Adapted from Animal Care and Use Committees An American Perspective
In: Animal Models of Infectious Disease, O. Zak and
T. O'Reilly, eds., Basel, Switzerland: Academic Press, 1999, Chapter
1.
The views expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent
positions or policies of the U.S. Department of Agriculture or
any agency thereof and should not be interpreted as such.
INTRODUCTION
The Animal Welfare Act (AWA) (1966) is the primary Federal law
that governs the use of animals in research, testing, and teaching
in the United States. Originally passed by Congress in 1966 and
amended in 1970, 1976, 1985 and 1990, the AWA provides the basis
for the regulatory authority given to the United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA) to ensure the welfare of covered animals
used in regulated activities. The Act includes all warm-blooded
vertebrates, as defined by the Secretary of Agriculture, but specifically
exempts all farm animals used in food or fiber research or production.
Rats of the genus Rattus, mice of the genus Mus,
and all birds are administratively exempted at this time by the
Secretary of Agriculture. With the passage of the 1985 "Improved
Standards for Laboratory Animals Act,'' sponsored by Senator Robert
Dole and Representative George Brown, the provisions of the AWA
were greatly expanded. The primary purpose of the new law was
succinctly stated by Senator Dole in his remarks introducing the
amendment. He said,
"Mr. President, the farm bill contains legislation dealing with the humane treatment of animals. The main thrust of the bill is to minimize pain and distress suffered by animals used for experiments and tests. In so doing, biomedical research will gain in accuracy and humanity. We owe much to laboratory animals and that debt can best be repaid by good treatment and keeping painful experiments to a minimum." (Congressional Record 1985)
The new law redefined humane care to include such factors as
sanitation, ventilation, and housing. The USDA was directed to
establish regulations to give dogs the opportunity for exercise
and to set standards relating to a physical environment adequate
to promote the psychological well- being of non-human primates.
Not unexpectedly, the regulations greatly expanded the powers
of the laboratory animal veterinarian and stressed the need to
minimize pain and distress through adequate veterinary care and
the proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, tranquilizers, and
euthanasia. The principle investigator was also obligated to consider
alternatives to any procedure likely to cause pain or distress.
USDA considers alternatives in the spirit of the 3R's of Russell
and Burch (1959)-- Reduction in the numbers of animals
used, Refinement of techniques to minimize pain or distress,
or Replacement with non-animal techniques. To ensure that
the new regulations were being followed, the law also called for
the establishment of Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees
(IACUC). The IACUC was given broad powers to oversee all aspects
of an institutions animal care and use program, including approval
or disapproval of animal use protocols, development of training
programs for animal care and use personnel, inspection of all
animal areas, review of the animal care program, and investigation
of any alleged problems. The development of the IACUC also allowed
USDA to begin "enforced self-regulation." Under this
concept, the institution is responsible for ensuring compliance
with the AWA regulations and reporting any problems to USDA. To
ensure that the IACUC is performing its duties, USDA inspects
all research facilities at least once each year. The new law also
established an information service (the Animal Welfare Information
Center) at USDA's National Agricultural Library to assist both
researchers and IACUCs in complying with provisions of the regulations.
Finally, the law provided for severe penalties for any IACUC member
that released proprietary information or other trade secrets garnered
in the course of IACUC activities.
Although the AWA regulations are the only Federal regulations
governing the welfare of animals in research, the Guide for
the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NRC, 1996) is a widely
used reference on animal care and use. But, researchers receiving
funding from the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) are obligated
to follow the animal care standards found in the Guide
and must assure the PHS that they are doing so. Unlike the AWA,
the Guide covers all species of animals used in biomedical
research. By and large, the standards found in the Guide
and the AWA regulations have been harmonized.
Because of the legal burden placed upon IACUCs, it is important
to understand the organization and make-up of the committee, the
regulations they are required to follow, the processes involved
in review and inspection of the institution's policies and physical
plant, the process of protocol review, common IACUC problems,
and finally, a look at special issues in research.
