for selecting the
most appropriate and cost-effective commodity rations to accomplish
program objectives are organized in five general steps as follows:
1. Program Design
2. Suitability of Food Commodities
3. Ration Specifications
4. Ration Calculation
5. Ration Ranking and Selection
STEP 1: PROGRAM DESIGN
The
five key program design
considerations when using food aid are usually: (1) carrying out a
needs assessment; (2) determining the appropriate use of food aid; (3)
identifying characteristics of the target population; (4) developing
program activity objectives; and (5) determining the distribution mode
and frequency. For the most recent and detailed guidelines on proposal
development see FFP's Title II
Guidelines for Development Programs or, for emergency programs, PVO Guidelines
for Title II Emergency Food Proposals and Reporting (Draft). An
explanation of each design component follows:
1.
Carrying Out a Needs Assessment
As
the food aid component of a
program is designed, it is important to articulate why food aid is
needed and how it will be used to meet program goals. A needs
assessment or problem analysis will help to identify the nature,
extent, severity, and distribution of the food needs, and, in turn,
help determine which type of food aid intervention would be most
appropriate. Needs assessment should include analyses of food
availability and the main causes of malnutrition, and summarize
resources and capacities for action. Attention should be given to how
problems in the priority technical and geographic areas are already
being addressed.
Information
about the target
population's demographic profile, nutritional status, food consumption
patterns, breast-feeding practices, health statistics, socio-economic
statistics, and other basic information needs for program design can be
attained through primary data collection, using methods such as
qualitative research, food consumption surveys, and nutritional status
surveys. A useful publication on how to use these methods is
USAID/CDIE's Performance
Monitoring and Evaluation Tips.
Useful information can also be obtained from secondary sources, but
should be verified with local key informant interviews. Other
information about the collection of primary data and secondary data
resources may be found in the Resource List. Project design, data
collection, and analysis for all methods should be conducted under the
supervision of experienced professionals. Please refer to USAID/BHR's Title II
Guidelines for Development Programs 2000 for further guidance on
developing a needs assessment.
2.
Determining the Appropriate Use for Food Aid
Experience
shows that food aid
is most appropriate for achieving the following objectives: (a) meeting
the nutritional requirements of vulnerable target groups; (b)
rehabilitating malnourished individuals; (c) improving school
enrollment or attendance rates; (d) improving attendance at health
clinics or community centers; and (e) increasing agricultural income
and productivity. To these ends, food aid can be used as a nutritional
supplement, a wage for service rendered, an incentive to participation,
etc. Naturally, each of these different activities will involve
different targeting, rations, and graduation criteria.
3.
Identifying Characteristics of Target Population
Results
of the needs assessment
will drive targeting decisions. Food aid can be used differently to
address the needs of different target groups. Typical characteristics
by which members of a target population or group are identified include
age, nutritional status, gender, physiological status (e.g. pregnant,
lactating, chronically ill), geographical location, etc. For example,
the target beneficiaries might be children under 2 years of age,
malnourished children under 5 years of age, pregnant and lactating
women, people over 60 years of age, refugees, households of farmers
living in a drought affected area, residents of a TB sanatorium, etc.
4.
Developing Program Activity Objectives
Food
commodities and rations
should be selected in a manner consistent with program objectives and
the target group. For example, an intervention to improve nutritional
status of a population might target underweight children while, in
another case, food aid may be used as an incentive to motivate pregnant
women to attend prenatal clinics. Provision of food aid is one input in
such program designs.
No
matter how the food is used,
the desired result of the food assistance intervention should be stated
in terms of objectives. Then, food commodities and rations can be
selected to be consistent with these objectives. Each CS has its way of
expressing objectives. However, using USAID's Managing for Results
Terminology will facilitate reporting to USAID, (See Annex 1
in Part Three ). Objectives for USAID-funded programs should be result
statements, that is, they should clearly describe the desired end
results of the intervention) For example, a results-oriented objective
would be "Improved nutritional status of children under two years of
age".
USAID
recommends that there be
at least one indicator to track progress toward the achievement of each
objective/result. These indicators, referred to as performance
indicators, are variables with a particular characteristic or dimension
that can measure progress. Resources for sample food security and
nutrition indicators can be found in Annex II.
