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Introduction
Home
- List of Acronyms
- List of Cooperating Sponsors
- Conversion Tables
Part One
Section I:
Commodities
- Commodity Availability
- Commodity Characteristics
- References
Section II:
Food Commodity
Fact Sheets
- Beans, Black
- Beans, Great Northern
- Beans, Kidney (Light Red, Dark Red, All types)
- Beans, Navy (Pea Beans)
- Beans, Pink
- Beans, Pinto
- Beans, Small Red
- Bulgur (BW)
- Bulgur, Soy Fortified (SFBW)
- Corn (bagged, bulk)
- Cornmeal
- Cornmeal, Soy-Fortified (CMSF)
- Corn Soy Blend (CSB)
- Corn Soy Milk (CSM)
- Corn Soy Milk, Instant (ICSM)
- Lentils
- Non Fat Dry Milk (NFDM)
- Peas
- Rice
- Rice (Parboiled)
- Sorghum
- Sorghum Grits, Soy-Fortified (SFSG)
- Fortified Refined Vegetable Oil
- Wheat
- Wheat Flour
- Wheat Soy Blend (WSB)
- Wheat Soy Milk (WSM)
Section III:
Storage/Shelflife
Specifications
- Storage Specifications
- Storage Inspection Checklist
- Shelf Life of Agricultural Commodities
- References
Section IV:
Controlling
Damage to Food
Commodities
- Cleaning and Inspecting
- Insect Control
- Rodent Control
- Reference Chart for Controlling Damage to Food Commodities
- References
Part Two
An Overview
Part Three
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Part II: Module 4: Non-Emergency
Humanitarian Assistance |
|
Updated
January 2006
I.
INTRODUCTION
The
overarching goal of USAID's PL480, Title II development program is to
achieve sustainable food security in chronically food deficit
countries. The Office of Food for
Peace's (FFP) Strategic Objective (SO) #2 supports this goal and is
stated
as "Increased effectiveness of FFP's partners in carrying out Title II
development
activities with measurable results related to food security with a
primary
focus on household nutrition and agricultural productivity."
FFP
Title II food resources may also be used for "safety nets" for
vulnerable groups who are not able to take full advantage of food
security activities available in their communities. Non-Emergency
Humanitarian Assistance (NEHA) can improve the nutrition and food
security of these vulnerable populations. For example, NEHA can provide
critical food aid to orphans, the elderly, hospital patients, and
families stricken with HIV/AIDS.
II.
GUIDELINES FOR COMMODITY SELECTION FOR NEHA PROGRAMMING
The
following provides general guidelines for selecting the most
appropriate, cost-effective Title II commodity rations to accomplish
program objectives. The guidelines are organized into five steps. This
module summarizes the five steps and includes key points of
consideration for NEHA programming under each step. This guidance is
intended to be flexible enough to allow the selection of the most
appropriate food aid ration for each specific situation. Box 1 below
lists the five steps for commodity selection:
STEP
1: PROGRAM DESIGN
The
five key program design components are: (1) carrying out a needs
assessment; (2) determining the appropriate use of food aid; (3)
identifying characteristics of the target population; (4) developing
program activity objectives; and (5) determining the distribution mode
and frequency. An explanation of each design component follows:
1.
Carrying Out a
Needs Assessment
A
needs assessment should
be carried out in a timely and participatory manner to determine the
nature,
extent and severity of the food need, to describe food accessibility
and
availability and to identify factors that may impede effective
utilization of food aid. The findings from this assessment should help
define the criteria for selecting the beneficiaries, institutions
and/or geographic areas to be targeted. The assessment should also
explore the possibility of using locally produced foods to supplement
the food aid package. When appropriate to the program objectives, the
degree of malnutrition in the target population should also be
determined. Finally, the assessment report should briefly describe the
assessment methodology used.
Primary
Data Collection: Primary data may be collected using survey methods
that gather information about such things as food consumption,
nutritional status, food availability and networks of community
support. Qualitative data gathering techniques are also helpful,
including in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, participatory
rural appraisal, and observation. Methods for collecting primary data
are described in USAID/CDIE's Performance Monitoring and
Evaluation Tips. Other instructional resources can be found in
the Resource List at the end of this module.
Secondary
Data Collection: Secondary data may already be available from
various sources including reports from government agencies, USAID, UN
agencies (especially, UNICEF, UNAIDS), international or local PVOs and
other donors. These data should be verified with local key informants.
More guidance on how to conduct needs
assessments may be found on line at http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/fy04_dpp.html.
2.
Determining the Appropriate Use for Food Aid
NEHA
food aid will typically
have a safety net or nutritional objective, such as the maintenance of
nutritional
status, rehabilitation of malnourished individuals or the prevention of
malnutrition. It might also be used as an incentive to motivate members
of the target
group to participate in health or education services. Naturally,
different
program activities will involve different targeting, rations, and
graduation
criteria.
3.
Identifying Characteristics
of the Target Population
The
general purpose of NEHA programs is to provide a safety net for those
who cannot adequately provide for themselves because of a long term or
permanent disability of some kind. Many are housed in institutions, but
others live in households disseminated through the community. Some
groups that might be served by NEHA
programs are:
- Persons
residing indefinitely in institutions, such as orphans, the terminally
ill, those who are severely disabled mentally or physically, or elderly
pensioners who must be institutionalized. Food aid may provide a
substantial portion of these individuals' nutritional needs.