ORGANIZATION
Under the 1985 amendments, each institution must designate an
Institutional Official (IO), who has the authority to legally
commit on behalf of the research facility that the regulations
of the AWA will be followed. The IACUC, which is appointed by
the chief executive officer, reports directly to the Institutional
Official. Although the IACUC is responsible for evaluating the
animal care program, it is the IO who has ultimate legal responsibility
for ensuring compliance with the regulations and proper functioning
of the IACUC. Under both the AWA and the Guide, the IACUC
has final authority to disapprove any activity involving the care
and use of animals. However, activities approved by the IACUC
may be subject to further scrutiny by the institution (USDA, 1995b;
NRC, 1996).
MEMBERSHIP
The AWA provides that, at a minimum, each IACUC shall be composed
of the chairman, a veterinarian, and an unaffiliated member. The
unaffiliated member, as the name implies, has no affiliation with
the institution and can receive only minimal compensation (e.g.,
travel expenses, meals, or modest monetary payments for participation)
from the institution. If the committee is composed of more than
three members, not more than three members can be from the same
administrative unit.
By contrast, the Guide requires that an IACUC should include
a practicing scientist experienced in research involving animals,
a veterinarian experienced in laboratory animal science or medicine,
and one must not be affiliated with the institution. The PHS Policy
also discusses committee membership. A survey of 477 research
facilities in 1995 found that most IACUC's consisted of 7 members
with a range from 3 to 50 members (Borkowski, 1996).
The Veterinarian
The veterinarian must be trained and experienced in laboratory
animal science and medicine, and must have direct or delegated
responsibility for the animal care program and activities involving
animals. The veterinarian should also help determine the institution's
goals for its animal care program, develop training programs to
ensure humane treatment of animals, and promote the use of alternatives
to animals whenever possible (Van Hoosier, 1987; Schwindaman, 1994).
The Non-affiliated Member
The role of the non-affiliated member (NAM) has recently been
the subject of much debate in the United States. The inclusion
of NAM's on animal care committees was a hard fought victory for
advocates of laboratory animals (Stevens, 1986). Under both the
AWA and the Guide, the role of the NAM is to "provide
representation for general community interests in the care and
treatment of animals" (USDA, 1995b; NRC, 1996). Members of
animal protection groups wanted the NAM to have a background in
animal protection efforts and thought that the NAM would provide
greater accountability from researchers. However, the NAM is appointed
by the CEO with little input from the community and oftentimes
has no background in animal welfare or animal protection. One
of the reasons for this hesitancy to appoint animal protectionists
is the underlying fear that s/he may be obstructive or damaging
to the actions of the committee (Levin and Stephens, 1995). In
the industrial sector, the whole issue of the nonaffiliated member
is clouded by the possibility that trade secrets or other proprietary
information could be made public. However, Congress recognized
this possibility and provided for serious criminal penalties for
release of trade secrets by anyone on the IACUC (USDA, 1995b).
Many observers agree that the NAM brings an unbiased view to the
IACUC, and ensures that animal use is essential. By providing
public accountability, the NAM serves as "the built-in integrity
factor to counter negative public perception or prevent the real
potential for conflict of interest" (Theran, 1997).
FEDERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR IACUC ACTIVITIES
The primary functions of an IACUC are to review and inspect all
aspects of an institution's animal care and use program including
all animal facilities and animal care records, review animal use
protocols, review and investigate complaints about animal use,
and make recommendations to the Institutional Official (USDA, 1995b;
NRC, 1996). The purpose of these reviews and inspections is to
provide a mechanism that ensures compliance with all regulations
and policies and allows for interaction between the IACUC and
institutional staff members. The IACUC becomes a group of individuals
rather than a faceless in-house regulatory body, which serves
to lessen the sometimes adversarial nature of the review process.
