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Research, Development, and Technology
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
6300 Georgetown Pike
McLean, VA 22101-2296
Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety
FOREWORD
The transportation, urban planning, and public health professions are placing an increased emphasis on walking and bicycling as part of the solution to problems such as traffic congestion, suburban sprawl, and childhood obesity. An interdisciplinary approach from educated professionals is needed to create healthy, sustainable, and livable communities. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) University Course on Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation is one of several resources that can be used to prepare the next generation of professionals for the challenges ahead.
The University Course contains modular resource material that is intended for use in university courses on bicycle and pedestrian transportation. The Student Workbook (this document) contains 24 lessons that span a wide range of topics including an introduction to bicycling and walking issues, planning and designing for bicycle and pedestrian facilities, and supporting elements and programs. Scripted slideshows for all 24 lessons are available to facilitate course development and delivery. An overview lecture and scripted slideshow also is provided when a one- or two-lecture overview is needed for existing undergraduate or graduate courses.
Instructors are encouraged to use any or all of this material to form a curriculum that meets their needs. Most of the lessons are stand-alone in nature, with lessons of similar topics grouped into modules. A majority of the instructors using the first edition of these course materials have personalized the lessons for their courses by removing some lessons, adding supplemental material, reorganizing the lessons, and adding exercises and local activities that encourage student participation.
Michael Trentacoste, Director
Director, Office of Safety
Research and Development
Notice
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of the information contained in this document. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers' names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the objective of the document.
Quality Assurance Statement
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve Government, industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding. Standards and policies are used to ensure and maximize the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of its information. FHWA periodically reviews quality issues and adjusts its programs and processes to ensure continuous quality improvement.
Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. FHWA-HRT-05-133 |
2. Government Accession No. | 3. Recipient’s Catalog No. | |
4. Title and Subtitle FHWA UNIVERSITY COURSE ON BICYCLE AND | 5. Report Date July 2006 | ||
6. Performing Organization Code | |||
7.Author(s) Shawn Turner, Laura Sandt, Jennifer Toole, Robert Benz, and Robert Patten | 8. Performing Organization Report No.
| ||
9. Performing Organization Name and Address Texas Transportation Institute Toole Design Group, LLC | 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) | ||
11. Contract or Grant No. DTFH61-01-C-00049 | |||
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address Office of Safety Research and Development | 13. Type of Report and Period Covered Final Report March 2003–July 2005 | ||
14. Sponsoring Agency’s Code | |||
15. Supplementary Notes Research performed under subcontract to the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute | |||
16. Abstract This Student Workbook contains 24 lessons of resource material that is intended for use in university courses on bicycle and pedestrian transportation. The lessons span a wide range of topics including an introduction to bicycling and walking issues, planning and designing for bicycle and pedestrian facilities, and supporting elements and programs. This is the second edition of the Student Workbook; the first edition was published as Report No. FHWA-RD-99-198. Lesson-based slideshows (scripted slideshows for all 24 lessons) and an overview lecture (a scripted slideshow for a one- or two-lecture overview in existing undergraduate or graduate transportation courses) are also available to assist in course development and delivery. The key learning outcomes in the course material are as follows:
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17. Key Words Bicycling, walking, cyclists, pedestrians, bicycle facilities, pedestrian areas, planning and design, traffic calming | 18. Distribution Statement No restrictions. This document is available to the public through the National Technical | ||
19. Security Classif. (of this report) Unclassified | 20. Security Classif. (of this page) Unclassified | 21. No. of Pages 452 | 22. Price |
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) | Reproduction of completed page authorized |
SI* (Modern Metric) Conversion Factors
LESSON 1: THE NEED FOR BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN MOBILITY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 How Cities Grow: A Historical Perspective
1.3 Modern Suburban Travel
1.4 Benefits of Bicycling and Walking
Transportation System Benefits
Environmental Benefits
Economic Benefits
Quality of Life Benefits
Health Benefits
1.5 Government Commitment and Support
Funding Sources for Bicycle and Pedestrian Projects
Federal Transit Program (FTP)
Highway Safety Programs
1.6 Public Support for Bicycling and Walking
1.7 Transportation and Planning Trends
1.8 Student Exercises
Exercise A
Exercise B
Exercise C
1.9 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 2: BICYCLING AND WALKING IN THE UNITED STATES TODAY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Current Levels of Bicycling and Walking
2001 National Household Transportation Survey (NHTS)
Other National Surveys
2.3 Factors Influencing the Decision to Bicycle or Walk
Initial Considerations
Trip Barriers
Destination Barriers
2.4 Potential for Increasing Bicycling and Walking
Public Support for Bicycling and Walking
Other Considerations
2.5 Need for Action: Pedestrians and Bicyclists at Risk
2.6 Student Exercises
Exercise A
Exercise B
Exercise C
Exercise D
2.7 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 3: PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLIST SAFETY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What Is a Crash?