- Persons
temporarily housed in institutions, including children and adults who
are hospitalized or participate in residential rehabilitative services
or skills training. The ration package can alleviate the burden on the
individuals' households' time and income.
- Persons
temporarily in need of assistance while living in the community,
including marginalized individuals or households that are unable to
adequately care for themselves, for instance, because of mental or
physical disability, illness, age, destitution, or low social status,
and who are not under the care of an institution. Included in this
category are chronically ill out-patients (e.g. TB cases, lepers), and
street children, including orphans, those abandoned by their families
and those inadvertently separated from their families (e.g., by
disaster). It can also include children living with members of their
extended family,
e.g., those from HIV/AIDS affected households. Many of these recipients
receive
food aid as nutritional support for a relatively short period of time
while
they achieve or regain self-sufficiency. For others it serves as an
incentive
to participate or attend another program (e.g., health education).
- Severely
affected communities: In some cases, where the targeted group
represents a large part of the population, an entire community might be
targeted (e.g., HIV-affected communities)
4.
Developing NEHA Program Activity Objectives
The
primary objective of the NEHA program is to maintain or improve the
nutritional status of the target population and to create a foundation
for more sustainable food security programs funded from non-NEHA
resources. Although each cooperating sponsor (CS) will approach the
achievement of its activity objectives in different ways, it is urged
that CSs review USAID's Managing for Results Terminology (see Annex I
of Part Three). The latter review will help CSs develop standardized
performance reporting on progress made toward achieving established
objectives. Activity objectives should be result statements, that is,
they should clearly describe the desired end result of the
intervention. For example, results-oriented objective would be "The
nutritional status of the target group maintained".
USAID
recommends having at least one performance indicator to track progress
toward each objective/result. Performance indicators are variables that
measure a particular dimension that can show progress toward the stated
result. For example, an indicator for the result statement mentioned
above (Maintenance of nutritional status of the target group) could be
"average weight-for-age z-score within the target group". Resources for
sample food security and nutrition indicators can be found in Annex II.
USAID/CDIE's publication, Performance
Monitoring and Evaluation Tips, which provides guidance on how
to develop result statements and performance indicators. When possible,
impact and output indicators should also be developed and monitored.
The benefits of having both types of indicators are self-evident. For
example, it is not only important to know the percent of the target
population reached with food aid (output), but to also determine
whether nutritional status of the target population improved as a
result of the food aid (impact).
CSs
should also provide baseline data for the selected indicators or spell
out a plan to collect it. Ideally, baseline studies should be part of
the needs assessment. If this is not possible then the indicators can
be submitted to FFP for review after the program proposal is approved.
Naturally, each CS's resources to monitor and evaluate programs are
different. This will be taken into consideration during USAID's food
aid proposal review and approval process. Also refer to the Food Aid Management's
website for guidance and useful links.
5.
Determining the
Distribution Mode and Frequency
NEHA
programs typically provide on-site (wet) feeding in institutions or at
community feeding centers or take-home rations for individuals or
households in the community. If monetization or FFW are considered as
alternative program components, refer to the relevant guidance in other
parts of the CRG.
Direct
Feeding
- On-site
(wet) feeding involves preparing and serving meals or snacks at a
designated site outside the home. In NEHA programs on-site feeding is
commonly provided at institutions where beneficiaries reside or at
designated community feeding centers. Most NEHA on-site feeding will
involve provision of one or more meals daily, 365 days per year.
Exceptionally, feeding may be limited to 5-6 days per week or only to
certain season, because there is food available from other sources for
the rest of the time. The advantage of on-site feeding is that food
rations
are eaten under supervision, which helps to ensure that the food
supplement
is actually consumed by the target population.
- Take-home
rations are dry, uncooked food rations carried home where it is
prepared and consumed by the food aid recipient. Take-home packages can
provide recipients' entire calories and protein requirements, or only a
part of their requirements, if foods from other sources provide the
rest. The advantage of take-home rations is that they are easier to
administer, less costly than
on-site feeding, demand less time from recipients, and can
reach larger numbers of beneficiaries. However, dry rations
may be shared with other family members (leakage) or sold/exchanged
in the market place, thereby reducing their nutritional impact on the
intended beneficiary.
Back to Steps for Selecting Commodity Rations
STEP
2: SUITABILITY OF FOOD COMMODITIES
Suitability
relates to the characteristics of the commodities that affect the
utilization of the food aid commodities. Suitability of food rations
should take into account nutritional needs, cultural and physiological
appropriateness, locally available foods, food processing and storage
capacities, and local market prices and food consumption preferences.
Cultural
suitability: It is important to consider food preferences and
consumption patterns, taste and traditional taboos when designing
ration package. Clearly, a food commodity that is not eaten does not
directly provide nutritional benefit to the beneficiary. Another
important consideration is whether the commodities are culturally
suitable for the particular role they are to play in the project. It is
key to identify major constraints to using particular commodities.
Nutritional
content: This refers to the energy, protein, fat, and micronutrient
content of the ration package. For example, populations deficient in
vitamin A would benefit from receiving vitamin A fortified vegetable
oil and blended commodities. The age, sex, and activity level (e.g.,
distance to walk to school) of the target group are primary
determinants of their nutritional needs. The ambient temperature must
also be considered in cold climates.
Physiological
appropriateness: The physical characteristics, such as, the bulk,
viscosity, digestibility and tolerance, of the food commodity need to
be considered as ration packages are being developed. For example,
children less than 24 months of age have a smaller stomach size and
are, therefore, less able to consume enough high bulk foods to meet
their caloric needs. Young children, the sick and
the elderly are less able to chew and digest some foods. Please refer
to Module 1 - MCHN Program for details on
physiological appropriateness for mothers and children. People
suffering with HIV/AIDS also have special food requirements.