USAID/CDIE's Performance
Monitoring and Evaluation Tips
provides guidance on how to develop objectives and choose performance
indicators. Whenever possible, programs should include input as well as
impact indicators for measuring progress of food aid programs. Each
CS's resources to monitor and evaluate programs are different, and this
will be taken into consideration during USAID's food aid proposal
review and approval process.
CSs
should also provide baseline
data for selected indicators or a plan for collecting these data.
Baseline studies should be conducted as part of the needs assessment,
but may be accomplished immediately after activity approval. CSs should
also articulate an evaluation and monitoring plan that outlines how
indicators will be tracked.
5.
Determining the Distribution Mode and Frequency
The
mode and frequency of
distribution should depend on program objectives, costs to both the
distributors and beneficiaries, the local context, characteristics of
the target group, and the type and quantity of the rations. It is best
to choose the distribution method or methods that will cause minimal
disruption to the recipient's daily activities while best achieving
program objectives. The types of response mechanisms range from serving
meals of prepared foods (on-site feeding), to distribution of uncooked
food to carry home (take-home rations) to the sale of food to get cash
that is used to support program activities (monetization).
On-site
(wet) feeding
involves preparing and serving ready-to-eat (wet) rations at designated
sites outside the home. Most commonly on-site feeding is provided at
institutions where beneficiaries reside or at designated feeding
centers. The frequency of on-site feeding is one or more times daily,
every day or several days per week. The advantage of on-site feeding is
that food rations are eaten under supervision, which helps to ensure
that the food supplement is actually consumed by the target
beneficiaries. Disadvantages of on-site feeding are that it is costly
and labor intensive and the food may substitute rather than add to
recipients' diets when the family does not provide a meal at home
because the recipient has received meals at the feeding center
(substitution).
Take-home
dry rations are
uncooked food rations carried home where it is prepared and consumed.
The frequency of distribution will depend on program objectives and
practical logistics, both on the side of the distributors and the
recipients. The advantage of take-home rations is that they are easier
to administer, more cost-effective, less time consuming for recipients,
and can reach larger numbers of recipients. However, dry rations
intended for one family member may be shared with other family members
(leakage) or might be sold/exchanged in the market place, thereby
reducing nutritional impact on the intended beneficiary.
SUBSTITUTION: A World Food Program study found that
substitution
with on-site feeding programs ranged from 37-53% of energy compared to
a leakage of 46-82% if the ration was taken home.
Source: Supplementary
Feeding for Mothers and Children: Operational Guidelines, FAO, 1998,
p.44
LEAKAGES:
Self-targeting May Not
Always Work: A study by SUSTAIN on the micronutrient content of food
aid commodities found that corn soy blend food rations in Haiti, which
were assumed to be self-targeted to weaning age children, was in fact
being used to make soup dumplings for the entire family.
Source: Micronutrient
Assessment Project Final Report, SUSTAIN, 1999
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Food-for-Work
(FFW)
activities generally involve distribution of take-home rations as
payment for work done or services provided, or as an incentive for
participation in training activities. In these activities, food takes
on importance to families both for it income transfer (monetary) value
as well as its nutritional value. The frequency of distribution will
depend on local circumstances and the nature and size of work
accomplished. Recipients might receive food only once, when the work is
completed. In cases where the project is large and continues for an
extended time period, there might be distribution at regular intervals
as the work progresses, e.g., weekly or monthly. The food distributed
is primarily intended as compensation for work performed, although
nutritional support may be a secondary objective. In situations where
food insecurity and unemployment is a significant problem, and
improvements in public infrastructure, remuneration of participant's
time for training, and/or compensation for decreases in food production
while improved technologies are being implemented may be necessary, FFW
may be the most appropriate intervention. In these situations, FFW
would provide targeted families with employment and food while avoiding
any dependency that might be associated with direct free food
distribution activities.
Monetization
involves the
sale of donated commodities in the target country to get cash to
support various humanitarian and development activities. Monetization
allows CSs to design and implement more flexible and responsive food
security programs. Detailed guidance on the monetization of Title II
commodities is available online at http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/monetiz.htm.
All
food aid activities should
be designed to increase the recipient's self-reliance and self-esteem.
This may be accomplished by encouraging the affected population to
provide their comments on the mix and size of the ration, food payment
ratios, the distribution system (daily, weekly, monthly, etc.), and the
performance monitoring system. Use of this type of programming approach
helps preserve the dignity of the recipients and contributes to program
effectiveness.