3.3 The Crash Avoidance Process
3.4 Number of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crashes
3.5 Summary of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crash Characteristics
Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes
Factors Contributing to Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes
Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes
Factors Contributing to Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes
3.6 Common Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types
Pedestrian Crash Types
Bicycle Crash Types
3.7 Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool (PBCAT)
3.8 Bicycle and Pedestrian Countermeasures
3.9 Bicycle and Pedestrian Safety Goals
3.10 Geographic Information System (GIS) Crash Frequency Analysis
3.11 Benefit-Cost Analysis
3.12 Student Exercise
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
3.13 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 4: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN PLANNING
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Federal Requirements for Planning
4.3 Statewide and Regional Pedestrian and Bicycle Plans
Statewide Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans
Regional Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans
4.4 Local Bicycle and Pedestrian Plans
Setting Priorities
Developing a Bicycle Network Plan
4.5 Forecasting Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel Demand
4.6 Using Models to Evaluate Roadway Conditions for Bicycling and Walking
Bicycle LOS
Application
4.7 Mapping
Urban Bicycle Map
Bicycle Guide
Other Useful Tips
4.8 Student Exercise
4.9 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 5: LAND USE REGULATIONS TO ENCOURAGE NONMOTORIZED TRAVEL
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Pedestrian-Oriented Land Use
Zoning and Subdivision Regulations
Community Visioning
Development Review Process
5.3 Commercial Development Design Guidance
5.4 Performance-Based Code as a Development (or Redevelopment) Tool
5.5 Guidance on Designing Residential Communities That Encourage Walking
5.6 Student Exercise
5.7 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 6: TRADITIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD DESIGN
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The New Urbanism Debate
6.3 "Putting Brakes on Suburban Sprawl"
6.4 Street Design for Traditional Neighborhoods
Basic Street Layout
Use of Alleys
Street Design Speed
Street Width
Curb Radii
Intersection Geometry .95
Street Trees and Landscaping
Street Lighting
Sidewalk Width and Location
Building Setbacks
Parking
6.5 Student Exercise
6.6 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 7: ADAPTING SUBURBAN COMMUNITIES FOR BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN TRAVEL
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History of Suburban Development
Abandoning the Street
7.3 Costs of Sprawl
7.4 Present Suburban Land Uses
7.5 Planning With the Car in Mind
7.6 Strategies for Retrofitting Suburban Arterial Roadways
7.7 Safe Routes to School Planning
7.8 Existing Retail/Office Developments
7.9 Student Exercise
7.10 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 8: PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Characteristics of Different Age Groups
Young Pedestrians
Older Pedestrians
8.3 Other Pedestrian Types and Characteristics
Mobility-Impaired Pedestrians
8.4 Walking Speeds
Older Pedestrians
Pedestrians with Disabilities
8.5 Space Requirements
Spatial Bubbles
Pedestrians with Disabilities
8.6 Design Requirements
Sidewalks
Grades
Street Furniture
Pedestrian Pushbuttons
Curb Cuts and Wheelchair Ramps
8.7 Student Exercise
8.8 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 9: WALKWAYS, SIDEWALKS, AND PUBLIC SPACES
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sidewalk Placement
Priority Construction of Sidewalks
9.3 Basic Sidewalk Elements
Minimum Sidewalk Width
Desirable Sidewalk Width
Bridge Sidewalks
Rural Sidewalks
Border Areas and Buffers
Grade
Cross Slopes
Pavement Surfaces
Stairs
Corners
Corner Ramps
Corner Storage Space
Object Clearances and Placement of Street Furniture
Continuity
9.4 Summary of Basic Sidewalk Elements
9.5 Ambience, Shade, and Other Sidewalk Enhancements
Street Lighting
Landscaping
Trees
Paver Stones
Awnings
Kiosks
9.6 Costs and Benefits of Sidewalks
9.7 Public Spaces
Outdoor Cafes
Alleys and Narrow Streets
Play Areas and Public Art
Pedestrian Streets, Transit Streets, and Pedestrian Malls