Availability
of processing
and/or storage facilities: Factors that affect food processing and
preparation
must be considered, such as access to mills, access to fuel for cooking
and
preparation and cooking time.
Characteristics
of locally
available food: Determine the timing of harvests and seasonal shortages
of
staple foods and examine the affordability of local foods for the
target group,
as locally produced or purchased food may complement the imported Title
II
food commodities and eventually might replace them.
Cost:
In part, cost will guide the suitability of ration commodities. Step 5
below provides guidance on how to calculate the cost-effectiveness of a
ration package.
Back to Steps for Selecting Commodity Rations
STEP
3: RATION SPECIFICATIONS
Ration
specifications should be based on specific program objectives and
nutritional needs of the target population or the income transfer value
of the commodities it contains. However, other factors may influence
ration size, such as standards used by other implementing agencies or
past program ration specifications. Program objectives and
characteristics of the target group(s) should drive the decisions about
ration specifications. Below is guidance for developing ration
specifications for nutritional as well as income transfer
consideration:
1.
Determining Nutritional Values for On-site Feeding
Specifications
for rations
for institutional feeding programs should be based on the portion of
recommended
dietary allowance of food aid recipients it is intended to fulfill.
Title
II food commodities might provide beneficiaries' full energy, fat and
protein
requirements or may provide one or more basic staples to add to other
foods
provided by the community or another source. Based on WFP/ UNESCO/WHO
recommendations
for institutional feeding, programs that provide three meals a day
should
cover 100 percent of the daily recommended allowances for energy and
protein
for everyone in the institution (e.g., an orphanage). When only 2 meals
are provided and recipients eat one meal at home or a third meal is
furnished
from some other source, then the two meals should together include
60-75
percent of the energy and 80-90 percent of the protein. Programs
offering
only a single meal should provide 30 to 45 percent of the recommended
energy
allowance and 60 to 70 percent of the protein allowance.
Other
food items such as fresh fruits, vegetables, sugar, salt, etc. from
some other sources (e.g. community contributions or institutional
gardens) should be added to the food aid commodities to improve the
palatability and micronutrient content of the meals. Fresh fruits and
vegetables are essential for ensuring adequate micronutrients in the
diet.
It is
critical that the design of an emergency program does not compromise
the adoption of appropriate and recommended feeding and dietary
practices including exclusive breast feeding for infants under six
months of age. The eligibility criteria for recipients, quantities,
commodity mix, and recommendations for use of the rations should be
consistent with official government policies and with standard
practices used by USAID and the UN. Detailed recommendations for
appropriate feeding practices are available from USAID's
LINKAGES Project
series titled Facts for Feeding. See also Module
1 - MCHN Programs.
Table
1 below lists the recommended daily allowances for different age/sex
groups for use in determining the specification of a ration package for
on-site feeding programs.
Table 1: 100%
Recommended Daily Allowances for Different Age/Sex groups* |
Age/Sex |
Recommended
Energy Allowance
(kcal/d) |
Recommended
Protein Allowance
(g/d) |
Fat
(g/d) |
Children
1-3 yrs |
1300 |
16 |
45-58 |
Children
4-6 yrs |
1800 |
24 |
40 |
Children
7-10 yrs |
2000 |
28 |
45 |
Non-pregnant
female 11-50 yrs |
2200 |
47* |
45-50 |
Female
51+ yrs |
1900 |
50 |
36-42 |
Male
11-14 yrs |
2500 |
45 |
50-56 |
Male
15-18 years |
3000 |
59 |
57-67 |
Males
19-50 years |
2900 |
60 |
55-65 |
Males 51+
years |
1900 |
63 |
36-42 |
Pregnant
female 20+ years2 |
+300 |
+13 |
+6-7 |
Lactating
female 1st6 mos |
+500 |
+18 |
+10-11 |
Lactating
female 2nd6 mos |
+500 |
+15 |
+10-11 |
*From the
National Research Council's Recommended Dietary Allowances. National
Academy Press, 1989. |
Target
groups in NEHA programs may include individuals that cross a wide range
of ages, and recommended allowances vary according to age, sex and
physiological status. The nutritional needs of two groups stand out as
being the most different from other ages, i.e. children aged three
years and younger and pregnant and lactating women. Young children
(< 2 years) require proportionally more fat in their overall diets
(30 to 40 percent) compared to other age groups (20 percent). Women
need extra energy and protein during pregnancy and lactation, which
would require adding a supplement to these women's diets. For more
details on
nutritional needs of children and pregnant and lactating women, refer
to Module 1 - MCHN Programs.
The
recommended dietary balance of energy, protein, and fat for older
children and non-pregnant, non-lactating adults is similar enough that
all can be served from the same preparation. The differences among
their particular needs relate more to quantity of food. Adolescent boys
and men will need to eat more. Primary school-aged children and the
elderly will need less. To specify ration size for a group of diverse
ages, an average daily allowance can be used. The average should be a
weighted average, depending on the age/sex distribution in the target
group. Table 2 below provides a worksheet for calculating the
average recommended energy allowance for mixed target groups.