Back to Steps for Selecting Commodity Rations
STEP 2: SUITABILITY OF FOOD COMMODITIES
The
suitability of a ration
should be assessed with regard to the needs and preferences of the
targeted individuals, households, and community. A ration is suitable
if it can be utilized effectively to achieve intended objectives.
Aspects of suitability of food rations to consider, include
beneficiaries' nutritional needs and physiological capacities, food
consumption preferences and patterns, locally available foods,
community and household food processing and storage capacities and
local market prices. Below are key factors that should be taken into
consideration when developing a list of appropriate commodities for
ration packages:
Cultural
suitability
includes factors such as traditional diet patterns, taste preferences,
and foods avoided for cultural or religious reasons that will affect
food use and consumption. For example, Brazilians prefer black beans
while Nicaraguans prefer small red beans. Another important
consideration is whether the commodities are culturally suitable for
the particular role they are to play in the project. For example, in a
take-home MCHN program with a nutritional objective, blended foods,
perceived as "baby foods", may be less acceptable to other family
members and, thus, more likely to be consumed by the young child.
Nutritional
content is
the nutritive content of the food commodity. Major nutrient
considerations should include energy (calories), protein, fat, and
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Characteristics of the target
population, especially in terms of their age, body size, activity
levels, health, nutritional status, reproductive status, and
environmental factors, such as ambient temperature, are the primary
determinants of nutritional needs.
Physiological
appropriateness
relates to physical characteristics of the food commodities, such as
the bulk, ease of chewing, viscosity, or digestibility, that affect
their consumption and use in the body. Choices should consider the
capabilities and limits of the target group. For example, children less
than 24 months have smaller stomach size and are less able to consume
enough high bulk foods, such as grains, to meet their caloric needs.
Physical characteristics of a food ration are also important for
children or adults who are severely malnourished, the sick and the
elderly. People with HIV/AIDS have increased energy requirements and
may have difficulty eating due to symptoms.
Availability of processing and/or storage facilities at both the
community and household or institutional levels, fuel demands and
availability, time and labor for preparation and cooking time, and
availability/absence of cooking equipment need to be considered.
Lactose
intolerance is the
presence of gastrointestinal symptoms resulting from the incomplete
digestion of lactose, the primary sugar in milk. The condition is
caused by insufficient activity of the enzyme, lactase, and is
influenced by the amount of lactose consumed and the combination of
foods in the diet. Low enzyme activity is often a temporary condition,
resulting from damage to the lining of the small intestine by
infectious diseases such as diarrhea. More permanent conditions of
lactose intolerance are also possible, either as a result of a
congenital condition or due to decreased enzyme activity over time.
Symptoms of lactose intolerance include abdominal cramping, nausea,
flatulence, and diarrhea. Lactose intolerance levels are very high in
Africa, Asia and indigenous populations of the Americas. Intolerance is
high where the traditional food culture has included very little
consumption of milk or milk products in which the lactose content is
high, or where milk products are traditionally fermented. Fermentation
causes the lactose to convert into lactic acid, such as yogurt and some
cheeses. Lactase activity declines after weaning in most racial/ethnic
groups by 3 to 5 years of age. When the child is consuming a variety of
foods, lactase levels are low.
The
minimum amount of lactose
intake to cause gastrointestinal symptoms varies among individuals and
according to other dietary factors, including the type of food
containing lactose. Lactose intolerant individuals are, for example,
more sensitive to lactose consumed as fluid milk than to lactose
consumed as part of a meal. While not common, lactose intolerant adults
have been reported to experience gastrointestinal symptoms after
consumption of as little as 12 grams lactose (the equivalent of one cup
of milk). Among lactose intolerant individuals, the frequency and
severity of gastrointestinal symptoms increase with lactose intake in
excess of 12 grams, however, the same amount of lactose is better
tolerated when consumed as part of a meal.
In
general, lactose intolerance
is unlikely to result from consumption of the fortified cereal milk
blend commodities available through the Title II program. The uncooked
cereal milk blends contain about 8 grams of lactose per 100 grams of
the cereal blend. A meal based on 150 grams of dry blended cereal would
therefore provide 12 grams of lactose, an intake level that should be
tolerated by most individuals. Moreover, the lactose contained in the
cereal milk blends would be consumed as part of a meal, and therefore
would be more easily digested.