Pedestrian Plazas
9.8 Student Exercise
Part 1
Part 2
9.9 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 10: PEDESTRIAN FACILITY SIGNING AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Background
10.3 Planning and Design Considerations
10.4 Regulatory Signs
10.5 Warning Signs
10.6 Directional Signs
10.7 Pavement Word and Symbol Markings
10.8 Crosswalk Markings
Marked Versus Unmarked Crosswalks
10.9 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Technology
In-Roadway Warning Lights
Countdown Signal
Animated Eyes Display
Detection Devices
Illuminated Pushbuttons
10.10 Student Exercise
10.11 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 11: PEDESTRIAN DESIGN AT INTERSECTIONS
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Intersection Design Principles
11.3 Crosswalks
Typical Concerns
Possible Solutions
Implementation Strategies
Resources and Scheduling
Evaluation
Planning and Design Considerations
11.4 Curb Ramps
Typical Concerns
Possible Solutions
Implementation Strategies
Resources and Scheduling
Evaluation
Planning and Design Considerations
11.5 Crossing and Detection Technology
Typical Concerns
Possible Solutions
11.6 Pedestrian Signal Heads and Half-Signals
Typical Concerns
Possible Solutions
Implementation Strategies
Resources and Scheduling
Evaluation
Planning and Design Considerations
11.7 Curb Extensions and Curb Radii
Typical Concerns
Possible Solutions
Implementation Strategies
Resources and Scheduling
Evaluation
Planning and Design Considerations
11.8 Signal Timing and Pushbuttons
Typical Concerns
Possible Solutions
Implementation Strategies
Resources and Scheduling
Evaluation
Planning and Design Considerations
11.9 Pedestrian Refuge Islands
Recommended Practic
Island Design Features
11.10 Roundabouts
Typical Concerns
Possible Solutions
Planning and Design Considerations
11.11 Student Exercise
11.12 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 12: MIDBLOCK CROSSINGS
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Background
12.3 Medians and Refuge Islands–Powerful Safety Tools
12.4 Advantages of Medians
Medians Allow More Frequent Gaps
Medians Are Less Expensive To Build
Medians Are Less Expensive To Maintain
12.5 Design Considerations for Medians
12.6 Midblock Crossings by Roadway Classification
Local Roads
Collector Roads
Multilane Arterial Highways with Four Lanes
Multilane Arterial Highways with Six or More Lanes
12.7 Midblock Crossing Design
Connect Desire Lines
Lighting
12.8 Staggered Midblock Crosswalks
12.9 Midblock Crossing and Detection Technology
12.10 Midblock Signals
12.11 Grade-Separated Crossings
12.12 Student Exercise
12.13 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 13: SELECTING BICYCLE FACILITY TYPES AND EVALUATING ROADWAYS
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Overview of Bicycle Facility Selection
13.3 AASHTO Guidance on Selecting Bicycle Facility Type
13.4 Overview of Evaluating Roads for Bicyclists
13.5 Bicycle Compatibility Index
13.6 Bicycle Level of Service
13.7 Student Exercise
13.8 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 14: SHARED ROADWAYS
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Shared Roadways
14.3 Wide Curb Lanes
14.4 Roadway Shoulders or Shoulder Bikeways
Width Standards
Pavement Design
The Joint between the Shoulders and the Existing Roadway
Gravel Driveways and Approaches
14.5 Designated Bicycle Routes
14.6 Bicycle Boulevards
Advantages of Bicycle Boulevards
Disadvantages of Bicycle Boulevards
Elements of a Bicycle Boulevard
14.7 Other Design Considerations
Rumble Strips
Drainage Grates
Railroad Crossings
Sidewalk Ramps on Bridges
14.8 Practices to Avoid
Sidewalk Bikeways
Extruded Curbs
Reflectors and Raised Pavement Markers
14.9 Student Exercise
14.10 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 15: BICYCLE LANES
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Width Standards and Cross-Section Design
15.3 Retrofitting Bicycle Lanes on Existing Streets
Reduction of Travel Lane Widths
Reduction of the Number of Travel Lanes
Removal, Narrowing or Reconfiguration of Parking
Other Design Options
Additional Benefits from Retrofitting Bike Lanes
Salem, OR, Case Study
15.4 Bicycle Lanes at Intersections and Interchanges
Intersections with Right-Turn Lanes
Intersections with Bus Stops
Traffic Signal Actuation
Expressway Interchanges
15.5 Bicycle Lane Pavement Markings
15.6 Bicycle Lane Signing
15.7 Other Design Considerations
Colored Bike Lanes
Contraflow Bike Lanes
Diagonal Parking