Table 2: Table for Use
in Calculating an Average Recommended Energy Allowance (REA) for
Several age/sex Groups within an Institution. |
Age/Sex |
REA*
(kcal/d) |
|
% of target group |
|
Children 4-6
yrs |
1800 |
X |
|
= |
|
Children 7-10 yrs |
2000 |
X |
|
= |
|
Non-pregnant female 11-50
yrs |
2200 |
X |
|
= |
|
Male 11-14 yrs |
2500 |
X |
|
= |
|
Male 15-18 years |
3000 |
X |
|
= |
|
Males 19-50 years |
2900 |
X |
|
= |
|
Elder adults 51+ years |
1900 |
X |
|
= |
|
Average |
100% |
3= |
|
*For high
bulk rations add 5% for Atwater correction |
Instructions
for using this worksheet:
- Insert
the percentage of
the target group that fits into the age/sex category in the third
column
for each line.
- Multiply
this percentage times the REA for each group and enter the product on
the appropriate line in the last column.
- Add
the sum of the products in the last column, which will yield the
average REA across
the entire target group. (The percentages in column 3 should total
100%.)
- For
high bulk food aid commodities, multiply the Average by 1.05 (Atwater
correction) to
get the recommended energy allowance across the age/sex groups. This
correction is to account for the varying fiber content, digestibility,
and complex
carbohydrate composition of high bulk commodities.
Box 2
below provides an example of how to calculate the average recommended
energy and protein allowance for children ages 4-10 years and adults.
Box 2. Example of Determining
Average REA for a Target Population Across Age/Sex Groups
(percentages are made up for this example)
REA* Children 4-6 yrs 30% X 1,800
Kcal = 540 Kcal/day
Children 7-10 yrs 20% X 2,000 Kcal = 400 Kcal/day
Females 11-50 yrs 15% X 2,200 Kcal = 330 Kcal/day
Males 11-14 yrs 15% X 2,500 Kcal = 375 Kcal/day
Males 15-18 yrs 10% X 2,900 Kcal = 290 Kcal/day
Males 19-50 yrs 10% X 1,900 Kcal = 190
Kcal/day
AVERAGE 100% 2,125 Kcal/day
* From Table 1 above
|
2.
Determining Nutritional Values for Take-Home Rations
NEHA
programs often provide dry, uncooked food rations that will be prepared
and consumed at home. Take home packages can be in the form of a full
ration package providing an entire day's worth of kilocalories and
protein, or a partial ration package that is used to fill the gap in
the recipient's diet. Generally speaking, take-home rations are partial
rations and based on the nutritional deficit of a target group. For an
explanation on how to calculate ration specifications for take-home
packages, please refer to Module 1 - MCHN
Programs.
Additional
food may be needed to compensate substitution effects (when home diets
or institution diets are reduced because of on-site feeding), or
leakage (when take-home rations are eaten by untargeted members of the
family). Substitution or leakage may occur if global
household/institution levels of food deficits are large (seasonally or
year round). Past experience with food aid programs or trial and error
may be the best way to determine the quantity of calories to add to
account for leakage. In the absence of local data, one option is
to double the ration. to compensate the leakage. Other ways to address
substitution or leakage are through education or by providing food
commodities that promote self-targeting, i.e., that are more likely to
be consumed by the target group because of income, cultural or
age-group characteristics.
3.
HIV/AIDS Affected Individuals
Special
consideration should be given to the diet of HIV-infected individuals
because they have increased energy requirements, may experience
appetite loss (anorexia), may have difficulty eating due to symptoms,
and may have reduced access to food due to the impact of HIV/AIDS on
household food security. Furthermore, HIV/AIDS and opportunistic
infection symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and fever can affect how
the body uses food that is consumed and may result in reduced
absorption of nutrients. Good nutrition for HIV-infected individuals
requires the consumption of an adequate amount of macronutrients such
as proteins, carbohydrates and fats, and micronutrients, which include
vitamins and minerals. Good nutrition is also vital for people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) on
antiretroviral therapy (ART), in terms of medication absorption, drug
adherence, and hunger satiation. Refer to the
FANTA
publicationHIV/AIDS: A Guide for Nutritional Care and Support (2004) for
further information on nutrition and ART.
A
deficiency in macronutrients, also known as protein energy
malnutrition, manifests itself in the weight loss and wasting that are
typical of AIDS patients. This weight loss and wasting occur as a
result of reduced food intake, nutrient malabsorption and changes in
metabolism. HIV/AIDS increases energy requirements by 10% for
asymptomatic HIV-infected adults and children, by 20-30% for
symptomatic HIV-infected adults, and by 50-100% for symptomatic
HIV-infected children who are experiencing weight loss. There is no
evidence that HIV-infected individuals have increased protein needs
over and above the protein required for a balanced diet that meets
energy needs (12-15% of total energy intake).
Consuming
sufficient micronutrients is
important for building a strong immune system and fighting infections.
Micronutrient deficiencies are frequently present in people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), and
micronutrient intakes at daily recommended levels need to be assured
through consumption of diversified diets, fortified foods like the
cereal blends, and micronutrient supplements as needed. Study of the
optimal formulation of micronutrient supplementation for HIV-infected
individuals is ongoing. Refer to the FANTA publication HIV/AIDS: A
Guide for Nutritional Care and Support (2004)
[http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/HIVAIDS_Guide02.pdf].
Back to Steps for Selecting Commodity Rations
STEP
4: RATION CALCULATION
After
determining the ration specification for a proposed ration package, the
following should be determined: (1) defining the ration package; (2)
the total tonnage of commodities needed; and (3) the cost-effectiveness
of the commodities selected. It is generally prudent to consider
alternative rations in the initial planning stage in the event that the
desired commodities may not be available in the quantities required.