Should
diarrhea occur for any
reason, the standard case management procedures should be followed: The
individual should receive continued feeding and should be treated with
Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS)/Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT). If the
diarrhea persists, the individual should be referred to a health
center. In addition, dietary strategies, including decreased lactose
intake and modified combination of other foods, may be necessary. For
further guidance on the case management of diarrheal disease, refer to
the USAID/DCHA/PVC PVO Child Survival Grants Program Technical
Reference Materials (2000) at www.childsurvival.com/documents/usaid.cfm,
UNICEF’s Facts for Life (2002) guide, and The Sphere Project at www.sphereproject.org.
Relationship
to locally produced food
should be examined because it may complement the imported Title II food
aid. The timing of harvests, seasonal shortages of staple foods and
affordability of local foods should also be considered. Ideally, the
most cost-effective food aid commodities to achieve the desired result
should be selected.
Cost:
The value of a
commodity on the local market will affect the demand for the food by
the recipients. Foods with high prices on the local markets may be good
for income transfer, but may be more likely to be sold rather than
eaten by recipients.
Back to Steps for Selecting Commodity Rations
STEP 3: RATION SPECIFICATIONS
Program
objectives and
characteristics of the target groups(s) should drive the decisions
about ration specifications. Below is guidance for developing ration
specifications for nutritional as well as income transfer
considerations:
1.
Determining Nutritional Values
Filling
the nutrient gap in a
beneficiary's diet is one objective of food aid programs. For programs
with this type of objective, the definition of that nutrient gap is the
basis for determining how much and what kind of food is to be provided.
Additional food may be needed to recuperate the malnourished, overcome
substitution effects (when home diets are reduced because of on-site
feeding), or account for take-home rations shared within the household
(leakage). Taking all these factors into account, the nutritional value
of the ration package should be established in terms of the minimum
energy, fat, protein, and micronutrient content needed per person per
day to meet project requirements. A ration package will generally
consist of two to three commodities.
The
use of specific donated food
aid should be consistent with appropriate feeding guidelines including
exclusive breast feeding for infants under 6 months of age and
continued, frequent on-demand breast feeding to 24 months and beyond.
For children 6 to 24 months, it is important to gradually increase food
thickness and add variety as the child ages. For more information on
young child and adolescent feeding, refer to the LINKAGES Project
series titled Facts
for Feeding.
HIV-infected
individuals have increased energy requirements. HIV-infected
individuals also may experience appetite loss (anorexia), may have
difficulty eating due to symptoms, and may have reduced access to food
due to the impact of HIV/AIDS on household food security.
HIV/AIDS and opportunistic infection symptoms such as diarrhea,
vomiting, and fever can affect how the body uses food that is consumed
and may result in reduced absorption of nutrients. In designing
rations for people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), consider that energy
needs increase by 10% for asymptomatic HIV-infected adults and
children, by 20-30% for symptomatic HIV-infected adults, and by 50-100%
for symptomatic HIV-infected children who are experiencing weight
loss. There is no evidence that HIV-infected individuals have
increased protein needs over and above the protein required for a
balanced diet that meets energy needs (12-15% of total energy
intake). Refer to the FANTA publication, HIV/AIDS:
A Guide for Nutritional Care and Support (2004), for guidance on
nutrient requirements and ration considerations for HIV-infected
beneficiaries.
In
some countries, local
organizations and/or national health authorities may have already
established the nutritional allowance levels for supplementary feeding,
and CSs will be required to conform.
Micronutrients:
There are
various ways of maintaining good micronutrient status by the use of
select Title II commodities. These include: increasing the quantity of
food in the general ration and/or improving the quality of foods
provided in the ration. To increase the nutritional quality of the
ration, a fortified, blended food or a non-blended milled cereal could
be included in the ration. Fortified
blended foods
are composed of a granulated mixture of partially precooked cereal
flour, soy flour, vegetable oil, vitamins and minerals. Fortified
blended foods have the benefit of a wide range of micronutrient
fortification. Non-blended milled
cereals
are raw commodities that have been ground so that the commodity is
easier to prepare for cooking. In contrast to the fortified blended
commodities, fewer vitamins and minerals, and no other food components
are added to the non-blended milled commodities.
Fortified
blended commodities include Corn Soy Blend, Wheat Soy Blend,
Corn Soy Milk, Wheat Soy Milk, and Instant Corn Soy Milk. These
fortified blended commodities provide a good source of additional
energy, protein, and micronutrients. Each of these blended commodities
is fortified with protein, riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, calcium, iron,
vitamin A, vitamin B12, folic acid, zinc, pantothenic acid, iodine,
magnesium, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, pyridoxine HCL, and salt.