15.8 Practices to Avoid
Two-Way Bike Lanes
Continuous Right-Turn Lanes
15.9 Student Exercise
Exercise A
Exercise B
15.10 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 16: BICYCLE FACILITY MAINTENANCE
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Problem Overview
16.3 Solution Overview
16.4 Objectives
16.5 Implementation Strategies
16.6 Subtasks
Subtask 1—Identify Key Implementers
Subtask 2—Review Existing Policies and Practices
Subtask 3—Review Results in the Field and Solicit Comments from Users
Subtask 4—Recommend Appropriate Changes in Policies and Practices
Subtask 5—Create an Ongoing Spot Improvement Program
Subtask 6—Evaluate Progress
16.7 Schedule and Resource Requirements
16.8 Typical Maintenance Concerns
Surface Problems
Encroaching Vegetation
Signing and Marking
16.9 Student Exercise
16.10 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 17: BICYCLE PARKING AND STORAGE
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Overview of the Problem
17.3 Overview of Bicycle Parking Strategies
17.4 Implementing Bicycle Parking Strategies
Step 1—Identify Key Implementers
Step 2—Structure the Program
Step 3—Identify Priority Locations that Need Bicycle Parking
Step 4—Choose Appropriate Bicycle Parking Devices
Step 5a—Tasks for Developing Public Bicycle Parking
Step 5b—Tasks for Developing Private Bicycle Parking
Step 5c—Tasks for Revising Zoning Regulations
Step 6—Implement the Program
Step 7—Evaluate Progress
17.5 Student Exercise
Exercise A
Exercise B
17.6 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 18: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN CONNECTIONS TO TRANSIT
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Interagency Cooperation
18.3 Why Link Bicyclists With Transit Services?
18.4 Bike-on-Bus Programs
18.5 Bike-on-Rail Programs
Time Restrictions
Rail Car Design Constraints
18.6 Example Transit Access Programs
18.7 Bicycle Parking Facilities at Transit Stations
18.8 Bikestation
18.9 What Are the Key Elements of Successful Programs?
Demonstration Projects
Advisory Committees
Marketing and Promotion
18.10 Student Exercise
Exercise A
Exercise B
18.11 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 19: GREENWAYS AND SHARED-USE PATHS
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Shared-Use Path Definition
19.3 Shared-Use Path Users
19.4 User Conflict
19.5 Shared-Use Path Types and Settings
19.6 Planning
19.7 Rail-Trails, Rails-with-Trails, and Towpaths
19.8 Greenway Paths
19.9 Paths Adjacent to Roadways
19.10 Path Design
Accessible Path Design
Trail Width and Striping
Trail/Roadway Intersection Design
Other Design Issues
19.11 Student Exercise
19.12 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 20: TRAFFIC CALMING
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Traffic-Calming Objectives
20.3 Traffic-Calming Issues
20.4 Traffic-Calming Devices
Bumps, Humps, and Other Raised Pavement Areas
Reducing Street Area
Street Closures
Traffic Diversion
Surface Texture and Visual Devices
20.5 Traffic-Calming Impacts
Traffic Speeds
Traffic Volumes
Collisions
Other Factors
20.6 Putting the Design Techniques to Work: Selected Examples of Traffic Calming
The Woonerf
Entry Treatment Across Intersections
Bicycle Boulevards
Channelization Changes
20.7 Student Exercise
20.8 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 21: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN ACCOMMODATION IN WORK ZONES
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Possible Solutions
Protective Barriers
Covered Walkways
Sidewalk Closures
Signage
Diversions and Detours
21.3 Implementation Strategies
Link to Construction Permits
Train In-House Work Crews
21.4 Planning and Design Considerations
Rural Highway Construction
Urban Roadway Construction
Pedestrian Issues: Seattle Example
21.5 Student Exercise
21.6 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 22: TORT LIABILITY AND RISK MANAGEMENT
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Tort Liability for Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities
22.3 Trends and Example Cases
Planning, Engineering, and Public Perception
Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do
Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do Not Do 376
The Impact of These Trends
22.4 Basic Definitions
Tort
Negligence
Ordinary Care
Sovereign Immunity
22.5 Cases That Lead to Quick Settlements against a Government
22.6 Risk Assessment and Management
The General Process
Scottsdale, Arizona Case Study
Is Ignorance Really Bliss?