Ration
calculators that compute the quantity of foods necessary to provide a
population all micronutrients at the lowest cost can help in the design
of appropriate diets given locally available and affordable
commodities. There are a number of calculators in existence or in
development, including NutriSurvey
(www.nutrisurvey.de/lp/lp.htm).
These tools can be helpful in determining an appropriate
population-level ration, but are not appropriate for therapeutic
feeding, replacement feeding, or individual ration calculation.
1.
Defining the ration
package
The
selection of rations for the different age groups will vary according
to their nutritional needs Energy, protein, and fat are the three main
macronutrients and are of primary concern for growth, health, and
recuperation from disease. A ration package composed of Title II
commodities that contains sufficient energy and includes a variety of
protein-rich commodities (cereals, blended foods, legumes) usually
provides sufficient amount of protein for most of the population, but
it
is important to ensure that it provides enough for nutritionally
vulnerable groups, such as young children and pregnant and lactating
women. Fats and oils are a rich source of energy and also essential for
health and the prevention of some diseases. Similarly, vitamins and
minerals, referred to collectively as micronutrients, are essential to
the health of people of all ages, but especially for growing children
and women during their reproductive years. Below are considerations for
defining ration packages for specific target groups per mode of
distribution.
For
on-site feeding: When on-site feeding is the sole source of food, it is
important that food aid rations provide sufficient energy, protein, and
fats to meet all of the needs of the specific target groups.
Nutritional needs vary according to the age and sex of the target group
and subsequently affect the type of
commodity selected for the age group. Guidelines for commodity
selection for the specific age groups follows:
- For
children ages 1-3: These children require sufficient energy, protein
and micronutrients for growth, health and recuperation from infections.
Fats should provide from 30-40 percent of the overall dietary energy
for this age group . Given the high nutrient needs and smaller stomach
capacity of this target group, nutrient-dense food aid commodities,
such as corn-soy blend (CSB) or wheat-soy blend (WSB) and refined
vegetable oil, are recommended.
- For
children
ages 4-10: Children this age still require that their caloric needs are
met, but they need relatively less fat and micronutrients than their
younger
counterparts. Their diets should still include a combination of protein
rich pulses and cereals, and about 20 percent of kilocalories should
come
from fats.
- For
Adults: The diet should provide the minimum recommended amount of
kilocalories. To cover the requirements for certain essential fatty
acids, 17-20 percent of the ration calories should be provided in the
form of fats or oil, but no more than 10% of energy should come from
saturated fatty acids (found in
all animal fats and some vegetable oils). With the exception of
vegetable oil, all Title II commodities contain some protein.
Therefore, if the ration is restricted to 20-40% fat and includes
either a blended food or both a cereal and a pulse, the minimum protein
requirement for this group will be
provided.
Table
3 below provides examples of NEHA ration packages for on-site feeding
of different target groups. They are organized according to how many
meals are provided at the institution/feeding center. Two different
ration packages are provided per number of meals provided. These
rations are nutritionally adequate in terms of energy, fat and protein,
but without additions of fresh condiments, sugar and salt they may not
be palatable to a child. Refer to Module 1-MCHN for more about
complementary feeding for young children.
Table 3: Examples of
NEHA Ration Packages for On-site Feeding of 1-3 Year Old Children |
Commodities |
If 3 meals (100% REA) are provided,
below are 2 possible ration packages* |
If 2 meals are provided, below are 2 possible ration
packages* |
1 meal is provided, below are 2 possible ration packages* |
CSB |
150 g |
150 g |
150 g |
200 g |
120 g |
50 g |
Cereal
flour** or Rice |
90 g |
100 g |
35 g |
0 |
0 |
40 g |
Pulse |
50 g |
35 g |
15 g |
15 g |
0 |
10 g |
Oil |
35 g |
35 g |
25 g |
20 g |
10 g |
20 g |
Calories
Protein
Percent Fat*** |
1372 kcal
46 g
30% |
1357 kcal
43 g
34% |
965 kcal
32 g
33% |
981 kcal
37 g
31% |
541 kcal
20 g
31%
|
546 kcal
14 g
39% |
* It is
doubtful that children 1-3 can eat this volume of food in the number of
meals indicated. The food for 3 meals should be split to provide 3
meals with 2-3 snacks
(CSB is an easily prepared snack); the food for 2 meals can make 2
meals
plus 1-2 snacks; and the food for 1 meal a meal plus a snack.
** If cereal other than rice is unmilled, add 10% to account for
caloric difference, and if cereal will be hand milled, add another 10%
to account for milling losses.
*** This amount of fat is appropriate for children who are not breast
feeding. If children are being regularly breast fed, the fat content
could be reduced to 20 percent fat. |
Table
4 below provides examples of ration packages appropriate for on-site
feeding of children ages four to six years. Fresh fruits and vegetables
as well as sugar will increase the caloric and micronutrient content of
these ration packages. Table 5
provides sample ration packages for an adult target group. Tables 3 , 4
and
5 provide two sample rations per number of meals provided.