Details on the level of fortification of blended commodity can be found
in Table 1.3, in Section I of Part One of the CRG.
Non-blended,
milled commodities include two broad categories: 1) Basic
milled commodities with a limited selection of micronutrients added and
2) Milled commodities with a limited selection of micronutrients and 15
percent soy added (for increased protein content and quality). The
category of basic milled commodities includes Bulgur Wheat, Cornmeal,
Sorghum Grits, Wheat Flour, and Rice. The category of milled
commodities with soy added includes Soy-Fortified Bulgur Wheat,
Soy-Fortified Cornmeal, and Soy-Fortified Sorghum Grits. While not as
effective to address poor nutrition as fortified blended commodities,
inclusion of a non-blended milled commodity such as bulgur wheat or
Soy-Fortified Bulgur Wheat can still improve the nutritional content of
a ration. Compared with the fortified blended foods, non-blended milled
commodities do not offer the same level of protection from most
micronutrient deficiencies. Milled commodities are fortified with
calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin. Wheat Flour
and Milled Rice are special cases. Wheat flour is fortified with folic
acid, in addition to calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, and
niacin. Milled Rice is not fortified with additional micronutrients.
The
blended and non-blended fortified commodities, while providing
protein, energy, and micronutrients, do not provide adequate lipids
(fat content) when given alone. Lipids are energy dense, provide
essential fatty acids, and are important in the diet for transport of
fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin A, D, E, and K. To increase the
lipid content of the ration, refined vegetable oil can be added.
Refined vegetable oil is not only a good source of lipids and energy,
but is fortified with vitamin A at a level of 60-75 International Units
per gram. Two tablespoons (about 25g) of fortified vegetable oil
potentially satisfies 50 percent of an adult’s daily requirement for
vitamin A. However, if the vegetable oil is used in food requiring high
temperature cooking, the vitamin A content will be reduced.
Detailed
information on the nutritional content of each commodity is
listed in the respective Commodity Fact Sheet, in Section II of Part
One of the CRG. The nutritive data are estimates. Due to vitamin loss
during storage, transport, and cooking, the amount of some vitamins
available to the body for utilization will be less. For example, up to
40 percent of vitamin A can be lost from fortified commodities exposed
to heat, light, and air. Minerals are not subject to the same degree of
deterioration by environmental factors. The bioavailability of some
minerals in cereal can be greatly reduced by absorption inhibitors
present in the cereal commodities and other foods and liquids commonly
consumed. The bioavailability of iron in a cereal blend, for example,
is affected by both phytate in the cereal and the concurrent
consumption of tea and coffee which are rich in tannins. Due to the
inhibiting and enhancing effects of different food components on
micronutrient utilization, any ration composition should be carried out
by someone familiar with dietary approaches to address micronutrient
malnutrition. Given the difficulty of planning diets on specific
micronutrients, it is recommended that ration calculations be based on
energy and protein needs instead of specific micronutrients.
For
more information on the use of fortified blended foods, including
recipes, refer to WFP's Fortified Blended Foods: Facts and
Practical
Uses (2000). For further guidance on ration composition and the
prevention of micronutrient deficiencies, refer to the FANTA ration
guide, Improving the Use of Food Rations in Title II Maternal/Child
Health and Nutrition Programs at www.fantaproject.org,
the MOST website at www.mostproject.org,
the SPHERE Project at www.sphereproject.org,
and MSF’s Nutrition Guidelines (2001).
2.
Income Transfer Value
If a
program uses food mainly
for its income transfer (monetary) value, the ration package's income
transfer value is as important or more important than its nutritional
content. Income transfer is the food's monetary value to the household.
The income value of a ration is the market price for an equivalent
quantity of the locally-available commodity that is most similar to the
Title II commodity plus the recipients' participation costs, such as
lost wages and transportation. To determine the income transfer value
needed for incentive programs, the following factors should be
considered:
- What
is the cost to the
target population for participation in the program, i.e.,
transportation, daily lost wages, daily wage rate?
- What
is the value of other incentives that are offered, i.e., training,
health services?
- What
is the value of the commodities to the participants?