Review of the Animal Care Program
At least once every 6 months, the IACUC must conduct a thorough
review of the institutions program for humane care and use of
animals. It is useful to use the AWA regulations and the Guide
as the basis. Evaluation of the program should concern itself
with how these activities are administered, implemented, and documented.
It will necessarily focus on record-keeping and review of written
procedures and policies. The programs that should receive a thorough
evaluation include all IACUC procedures and policies, methods
for protection of personnel that report deficiencies in animal
care or treatment, procedures for filing of semi-annual and annual
reports to the Institutional Official and/or USDA, the facilities
program of veterinary care, the occupational health program for
animal care personnel, and finally, the facilities training program
for all personnel involved in the use of animals (McLaughlin, 1993).
Facility Inspections
As with the program review, facility inspections must be completed
once every 6 months by the IACUC. By observing the animals in
their daily quarters, the IACUC can most readily determine if
the institutional animal care policies are promoting the welfare
of the animals. Another compelling reason is that the inspection
ensures that the facility is complying with all Federal regulations
and guidelines.
Members of the IACUC tour the facility's animal rooms, study rooms,
feed and bedding preparation areas, necropsy rooms, cage wash
areas, and any other rooms used in the animal program. If animals
are routinely transported to laboratories or are maintained in
satellite facilities, these areas must also be inspected. In addition
to examining the animals, animal care personnel should be questioned
about the daily and weekly animal husbandry routine. Facilities
housing dogs and non-human primates have to meet special requirements
concerning the well-being of these animals. It is imperative that
the IACUC pay special attention to the implementation of these
requirements for exercise in dogs and environmental enrichment
for non-human primates. During the inspection process, the IACUC
member should take detailed notes documenting, as needed, minor
and significant deficiencies, or outstanding innovations that
have improved animal welfare. These notes will be used in preparation
of the report to the Institutional Official.
After the program review and facility inspection, a detailed report
is generated noting any significant or minor deficiencies, the
probable reason for the deficiency, and plans for corrective actions
including a timetable for completion of these actions. The report
should also note outstanding aspects of the program and facilities.
Significant deficiencies, those that pose an immediate threat
to the health or safety of the animals, must be corrected within
a reasonable time frame. Any failure to adhere to the plan that
results in a significant deficiency remaining uncorrected must
be reported to the USDA and any Federal agency that has provided
funding for a project. The final report must be approved by a
majority of the IACUC and must include any dissenting viewpoints.
IACUC Review of Protocols
Both the AWA and the PHS Guide mandate the review of animal
research protocols by the animal care and use committee before
any research may begin. The AWA also requires the IACUC to review
all approved protocols on an annual basis. The IACUC must review
and approve, require modifications to a proposal in order to secure
approval, or disapprove any protocol which it receives. The institution
is given leeway in determining the most appropriate means of complying
with these requirements (Dresser, 1989). The regulations and guidelines
do not specify the frequency of meetings for IACUC's, leaving
this to the needs of each institution. Animal care committees
at large institutions may meet every week while smaller institutions
may be able to function with bimonthly meetings.
The AWA mandates very specific criteria that must be met before
an IACUC may grant approval to new proposals or changes in existing
protocols (Schwindaman, 1994; USDA, 1995b). Those criteria include:
THE ANIMAL USE PROTOCOL REVIEW FORM
While Federal regulations give rather specific requirements for
what an IACUC must consider for approval or disapproval of animal
use protocols, the actual method for collecting that information
has been left to the scientific community (Dresser, 1989). However,
the protocol review form is the key to the entire process for
it provides the IACUC members with the necessary information required
for them to perform their jobs (Prentice et al., 1991). A
successful review form should be regarded as a dynamic document
that can change with the institutions experiences and evolving
regulatory, professional and societal standards (Prentice et
al, 1991). A well-designed review form challenges the scientist
to examine and justify, both scientifically and ethically, all
aspects of a procedure that affects the well-being of the animals
(Russow, 1995).