Table 4: Examples of
NEHA Rations for On-site Feeding of 4-6 Year Old Children |
Commodities |
If 3 meals (100% REA) are provided, below are 2 possible
ration packages |
If 2 meals are provided, below are 2 possible ration packages |
1 meal is provided, below are 2
possible ration packages |
CSB |
150 g |
100 g |
0 g |
100 g |
200 g |
0 g |
Cereal
flour*or Rice |
250 g |
210 g |
250 g |
100 g |
0 |
150 g |
Pulse |
40 g |
120 g |
40 g |
50 g |
0 |
30 g |
Oil |
30 g |
40 g |
30 g |
25 g |
5 g |
20 g |
Kilocalories
Protein
Percent Fat |
1886
kcal
57 g
19% |
1899 kcal
62 g
21% |
1306
kcal
31 g
21% |
1130 kcal
35 g
23% |
797
kcal
34 g
21% |
822 kcal
20 g
22% |
*If
cereal other than rice is unmilled, add 10% to account for caloric
difference, and if cereal will be hand milled, add another 10% to
account for milling losses. |
Table 5: Examples of
NEHA Rations for On-site Feeding of Adults 19-50 years (50% each male
and females) |
Commodities |
If 3 meals (REA = 2,600 kcal) are provided, below are 2
possible ration packages |
If 2 meals are provided, below are 2 possible ration packages |
1 meal is provided, below are 2
possible ration packages |
WSB |
100 g |
0 g |
0g |
100g |
0 g |
100 g |
Fortified
Cereal flour or Rice* |
300 g |
450 g |
250g |
100g |
150 g |
100 g |
Pulse |
200 g |
150 g |
150 g |
50g |
75 g |
50 g |
Fortified
Oil |
50 g |
55 g |
35 g |
25g |
20 g |
15 g |
Kilocalories
Protein
Percent Fat |
2,575
kcal
98 g
21% |
2,644 kcal
73.5 g
20% |
1737
kcal
59.5 g
20% |
1692 kcal
39 g
21% |
980
kcal
36 g
20% |
1,023 kcal
42 g
19% |
* If
cereal other than rice is unmilled, add 10% to account for caloric
difference, and if cereal will be hand milled, add another 10% to
account for milling losses. |
For
take home rations: Remember that a supplementary ration, by
definition, adds to food from other sources, which also contribute
nutritional energy, fat, protein, and micronutrients to the
beneficiaries' diets. With regard to fat and protein, guidance that
should be considered in the design of take-home ration packages for
targeted exclusively to children or women are that:
- Fats
and oils in the diet (including the supplementary ration plus other
foods eaten) should provide 20% of total energy intake of women of
reproductive age and 30-40% of total energy for children up to 2 years
of age, if they are not breast feeding and 20% of total energy if they
are breast feeding.
- The
protein needs of pregnant and lactating women are higher than those of
non-pregnant/non-lactating women (7 grams per day (g/d) more during
pregnancy and 14-19 g/d during lactation). On the other hand, the
absolute protein needs of young children, are lower than the average in
the population overall (only 25-35 g/d).
As
noted above, it is
important that mothers be encouraged to breast feed their young
children and
not use the donated foods to displace important breast milk from the
diet.
The
likelihood that take-home rations will be shared with other family
members (leakage) is high if global household levels of food deficits
are large (seasonally or year round). Past experience with food aid
programs or trial and error may be the best way to determine the
quantity of calories to add to the ration
to account for leakage. Other ways to address leakage include education
and selection rations that promote self-targeting, i.e. that are more
likely to be consumed by the target group because of income, cultural
or age-group characteristics. For more guidance on developing take-home
ration packages for women and children, refer to Module
1 - MCHN Programs.
Micronutrients:
The micronutrient content of the ration package should also be
considered, especially for nutritionally vulnerable target groups. All
oil provided through Title II is fortified with vitamin A, an essential
nutrient for the protection of the health of any population, but
particularly young children. Forty grams (40g) of the oil provided
supplies 2,400 IU of vitamin A, which satisfies children's full daily
requirements and about 70% of adult requirements.
Whereas
whole grain cereal, such as wheat and corn, are not fortified, all
processed food cereals provided by Title II, with the exception of
parboiled rice, are fortified with B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin,
folic acid, and niacin), vitamin A, calcium, and iron. Blended cereals
(corn-soy blend and wheat-soy blend) are further fortified with zinc,
B12, pantothenic acid, iodine, magnesium, vitamin C, vitamin D, and
vitamin E.
The
micronutrient content of blended cereals (see the Commodity Fact Sheets
found in Part One of the CRG) are estimates. Because some of these
vitamins are lost during storage and cooking, they do not accurately
reflect the quantities available to the body at consumption. For
example, up to 40 percent of vitamin A is lost
from fortified cereals that is exposed for several months to heat,
light and
air. Minerals are not subject to deterioration by environmental
factors, however, their bioavailability in cereal can be greatly
reduced by absorption inhibitors in the ration foods or in other foods
commonly consumed, like tea
and coffee.
2.
Calculating the Total Amount of Food Commodities Needed
Once
the ration package is determined, the total quantity of commodities
needed can be calculated, usually in terms of metric tons (MT). To
calculate the number of MT needed for each commodity in a general
feeding or supplementary emergency ration package, use the following
steps:
- Multiply
the number of grams of the commodity per person per day times the total
number of persons to receive the commodity.
- Multiply
the
total number of grams of the commodity times the number of days that
the
food will be provided to the target group.
- Determine
the number of MT of commodity needed by dividing the total number of
grams per program period by 1,000,000 (number of grams in a MT).
- Complete
the
same calculation for each commodity (vegetable oil, cereal, cereal
blend,
or legume) that comprises the ration.