Higher
priced foods in the diet
should also be examined, such as imported foods, high cost locally
produced items, seasonally unavailable staples and important foods that
cannot be obtained in adequate quantities because of income
constraints. Commodities that replace highly valued and expensive food
items, such as oil, may have a substantial income mediating effect,
freeing up income typically used for purchasing these expensive items.
Back to Steps for Selecting Commodity Rations
STEP 4: RATION CALCULATION
After
calculating the
nutritional value of a proposed ration package, the following should be
determined: (1) the food commodities to be provided; (2) the total
tonnage of commodities needed; and (3) the cost-effectiveness of the
ration package selected. It is generally prudent to consider
alternative rations in the initial planning stages in the event the
desired commodities are not available or are delayed in transport, or
when packaging requirements significantly alters the relative
cost-effectiveness of ration package.
Calculating
the ration package
For
logistical and management reasons, programmers should try to limit
ration packages to no more than three commodities per ration
unless strong reasons exit. Because vegetable oil is an excellent
source of energy, it should almost always be included in a ration.
Other value-added commodity, such as all-purpose wheat flour, may be
selected since local bakeries often prefer the higher quality imported
American flour. Bulk commodities are usually preferred for
monetization, such as non-refined, bulk vegetable oil and wheat grain.
Suggestions for how to select appropriate rations and calculate ration
packages are provided in each module.
1.
Calculating the Total Amount of Food Commodities Needed
Once
the food commodities are
chosen for the ration package the total amount of each commodity needed
for the project can be calculated (usually in metric tons). To
calculate the number of metric tons (MT) needed for each commodity use
the following steps:
- Multiply
the number of grams of the commodity per person per day times the total
number of persons to receive the commodity.
- Multiply
the total
number of grams of the commodity needed to feed the target group times
the number of days the program will provide the ration package.
- Determine
the
number of metric tons of commodity needed by dividing the total number
of grams per program period by 1,000,000 (number of grams in a metric
ton).
- Complete
the same calculation for each commodity (vegetable oil, cereal, cereal
blend, or legume) that comprises the ration.
An
example is provided in each program module.
3.
Determining cost-effectiveness of the ration package
Cost
is often not the primary
factor for selecting the commodities. Food preferences, availability,
potential disincentive effects, and urgent emergency requirements often
outweigh cost considerations. However, the cost-effectiveness of the
commodity, i.e., the ratio of its cost to its nutritive or income
value, may help in determining whether it is appropriate for the food
aid component of a development or emergency program. CSs should try to
conduct the appropriate cost-effectiveness analysis.
Calculating
the
cost-effectiveness of desired commodities in terms of cost per unit of
nutritional value (one kilocalorie or one gram of protein) or income
transfer value (in USD to the recipient) provides information about
which commodities provide the most nutritional benefits or highest
income at the lowest cost to the project. It is important to note that
cost per calorie of fortified foods will always be higher than bulk
grains, but in that fortified food are rich in micronutrients, they add
key nutritional value to many program situations.
Cost
Effectiveness per Nutritional Value:To
determine the cost effectiveness value of a commodity per its nutritive
value, calculate the cost per one kilocalorie and one gram of protein.
Two pieces of information are needed for the calculation: 1) A price
estimate for the commodity of interest (sources for obtaining commodity
prices are listed in Annex V); and 2) The nutritional value of the
commodity (refer to the Commodity Fact Sheets in Part I, Section II of
the CRG). Once these pieces of information are obtained, the
cost-effectiveness of a ration package per its nutritional value can be
calculated in the following way.
a)
Per Energy value:
- To
calculate the cost of the
commodity per 100 grams, divide the cost per metric ton by 10,000 (a MT
is equal to 10,000 units of 100 grams).
- Divide
the cost per 100
grams of commodity by the number of kilocalories per 100 grams of
commodity. This will give the dollar cost per one kilocalorie of
commodity.
b)
Per protein value:
- To
calculate the cost of a
commodity per 100 grams, divide the cost per metric ton by 10,000 (a MT
is equal to 10,000 units of 100 grams).
<>Divide
the cost per 100 grams of commodity by the number of grams of protein
per 100 grams of commodity. This will give the
dollar cost per one gram of protein provided by the commodity.
Box
1 below gives an example of
how to calculate the cost effectiveness of both the caloric and protein
nutritive values for CSB.