To assist the scientist and the members of the IACUC, each institution
should develop policies or standard operating procedures on common
painful experimental procedures that carry a "high ethical
cost," so that everyone involved in the review process has
a common point of reference and consistent decisions are rendered.
This also leads to a more efficient IACUC as time is not spent
resolving the same conflicts time and again. Some of these procedures
would include the use of complete Freund's adjuvant, death as
an endpoint, tumor burdens, food and water deprivation, and LD50
studies for both toxicology and infectious disease studies (Dresser,
1987). Institutional guidelines may require that alternative methods
be used for particularly painful procedures, may list criteria
for euthanizing animals during a painful procedure, or may provide
guidance as to monitoring animals for symptoms of pain or distress.
THE PROTOCOL REVIEW PROCESS
Contrary to public perception, the animal care and use committee
is not an animal welfare committee. If IACUCs were required to
approve protocols based solely on animal welfare issues most protocols
would be rejected. The primary purpose of protocol review is to
promote the welfare of animals without compromising valid scientific
objectives that might benefit other animals and humankind. Protocol
review is a moral and ethical evaluation that necessarily requires
the evaluation of the science involved (Prentice et al.,
1990; Prentice et al., 1992). Without addressing the validity
of the proposed scientific objectives and methods, the IACUC can't
decide if the ethical cost weighed against the potential benefits
is morally justifiable (Prentice et al., 1992; Russow, 1995).
It would appear that the Public Health Service Policy on Humane
Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (PHS, 1996) provides the
IACUC, as an appropriate institutional review board, with a legal
basis for considering scientific merit of a proposed research
activity. According to this document "procedures involving
animals should be designed and performed with due consideration
of their relevance to human or animal health, the advance of knowledge,
or the good of society."(OPRR, 1991; Prentice et al., 1992)
The review process will be different at different institutions
depending upon the needs of the facility. A committee may delegate
review of protocols to a review team or may require all members
of the IACUC to review the form. Regardless of the process used,
the AWA and PHS Guide require that all members of the committee
have full access to the protocol review form. Federal regulations
and guidelines allow the designated reviewers to approve, require
modifications to, or disapprove a protocol. But any member of
the IACUC may request full committee review. Approval by the full
committee requires that a quorum be present and a majority vote
to approve (USDA, 1995b; NRC, 1996).
Because IACUCs are asked to review a broad range of activities,
many of which may be outside the expertise of the committee, the
use of consultants is allowed. However, the consultants do not
have voting privileges unless they are members of the IACUC.
During the review process, the members of the IACUC should carefully
assess the information provided by the scientist on the animal
protocol form. If for any reason a reviewer is not satisfied with
the information provided by the scientist, s/he may submit questions
to the scientist asking for clarification or additional information.
Typical reasons for a protocol being sent back to a scientist
would include:
Consideration of Alternatives
Animal welfare regulations require that an investigator performing
procedures that are painful or distressful to the animal provide
assurance that no alternatives exist to the painful procedure.
To provide this assurance, the investigator must provide, except
in unique circumstances, a written narrative that describes the
literature databases searched (e.g., Medline, EmBase, Biosis Previews,
AGRICOLA, PREX), the keywords or strategy used to retrieve information,
and a brief description of why alternatives are or are not available.
In some circumstances, the IACUC may allow the investigator to
provide other information describing the "methods and sources
used to determine that no alternatives were available to the painful
or distressful procedure" (DeHaven, 1999). The IACUC must
satisfy itself that alternatives were adequately considered and
must discuss the use of alternatives during meetings and note
the discussion in its minutes. These must be made available to
USDA inspectors, if requested. (USDA, 1989). Stokes and Jensen
(1995) have developed guidelines to assist IACUCs in reviewing
protocols for alternatives. Some institutions have developed animal
alternatives committees (James et al., 1995; Holden, 1997) or appointed
librarians familiar with this type of searching (Keefer and Westbrook,
1996) to help the IACUC with this aspect of protocol review. Smith
(1994) has written a method paper on searching for alternatives
that is an overview of this type of searching.