Spot Maintenance and Improvement Programs
22.7 Student Exercise
22.8 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 23: INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN FACILITY DESIGN
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Overview of Trends and Issues
23.3 Pedestrian Facilities and Programs
Zebra Crossings
Pelican Crossings
Toucan Crossings
Puffin Crossings
Pedestrian Messages on Pavement
Pedestrian Displays for Traffic Signals
Animated Eyes on Pedestrian Signals
Pedestrian Zones
23.4 Bicycle Facilities and Programs
The Netherlands
Germany
The United Kingdom
23.5 Student Exercise
23.6 References and Additional Resources
LESSON 24: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH: ENGINEERING, EDUCATION, ENCOURAGEMENT, ENFORCEMENT, AND EVALUATION
24.1 Introduction
24.2 The Importance of Comprehensive Programs
Example One
Example Two
24.3 Integrating Elements in a Comprehensive Approach
Determining the Scope of a Comprehensive Program
Steps in the Process
24.4 Elements of an Effective Education Program
Provide Instruction in Lawful, Responsible Behavior Among Bicyclists, Pedestrians, and Motorists
Deliver Important Safety Messages Through Various Print and Electronic Media
24.5 Elements of an Effective Enforcement Program
Improve Existing Traffic Laws, as Well as Their Enforcement
Reduce the Incidence of Serious Crimes Against Nonmotorized Travelers
Use Nonmotorized Modes to Help Accomplish Other Unrelated Departmental Goals
24.6 Elements of an Effective Encouragement Program
Reduce or Eliminate Disincentives for Bicycling and Walking and Incentives for Driving Single-Occupant Motor Vehicles
Provide Ways for Nonparticipants to Receive a Casual Introduction to Bicycling and Walking
Use Electronic and Print Media to Spread Information on the Benefits of Nonmotorized Travel
24.7 Evaluation of Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs
24.8 Student Exercise
Exercise A
Exercise B
Exercise C
24.9 References and Additional Resources
Figure 1-2. Photo. Many modern developments are designed to cater to automobile travel
Figure 1-4. Photo. Walking can have a tremendous health benefit
Figure 1-5. Photo. Many State DOTs are adopting "complete streets" policies
Figure 1-6. Photo. Safe Routes to School programs are being implemented throughout the U.S
Figure 2-1. Photo. Sidewalks must be designed to serve people of all abilities
Figure 2-2. Chart. Transportation mode data from the 2001 NHTS
Figure 2-3. Chart. Percentage bicycling in past 30 days by gender, age, race/ethnicity
Figure 2-4. Photo. Street crossings can be a significant barrier to walking
Figure 3-1. Photo. Bicyclist scanning for potential hazards
Figure 3-2. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities
Figure 3-3. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist injuries
Figure 3-4. Illustration. Vehicle turn/merge
Figure 3-5. Illustration. Intersection dash
Figure 3-6. Illustration. Other intersection
Figure 3-7. Illustration. Midblock dart/dash
Figure 3-8. Illustration. Other midblock
Figure 3-9. Illustration. Not in roadway/waiting to cross
Figure 3-10. Illustration. Walking along roadway
Figure 3-11. lustration. Backing vehicle
Figure 3-12. llustration. Ride out at stop sign
Figure 3-13. Illustration. Drive out at stop sign
Figure 3-14. qIllustration. Other ride out at intersection
Figure 3-15. Illustration. Drive out at midblock
Figure 3-16. Illustration. Motorist left turn, facing bicyclist
Figure 3-17. Illustration. Ride out at residential driveway
Figure 3-18. Illustration. Bicyclist left turn in front of traffic
Figure 3-19. Illustration. Motorist right turn
Figure 3-20. Photo. A crosswalk can increase the visibility of a pedestrian path
Figure 3-21. Illustration. Bicycle crash locations
Figure 3-22. Illustration. Pedestrian crash locations
Figure 3-23. Illustration. Site location map
Figure 4-1. Photo. Group B (basic) bicyclists value designated bike facilities such as bike lanes