BOX
1: EXAMPLE OF COST PER NUTRITIVE VALUE OF CORN-SOY BLEND (CSB)
Per caloric content of CSB:
$ (per MT) CSB5
/ 10,000 = $ (per 100 g) CSB
$(per 100 g) CSB / 375.7 kcal (per 100 g) CSB = $ (per 1
kcal) CSB
Per protein content of CSB:
$ (per MT) CSB / 10,000 = $ (per 100 g) CSB
$ (per 100 g) CSB / 17.2 g protein (per 100 g) CSB = $ (per 1
g protein) CSB
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This
type of analysis would be
used to compare different commodities that are suitable for meeting the
same nutritional objectives in order to determine which ration package
is most cost-effective. Decisions about cost-effectiveness of a
commodity should be made in tandem with the objectives of the program.
If the objective of the program is to improve nutritional status of a
target group, a commodity with a high protein and micronutrient value
might be considered. However, if the main objective is to provide
energy to maintain the nutritional status of the target group, a
commodity with a less expensive source of energy may be the most
cost-effective. In all instances, it is desirable to consider not only
how food aid commodities compare with one another, but also how their
nutrition and income values compare with food that is locally
available. This type of analysis is described below.
Cost
Effectiveness per Income Value: A
different type of analysis provides an indication of the efficiency of
providing food aid, especially when CSs use food aid commodities to
provide a given incentive or wage. The cost effectiveness per income
value is determined by the value to the recipient compared to the cost
of the program. For example, if a recipient receives a commodity that
replaces one that would cost them $0.30 at the local market price, this
is considered a $0.30 value to the family. If providing the same
commodity only costs the program $0.23, the program would be considered
cost effective. The more the local market value exceeds the cost to the
program, the more cost effective the program. See Box 2 for an
illustrative example of how to calculate the cost-effectiveness of
income value for flour.
BOX 2: EXAMPLE OF A COST EFFECTIVENESS
CALCULATION
1) First,
calculate the cost of one kg of flour to the household if purchased in
the local market:
1 kg
flour = $ cost to household for local market purchase.
2)
Calculate the total program costs to
provide one metric ton of flour. This includes the cost of the
commodity plus transportation costs.
$ (per
MT) flour6 + $ transportation costs* = $ total program
cost (per MT) flour
3)
Then, divide the total program costs to provide one metric ton of flour
by 1,000 (there are 1,000 kilograms in a MT).
$
total program cost (per MT) flour / 1,000 = $ program costs (1 kg) flour
This
calculation allows for a
comparison of the cost of the program to the local cost of the
commodity. The value calculated in step 3 represents the program cost
for 1 kg of the commodity, whereas the value in step 1 represents the
actual value provided to the household. The ratio of local cost to
program cost is, thus, Step 1 / Step 3, or:
$ cost
to household for local market purchase (1 kg) flour / $ program cost (1
kg) flour
The
larger the ratio, the more cost effective the program.
*Transportation costs
vary from situation to situation; a rule of thumb for development
programs is to add 30-50% of the commodity for transportation costs.
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As
indicated earlier,
alternative rations should be developed during the initial planning
stages so that if a specific commodity is not available or will be
delayed in transport, the alternative commodity can be used. Also,
changes in commodity availability, prices, and packaging can alter the
relative cost effectiveness of ration packages. The large variety of
Title II commodities available makes it possible to design a range of
ration packages. The following should be taken into consideration when
designing an alternative ration package:
<> - Select
culturally acceptable and physiologically suitable foods for food aid
recipients.
- Based
on the cost
per unit of nutritional and/or income transfer value, design rations
that meet specifications using no more than three commodities per
ration package. Also, use commodities that provide the maximum gain to
recipients at lowest cost to the project.
- Compare
the
nutritional and/or income transfer values of currently used rations
with specifications and key suitability criteria.
Alter
the ration packages according to how they will meet the
above objectives.
STEP 5: RANKING AND SELECTION
Naturally,
cost plays a key role
in the size and effectiveness of programs and cost calculations involve
decisions about what cost elements to consider. At a minimum, commodity
price estimates (sources for obtaining commodity prices are listed in
Annex V) and current in-country transportation and storage costs can be
used. Other factors to consider are:
<> - Market
disruptions:
The Bellmon determination must ensure that the local market is not
disrupted. Market considerations in local areas where programs are
targeted might also come into play. For example, it may be less
disruptive to provide certain foods in the lean season rather than the
harvest season. Guidance on conducting the Bellmon analysis may be
found online at www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/bellmon.htm.