To assist both investigators and IACUCs, the 1985 amendment to
the Animal Welfare Act established the Animal Welfare Information
Center (AWIC) within USDA's National Agricultural Library. AWIC
provides literature searching services and produces numerous publications
and workshops on animal welfare and the use of alternatives in
research, testing, and teaching.
As mentioned previously, the law provides for an annual review
of protocols by the IACUC. The investigator should use this review
as an opportunity to reexamine the literature for alternatives
that may have been developed since the prior review.
Expedited Review of Animal Use Protocols
Under the Animal Welfare Act the principal investigator is required
to provide the animal care and use committee with a written description
of all activities that involve the care and use of animals that
are covered by the regulations. If a full committee review is
not apparently necessary or is not requested, then an expedited
review of the protocol may be made. For an expedited review, the
committee chairman designates at least one member of the IACUC
who is qualified to conduct the review to review the protocol.
This designated individual(s) is to review the protocol and has
the authority to: (1) approve the protocol, (2) require modifications
to the protocol, or (3) request a full committee review of the
protocol. If a full committee review is requested, approval may
be granted only after review, at a convened meeting of a quorum
of the IACUC, and with approval vote of a majority of the quorum
present. No member of the IACUC may participate in a protocol
review or approval, or be part of a quorum, if that member has
a conflicting interest in the protocol, except to provide requested
information to the IACUC. The IACUC member making the expedited
review does not have the authority to disapprove a protocol. Disapproval,
or suspension, of a protocol may only be done by a majority vote
of a quorum at a convened meeting of the IACUC.
SPECIAL ISSUES
Appropriate Animal Numbers
One of the primary responsibilities of the IACUC is to ensure
that the fewest animals possible that will yield scientifically
valid data are used in an experiment. Too many animals are an
unethical waste of animals and an improper use of research funds.
The same argument holds true for using too few animals. However,
with proper planning and consultation with a biostatistician,
calculating the proper number of animals can be attained. It should
be noted, however, that other factors, such as ethical considerations,
may also influence the number of animals in a sample size.
The scientist must provide adequate justification for the number
of animals proposed for the protocol. The appropriate number of
animals for a study will be determined by the variability of the
parameter being studied and the statistical tests to be used in
analyzing the experimental results (Festing, 1992). To successfully
use statistical formulas for determining sample size, the scientist
must have some idea of several parameters: the probability of
accepting a false positive (alpha error) or a false negative (beta
error), the smallest difference worth detecting (effect size),
and the variability of experimental groups (Mann et al., 1991;
Festing, 1995). Proper scrutiny of the relevant scientific literature
may provide information on effect size and variability allowing
the investigator to assign precise values to these variables for
use in power analysis or other methods for estimating sample size.
Because of the profound effect of variability on the response
of animals to an experimental challenge, it is necessary to understand
this source of error if animal numbers are to be minimized (Festing,
1992). To minimize within group variability it is imperative that
animals be free of clinical or sub-clinical disease and not subject
to environmental or dietary stress (except as part of a protocol).
The use of inbred strains of laboratory animals will further reduce
variability and the number of animals needed because their high
degree of uniformity increases the statistical power (the probability
that a statistical test will detect a difference when the difference
actually exists) (Festing, 1995).
Erb (1996) has provided an excellent review of the actual elements
of the sample size calculations, issues that determine which sample
size formula to use, and methods to decrease the needed sample
size when the calculated sample size is impractical to use.
Minimizing Pain and Distress
U.S. animal welfare regulations define a painful procedure as
one that "would reasonably be expected to cause more than
slight or momentary pain or distress in a human being to which
that procedure was applied, that is, pain in excess of that caused
by injections or other minor procedures" (USDA, 1995b). Investigators
are required to consult with a veterinarian to assure that pain
or distress is minimized. Because many studies have the potential
for causing pain in animals, the IACUC should establish guidelines
for periodic monitoring of animals, set criteria for veterinary
intervention to alleviate pain through use of analgesics or euthanasia,
and require training for investigators and animal care personnel
to ensure that all can recognize symptoms of pain and distress.