Box 3
below provides an illustrative example of how to calculate the total
amount of commodities needed to provide on-site feeding ration package
to children ages 1 to 10 years a general feeding emergency ration
package to 200 for one year (365 days).
Box 3: Calculating Total Amount of
Commodities Needed for On-Site feeding of 200 Children 1-3 years for
One Year (using the sample ration package in column 1 of Table 3).
OIL
- Multiply grams of vegetable oil per
person times 200 times 365 days
35 g oil x 200 = 7,000 g x 365 days = 2,555,000 grams
- Divide the total number of grams of
oil by 1,000,000 (the number of grams in a MT)
2,555,000 g. / 1,000,000 = 2.55 MT of fortified, vegetable oil
CSB
- Multiply grams of Corn Soy Blend
cereal (CSB) person times 200 times 365 days.
150 g x 200 = 30,000 g x 365 days = 10,950,000
- Divide the total number of grams of
cereal-soy blend 1,000,000
10,950,000 / 1,000,000 = 10.95 or 11 MT of CSB
WHEAT FLOUR
- Multiply grams of wheat flour per
person times 200 times 365 days.
90 g wheat flour x 200 = 18,000 g x 365 days = 6,570,000 grams
- Divide the total number of grams of
wheat by 1,000,000
6,570,000 / 1,000,000 = 6.57 MT of wheat flour
PULSES
- Multiply grams of pulses per person
times 200 times 365 days.
50 g x 200 = 10,000 g x 365 days = 3,650,000
- Divide the total number of grams of
pulses 1,000,000
3,650,000 / 1,000,000 = 3.65 MT of pulses
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3.
Determining Cost-effectiveness of Ration Packages
Cost
may not be the primary factor in determining the ration package. Food
preferences and energy requirements for cooking (e.g., fuel wood, etc.)
and potential market disincentives may outweigh cost considerations.
However, the cost-effectiveness of the commodity may help in
determining whether it is cost-effective and/or appropriate for the
food aid component of a NEHA program. CSs should determine the
primary objective of the food aid program and conduct the appropriate
cost-effectiveness analysis.
It is
helpful to calculate the cost-effectiveness of desired commodities in
terms of cost per unit of nutritional value (1 kilocalorie or 1 gram of
protein) or income transfer value (in USD to the recipient). This
provides information about which commodities provide the most
nutritional benefits or highest contribution at the lowest cost to the
project. (See the Overview chapter for an example of such calculations
as cost per nutrient value.)
Cost-Effectiveness
per Income Transfer Value: The cost-effectiveness per income value
is determined by the value to the recipient compared to the overall
cost of the program. For example, if a recipient receives a commodity
that would cost them $0.40 in the local market, this is considered a
$0.40 value to the
family or local institution. If providing the same commodity only costs
the
program $0.33, the program would be cost-effective. A commodity is
considered cost-effective if the cost of providing that commodity to a
recipient is lower
than the cost of the commodity in the local market. The more the
commodity's local market value exceeds the program cost, the more
cost-effective the program.
See Box 4 below for an illustrative example of how to calculate the
cost-effectiveness
of income transfer value.
Box
4 - Example of A Cost-Effectiveness Calculation
- Calculate the cost of one kg of flour to the household or
local institution if purchased in the local market:
1
kg flour = $ cost to household for local market purchase.
- Calculate
the total program costs to provide one metric ton of flour. This
includes the cost of the commodity plus transportation costs.
$
(per MT) flour + $ transportation costs* = $ total program cost (per
MT) flour
- Then, divide the total program costs to provide one metric
ton of flour by 1,000 (there are 1,000 kilograms in a MT).
$ total program cost (per MT) flour / 1,000 = $ program cost (1 kg)
flour
This
calculation allows for a comparison of the cost of the program to the
local cost of the commodity. The value calculated in step 3 represents
the program cost for 1 kg of the commodity, whereas the value in step 1
represents the actual value provided to the household. The ratio of
local cost to program cost is, thus, Step 1 / Step 3, or:
$ cost to household for local market purchase (1 kg) flour / $ program
cost (1 kg) flour
The
larger the ratio, the more cost-effective the program.
*Transportation
costs vary from situation to situation; a rule of thumb for development
programs is to add 30-50% of the commodity for transportation costs.
|
During
the initial planning
period it is advisable to consider alternative rations as a contingency
measure. For example, a desired commodity may not available, cannot be
shipped in
a timely manner or may not be appropriate for any number of unexpected
reasons. The identification of a range of acceptable commodities makes
easier to
design a variety of ration packages. Also, changes in commodity
availability, prices, and packaging can alter the relative
cost-effectiveness of ration packages. It is useful to develop at least
one alternative ration package so that it can be compared for cost and
other trade-offs. Take into consideration the following when designing
an alternative ration package:
- Select
culturally acceptable and physiologically suitable foods for NEHA
recipients.
- Design
rations that meet specifications using no more than three commodities
per ration, unless good reasons exist to use more commodities.
- Use
commodities that provide the maximum gain to recipients at lowest cost
to the project.
- Based
on the
cost per unit of nutritional and/or income transfer value provided to
the
recipient, use the most cost-effective commodities and design at least
one
alternative package if a new project is being planned.
- Compare
the nutritional and/or income transfer values of currently used rations
with specifications and key suitability criteria.
Back to Steps for Selecting Commodity Rations
STEP
5: RANKING AND
SELECTION
It
is important to rank ration packages commodities in order to select the
most cost-effective and appropriate rations to meet program objectives.
Cost plays a role in the size and effectiveness of projects. This
calculation involves decisions about which cost elements to consider.