- Logistics
and management:
Some commodities may impose undue management or cost burdens due to
unusual local conditions (e.g. transportation, storage, handling,
pilferage) or unsuitable packaging, for the limited shelf life of the
commodity.
The
usual sources of data for
considering potential market disruptions and logistical problems
include past evaluations of similar programs, interviews with host
governments and local and international PVO, as well as discussions
with international organizations (such as the World Bank and the United
Nations), USAID, USDA Agricultural Attaches and Economic/Commercial
Officers at U.S. Embassies.
Proposed
and alternative, ration
packages can now be ranked by nutritional value, income transfer value,
total cost, and other factors, such as potential market disruptions and
logistical problems. They might also be ranked by cost. Decisions to
change ration packages can be made less arbitrarily when alternative
rations and their main attributes have been examined in advance.
VI.
RESOURCE LIST
1.
Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) Project, Academy for
Educational Development, 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C.,
20009-5721. Tel: 202-884-8000; Fax 202-884-8432. E-mail: fanta@aed.org; Web site: www.fantaproject.org.
FANTA has the following publications:
- Agricultural
Productivity Indicators Measurement Guide. Patrick Diskin
- Anthropometry Indicators
Measurement Guide. Bruce Cogill
- Food
For Education Indicator Guide. Joy Miller del Rosso and Gilles
Bergeron
- Food
Security Indicators and Framework for Use in the Monitoring and
Evaluation of Food Aid Programs. Frank Riely, Nancy Mock, Bruce
Cogill, Laura Bailey, and Eric Kenefick
- General
Indicators of Appropriate Feeding of Children 6 through 23 months from
the KPC 2000+. Mary Arimond and Marie T. Ruel
- Household
Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food
Access: Indicator Guide. Anne Swindale and Paula Bilinsky.
- Improving
the Use of Food Rations In Title II Maternal/Child Health and Nutrition
Programs. Serena Rajabiun, Beatrice Rogers, Margarita Safdie, Anne
Swindale
- Measuring
Household Food Consumption: A Technical Guide. Anne Swindale and
Punam Ohri-Vachaspati
- HIV/AIDS:
A Guide for Nutritional Care and Support 2004. FANTA
- Months
of Inadequate Household Food Provisioning (MIHFP) for Measurement of
Household Food Access: Indicator Guide. Paula Bilinsky and Anne
Swindal
- Potential
Uses of Food Aid to Support HIV/AIDS Mitigation Activities in
Sub-Saharan Africa. FANTA
- Recommendations
for the Nutrient Requirements for People living with HIV/AIDS. FANTA.
- Sampling
guide. Robert Magnani
- Water
and Sanitation Indicators Measurement Guide. Patricia Billig, Diane
Benahmane and Anne Swindale
2.
Food
Aid Management (FAM). 1625 K Street, NW, 5th Floor Washington, DC
20006. Tel: (202) 223-4860,
Fax: (202) 223-4862; FAM provides USAID documents (FY 1990-ongoing).
3.
Linkages Project. Recommended Feeding and Dietary Practices to
Improve Infant and Maternal Nutrition also see Facts for Feeding
(English, Spanish, French). Academy for Educational Development, 1825
Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C., 20009-5721. Tel:
202-884-8000; Fax: 202-884-8977; E-mail: linkages@aed.org Web site: www.linkagesproject.org
4.
National Research Council. Recommended Dietary Allowances.
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1989.
5.
SARA Project. Nutrition
and HIV/AIDS: Evidence, Gaps and Priority Actions. Ellen
Piwoz. SARA Project, Academy for Educational Development.
6.
USAID/DCHA. U.S.
International Food Assistance Report 2001. January
2002.
7. USAID/DCHA. Commodities
Reference Guide (CRG): Section 1-4. April 1999.
8. USAID/DCHA/FFP. Monetization Field Manual P.L. 480 Title
II Programs. October 1998.
9. USAID/DCHA/FFP. Title
II Guidelines for Development Programs.
10. USAID/DCHA/FFP. PVO
Guidelines for Title II Emergency Food Proposals and Reporting (Draft).
1998
11. USAID/CDIE. Performance Monitoring and
Evaluation Tips. 1996.
12. WHO. The Management of Nutrition in Major
Emergencies. Geneva, 2000.
13. WHO. Nutrient
Requirements for People Living with HIV/AIDS: Report of a technical
consultation. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 13-15 May 2003.
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