Figure 4-4. Equation. Bicycle LOS
Figure 4-5. Equation. Bicycle LOS sensitivity analysis
Figure 5-2. Illustration. Cul-de-sacs can restrict pedestrian and bicycle access
Figure 5-3. Illustration. Loops are preferred to cul-de-sacs
Figure 5-4. Illustration. Typical alley: ordinances should be modified to allow for rear-lot access
Figure 5-5. Illustration. Provide pedestrian connections between parcels
Figure 6-2. Photos. Mashpee Commons before and after retrofitting
Figure 6-3. Photo. Typical suburban neighborhoods offer few route choices for trips
Figure 6-4. Photo. Neotraditional neighborhoods have narrower, tree-lined streets
Figure 6-5. Photo. Typically, suburban parking lots in retail developments are vast–and rarely full
Figure 7-1. Photo. Inadequate maintenance of sidewalks makes a short walk difficult to maneuver
Figure 7-5. Photo. Building entrances and storefronts should be oriented to face the street
Figure 8-1. Photo. People with children often walk at slower speeds
Figure 8-2. Photo. Older pedestrians often have difficulty negotiating curbs
Figure 8-3. Illustration. Recommended pedestrian body ellipse dimensions for standing areas
Figure 8-4. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for pedestrians
Figure 8-5. Illustration. Forward clear space needed by pedestrians
Figure 8-6. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for people who use mobility devices
Figure 8-7. Illustration. Minimum passage width for one wheelchair and one ambulatory person
Figure 8-8. Illustration. Minimum passage width for two wheelchairs
Figure 8-9. Photo. Driveway slopes should not encroach into the sidewalk
Figure 8-10. Illustration. High and low forward reach limits
Figure 8-11. Illustration. High and low side reach limits
Figure 8-12. Illustration. Curb ramp with sidewalk next to curb
Figure 8-13. Illustration. Measurement of curb ramp slopes and counter slope
Figure 8-14. Illustration. Sides of curb ramps
Figure 8-15. Photo. Perpendicular curb ramp
Figure 8-16. Photo. Parallel curb ramp
Figure 8-17. Illustration. Curb ramps at marked crossings
Figure 8-18. Photo. A pavement grinding project left an exaggerated lip at this curb cut
Figure 9-1. Photo. An example of a pedestrian-friendly streetscape
Figure 9-4. Photo. Parked cars can also serve as a buffer between the sidewalk and the street
Figure 9-6. Illustration. Example of clearances required to maintain effective walkway width
Figure 9-7. Photo. Example of pedestrian-oriented street lighting
Figure 9-8. Photo. Street trees provide a desirable pedestrian environment
Figure 9-9. Photo. Including amenities such as kiosks create pedestrian-friendly spaces
Figure 9-10. Photo. An outdoor cafe can add color and life to a street environment
Figure 9-11. Photo. Alleys can be made attractive and can serve as access points to shops
Figure 9-12. Photo. Some European streets have been redeveloped as pedestrian malls
Figure 9-13. Photo. Small protected spaces provide separation from noise and traffic
Figure 10-2. Photo. Pedestrian crossing signs
Figure 10-4. Photo. Variation of R10-3b regulatory crossing sign
Figure 10-8. Illustration. An intersection with examples of crosswalk markings
Figure 10-9. Illustration. Common crosswalk marking patterns
Figure 10-10. Illustration. Example of in-roadway warning lights
Figure 10-12. Photo. Example of countdown pedestrian signal in Lauderdale-By-The-Sea, FL
Figure 10-13. Example of animated eyes display
Figure 10-14. Example of a microwave detector system
Figure 10-15. Illustration. Example of an infrared detector system
Figure 10-16. Photo. Illuminated pushbuttons
Figure 11-1. Photo. Reduced visibility of pedestrians behind parked cars can create conflict
Figure 11-3. Photo. Ramp request form used by the City of Seattle, WA, Engineering Department
Figure 11-4. Photo. Flag treatment used in Kirkland, WA
Figure 11-5. Photo. Fluorescent yellow-green sign treatment in Austin, TX.