At a minimum, commodity price estimates (sources for obtaining
commodity price estimates are listed in Annex V) and current in-country
transportation and storage costs can be used. Other factors to consider
are:
- Market
disruptions: The
Bellmon determination must ensure that the local market is not
disrupted. Market considerations in the local areas where programs are
targeted might
also come into play. For example, it may less disruptive to provide
certain
foods in the lean season rather than the harvest season. Guidance on
conducting the Bellmon analysis may be found online at http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/bellmon.htm.
- Logistics
and management: Some commodities may impose undue management or cost
burdens due to unusual local conditions (e.g., transportation, storage,
handling, pilferage, accounting costs, etc.) or unsuitable packaging
for the shelf life of the commodity.
The
usual sources of data for considering potential market disruptions and
logistical problems include past evaluations of the same or similar
programs, interviews with host government authorities and local and
international PVOs as well as discussions with international
organizations (such as the World Bank, the United Nations), USAID, USDA
Agricultural Attaches and Economic/Commercial Officers at U.S.
Embassies.
Nutritional
value, income
transfer value, total cost, and other factors, such as potential market
disruptions
or logistical constraints can, now be ranked for the proposed and the
alternative
ration packages. They might also be ranked by cost. Decisions to change
ration packages can be made easily and less arbitrarily when
alternative
rations and their main attributes have been worked out in advance.
III.
RESOURCE LIST
- Food
and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) Project, Academy for
Educational Development, 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C.,
20009-5721. Tel: 202-884-8000; Fax 202-884-8432. E-mail: fanta@aed.org; Web site http://www.fantaproject.org.
FANTA has the following publications:
- Agricultural
Productivity Indicators Measurement Guide. Patrick Diskin
- Anthropometry Indicators
Measurement Guide. Bruce Cogill
- Food For Education Indicator Guide.
Joy Miller del Rosso and Gilles Bergeron
- Food Security Indicators and
Framework for Use in the Monitoring and Evaluation of Food Aid Programs.
Frank Riely,
Nancy Mock, Bruce Cogill, Laura Bailey, and Eric Kenefick
- General
Indicators of Appropriate Feeding of Children 6 through 23 months from
the KPC 2000+. Mary Arimond and Marie T. Ruel
- HIV/AIDS:
A Guide for Nutritional Care and Support 2004. FANTA
- Household
Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food
Access: Indicator Guide. Anne Swindale and Paula Bilinsky.
- Improving the Use of Food Rations
In Title II Maternal/Child Health and Nutrition Programs. Serena
Rajabiun, Beatrice Rogers, Margarita Safdie, Anne Swindale
- Measuring Household Food
Consumption: A Technical Guide. Anne Swindale and Punam
Ohri-Vachaspati
- Months
of Inadequate Household Food Provisioning (MIHFP) for Measurement of
Household Food Access: Indicator Guide. Paula Bilinsky and Anne
Swindale.
- Potential Uses of Food Aid to
Support HIV/AIDS Mitigation Activities in Sub-Saharan Africa. FANTA
- Recommendations for the Nutrient
Requirements for People living with HIV/AIDS. FANTA.
- Sampling Guide. Robert Magnani
- Water and Sanitation Indicators
Measurement Guide. Patricia Billig, Diane Benahmane and Anne
Swindale
- Food
Aid Management (FAM), 1625 K Street, NW, 5th Floor Washington, DC
20006. Tel: (202) 223-4860, Fax: (202) 223-4862; Web site http://www.foodaid.org.
Provides USAID documents (FY 1990-ongoing).
- Linkages
Project. Facts for Feeding (English, Spanish, French). Academy
for Educational Development, 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington,
D.C., 20009-5721. Tel: 202-884-8000; Fax: 202-884-8977; E-mail: linkages@aed.org; Website: http://www.linkagesproject.org.
- Recommendations
for the Nutrient Requirements for People living with HIV/AIDS.
FANTA.
- SARA Project.
SARA Project.
Nutrition and HIV/AIDS: Evidence, Gaps and Priority Actions.
Ellen Piwoz. SARA Project, Academy for Educational Development. Web site:
(
http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/SARA_Nutrition&HIVbrief.pdf).
- SUSTAIN. Final Report of the
Micronutrient Assessment Project. Executive Summary available
on web site:
http://www.sustaintech.org.
- USAID/DCHA.
U.S. International Food Assistance
Report 1999. January 2000.
- USAID/DCHA.
Commodities Reference Guide (CRG):
Section 1-4. April 1999. Web site: http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/crg.
- USAID/DCHA/FFP.
Monetization Field Manual PL 480 Title
II Programs. October 1998. Web site: http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/monetiz.htm.
- USAID/DCHA/FFP.
Title II Guidelines for Development
Programs. January 2000. Web site:
http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assistance/ffp/fy04_dpp.html.
- USAID/CDIE.
Performance Monitoring and Evaluation
Tips. 1996. Web site: http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/usaid_eval/#02.
- WHO.
Energy and Protein Requirements: Report
of a Joint FAO Expert Consultation. Geneva, 1985.
- WHO.
Management of Severe Malnutrition: A
Manual for Physicians and Other Senior Health Workers. Geneva,
1999.
- WHO.
The
Management of Nutrition in Major Emergencies. Geneva, 2000.
- WHO.
Nutrient
Requirements for People Living with HIV/AIDS: Report of a technical
consultation. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,
13-15 May 2003, http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB116/B116_12-en.pdf.
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