Figure 11-6. Photo. Flashing beacon treatment in Austin, TX
Figure 11-7. Photo. Detectable warnings treatment in Roseville, CA
Figure 11-8. Photo. Staggered pedestrian crossings (Z-crossings) treatment in San Luis Obispo, CA
Figure 11-9. Photo. Half-signal in Portland, OR
Figure 11-14. Photo. Example of pedestrian pushbutton location
Figure 11-15. Photo. Streets with raised medians usually have lower pedestrian crash rates
Figure 11-17. Illustration. Intersections have 16 vehicle/pedestrian conflict points
Figure 11-18. Illustration. Roundabouts have eight vehicle/pedestrian conflict points
Figure 12-7. Illustration. Diagram of a staggered crossing configuration
Figure 12-8. Photo. Staggered crosswalk with fencing
Figure 13-1. Photo. Bicyclist on a shared roadway
Figure 13-2. Photo. Bicyclists in a wide curb lane
Figure 13-3. Photo. Bicyclist in a bike lane
Figure 13-4. Photo. Bicyclists and pedestrians on a separated (shared-use) path
Figure 13-5. Bar chart. A composite chart of numerous approaches to bicycle facility selection
Figure 13-6. Equation. Bicycle LOS
Figure 13-7. Equation. Bicycle level of service sensitivity analysis
Figure 14-1. Illustration. Shared roadways include most existing roads and streets
Figure 14-2. Illustration. Example of a wide curb lane
Figure 14-3. Photo. Motorists overtaking bicyclists in a wide curb lane
Figure 14-4. Illustrations. Various pavement markings for shared roadways and wide curb lanes
Figure 14-5. Illustration. Typical application of shared roadway pavement markings
Figure 14-6. Illustration. Example of a paved shoulder or shoulder bikeway
Figure 14-7. Illustration. Example of a saw-cut pavement joint
Figure 14-8. Illustration. Example of a feathered pavement joint
Figure 14-9. Illustration. Example of the use of grindings as pavement base
Figure 14-10. Illustration. A paved driveway apron reduces gravel on roadway shoulders
Figure 14-11. Illustration. Typical signed shared route signing
Figure 14-12. Illustration. Typical elements of a bicycle boulevard
Figure 14-13. Illustration. Rumble strip guidance provided by ODOT
Figure 14-14. Illustration. Examples of bicycle-safe drainage grates
Figure 14-15. Illustration. Example of curb drainage inlet
Figure 14-16. Illustration. Bike lane or shoulder crossing railroad tracks
Figure 14-17. Illustration. Curb ramp provides access to sidewalk
Figure 15-1. Illustrations. Typical bike lane cross sections
Figure 15-2. Illustration. Retrofitting bike lanes by reducing travel lane widths
Figure 15-3. Illustration. Reducing the number of travel lanes on a one-way street
Figure 15-4. Illustration. Road diet: retrofitting bike lanes by reducing the number of travel lanes
Figure 15-5. Illustration. Narrowing parking on a one-way street
Figure 15-6. Illustration. Parking removed on one side of a two-way street
Figure 15-7. Illustration. Changing from diagonal to parallel parking on a two-way street
Figure 15-8. Illustration. Providing parking when there are no reasonable alternatives
Figure 15-9. Illustration. Restriping for a wide curb lane
Figure 15-10. Illustration. Typical pavement markings for bike lane on two-way street
Figure 15-11. Illustrations. Possible configurations for bike lane and right-turn lane
Figure 15-12. Illustrations. Design alternatives for a through bike lane with dual right-turn lanes
Figure 15-13. Illustration. Right-turn lane shared by bicyclists and motorists
Figure 15-14. Illustrations. Different loop detector configurations for traffic signals
Figure 15-15. Illustration. Example of bicycle detector pavement marking
Figure 15-18. Illustrations. Examples of optional word and symbol pavement markings for bike lanes
Figure 15-19. Illustrations. Regulatory signs for bicycle facilities
Figure 15-20. Photo. Example of blue bike lane in Portland, OR
Figure 15-21. Photo. Contraflow bike lane with bicycle-specific signal in Madison, WI
Figure 15-22. Illustration. Use of wide stripe to separate bike lane from diagonal parking
Figure 15-24. Illustration. Reconfiguration of a continuous right-turn lane to be bicycle-friendly
Figure 16-1. Photo. Shared-use paths and bicycle lanes may require additional maintenance
Figure 16-2. Photo. Roadways with paved shoulders should reduce on-road debris
Figure 16-3. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard used to identify roadway maintenance issues
Figure 16-4. Photo. Example of newly striped bicycle lane with accumulation of debris next to curb
Figure 17-1. Photo. Effective bicycle parking improves security and reduces theft
Figure 17-2. Illustrations and photo. Examples of common bicycle parking devices
Figure 17-3. Illustrations. Recommended types of bicycle racks
Figure 17-4. Illustrations. Bicycle rack types that are not APBP-recommended
Figure 17-5. Illustration. APBP-recommended design dimensions for bicycle rack areas
Figure 17-6. Photo. Excerpts from off-street parking ordinance in Madison, WI
Figure 17-7. Illustration. Philadelphia’s standard for bike rack placement in business districts
Figure 18-1. Photo. The preferred style of bike rack mounts to the front of the bus
Figure 18-2. Photo. Some transit agencies allow bicyclists to carry their bikes onto buses
Figure 18-4. Photo. Lack of adequate bike parking is a common problem at urban subways
Figure 19-4. Illustration. Typical cross section for multiuse trails
Figure 19-6. Photo. Stairway with bicycle rolling troughs (Capital Crescent Trail, Bethesda, MD)
Figure 20-1. Illustration. Examples of traffic-calming elements
Figure 20-3. Illustration. Traffic calming may not be necessary if the original problem is corrected
Figure 20-5. Photo. Speed humps can be combined with curb extensions and a winding street alignment
Figure 20-8. Illustration. Examples of one-lane and two-lane slow points
Figure 20-10. Photo. A reduced radius allows for a slower, safer turn
Figure 20-19. Illustration. Model of a woonerf
Figure 20-20. Photo. The distinctions between sidewalks and roadways are blurred in woonerfs
Figure 21-1. Utility work in bike lanes can often be accomplished without blocking the entire lane
Figure 21-2. Illustration. Example method to create passageways for pedestrians during construction
Figure 21-3. Illustration. Sidewalk closure and pedestrian detour example
Figure 21-4. Illustration. Construction sign placement
Figure 21-5. Illustration. Pedestrian control
Figure 21-6. Illustration. Pedestrian control
Figure 22-2. Photo. Bridges are a recurring theme in many tort liability claims
Figure 22-7. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard used to identify roadway hazards
Figure 23-3. Photo. Pedestrian pushbutton for pelican signals in the United Kingdom
Figure 23-4. Photo. Pedestrian signal with red standing man (shown) and green walking man
Figure 23-6. Photo. Pedestrian messages on pavement in London, U.K
Figure 23-7. Photo. Animated eyes display used in conjunction with pedestrian signal
Figure 23-8. Photo. Pedestrian mall in Munster, Germany
Figure 23-9. Photo. Bicycle path in The Netherlands parallels the high-speed roadway
Figure 23-11. Photo. Bicycle lane markings carried through an intersection in The Netherlands
Figure 23-12. Photo. Bicycle signal used in Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Figure 23-13. Photo. Sidewalk-based bicycle path used in Germany
Figure 23-14. Photo. Shared bus and bicycle lane in Germany
Figure 23-15. Photo. Example of bicycle shelters located at a transit station in Germany
Figure 23-16. Photo. Narrow contraflow bicycle lane in Cambridge, U.K..406
Figure 23-17. Photo. Bicycle trail on an abandoned railroad right-of-way south of York, U.K
Figure 24-3. Photo. Safety education programs are essential for young children
Figure 24-4. Photo. Target safety messages to key audiences through various media
Figure 24-5. Photo. The NHTSA Resource Guide can be used to improve existing traffic laws
Figure 24-6. Photo. Police bicycle patrols are effective at outreach and crime prevention
Figure 24-7. Photos. Vehicle license plates that promote sharing the road with bicyclists
Table 2-1. Regional variations in modal shares for transit, walking, and bicycling
Table 3-1. Pedestrian crash types
Table 3-2. Bicycle crash types
Table 3-3. Crash types and associated countermeasures
Table 3-4. Tabulation of pedestrian crash data
Table 3-5. Tabulation of bicycle crash data
Table 3-6. Usage data collected at major park entrances
Table 3-7. Summary of major roadways
Table 4-1. Bicycle level of service categories
Table 5-1. Site plan checklist
Table 5-2. Levels of illumination for sidewalks
Table 6-1. Comparison of new urbanism versus standard street design practices
Table 8-1. Walking characteristics and abilities of different pedestrian age groups
Table 8-2. Characteristics of other pedestrian groups
Table 8-3. Design needs of mobility-impaired pedestrians
Table 8-4. Mean walking speeds for disabled pedestrians and users of various assistive devices
Table 9-1. Corner storage space by pedestrian volumes
Table 9-2. Preemption of walkway width
Table 9-3. Minimum and desirable design features
Table 10-1. Design requirements for crosswalk pavement markings
Table 11-1. Intersection issues for safe pedestrian crossings
Table 11-2. Roundabout trade-off issues for pedestrians
Table 13-1. Bicycle compatibility index model
Table 13-2. Bicycle level of service categories
Table 20-1. Description of bumps, humps, and other raised areas
Table 20-2. Bellevue, WA, speed hump findings
Table 20-3. Advantages and disadvantages of slow points
Table 20-4. Advantages and disadvantages of corner radius and narrowed lane treatments
Table 20-5. Advantages and disadvantages of diverters
Table 20-6. Comparison of roundabouts with traffic circles
Table 20-7. Advantages and disadvantages of roundabouts
Table 20-8. Comparative crash rates for signalized intersections and roundabouts
Table 20-9. Speed impacts downstream of traffic-calming measures
Table 20-10. Volume impacts of traffic-calming measures
FHWA-HRT-05-085 |