Morton (1985) and other authors (Soma, 1987; NRC, 1992) provide
comprehensive reviews on recognition of pain and distress in laboratory
animals. The IACUC should make these available to animal use personnel.
Alternatives to Death as an Endpoint
Because certain studies may cause irreversible pain or distress
before death ensues, the investigator should strive to incorporate
earlier endpoints that will satisfy the requirements of the study
and spare the animal a painful death (Siems and Allen, 1989; Olfert,
1995). Also, an earlier endpoint may result in better scientific
data as the death of the animal may result in postmortem changes
to tissue or body fluids (Amyx, 1987a; Siems and Allen, 1989). Because
these earlier endpoints may be best addressed as part of the experimental
design, IACUC review of the experimental design becomes very important,
especially in infectious disease studies (Amyx, 1987b).
Hamm (1995) has proposed guidelines for IACUC acceptance of death
as an endpoint. By establishing clear guidelines or criteria for
early euthanasia of animal subjects, the IACUC can clearly minimize
the pain or distress that the animal will experience. Numerous
authors have outlined these criteria (Morton, 1985; Tomasovic, 1988;
Hamm, 1995; Olfert, 1995). Frequently mentioned variables that should
be observed include body weight, physical appearance, clinical
signs such as temperature, heart rate, or bleeding, unprovoked
behavior of the animal, and responses to external stimuli. In
infectious disease studies, the investigator should use information
available from the infectious disease literature on progression
of symptoms, time course of the disease and other unique features
of the disease being studied to establish earlier endpoints (Soothill
et al., 1992). In some studies there may be a scientifically
valid reason for allowing the progression to death. However, inconvenience
to the investigator or cost of alternatives are not acceptable
reasons (Tomasovic, 1988).
Alternatives in Antibody Production
This has emerged as a very controversial topic in the United States.
In 1997, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the National Institutes
of Health were petitioned by the American Anti-Vivisection Society
to ban the use of animals in the production of monoclonal antibodies
(MAb) via the ascites method. Although several European countries
have regulations limiting or prohibiting the use of animals for
MAb production (McArdle, 1997), at this time USDA has no statutory
authority to prohibit the use of animals for MAb production.
Production of antibodies in animals usually involves the use of
an adjuvant or priming agent, such as Freund's complete or incomplete
adjuvant or pristane, in conjunction with a selected antigen to
stimulate the immune system of an animal to produce titres of
antibodies. But it should be remembered that the purpose of the
adjuvant is to induce antibodies not pain (Amyx, 1987b). Both
types of Freund's adjuvants are known to produce serious inflammatory
reactions that may result in abscesses, granuloma's or tissue
necrosis. Consequently, IACUC's should always question the use
of these adjuvants and should urge investigators to use alternative
adjuvants such as Montanide ISA or Ribi's. These alternative adjuvants
may provide immunopotentiation similar to Freund's but without
the severe pain associated with the use of Freund's (Hanly,
et al., 1997).
The production of MAb's via induction of ascites fluid has been
an important tool in immunological and infectious disease research.
However, unless the mouse or other animal is carefully monitored,
the potential for severe pain is very real. In 1974 Kohler and
Milstein showed that MAb's could be produced with in vitro methods.
With Niels Jerne they won the 1984 Nobel Prize for their in vivo
and in vitro work on MAb production (McArdle, 1997). Current in
vitro methods widely used in Europe and the United States include
modular bioreactors, static and agitated suspension cultures,
and membrane-based and matrix-based culture systems (Marx et
al., 1997; Petrie, 1997). Modular bioreactors used in the United
States have been found to rival the efficiency of the ascites
method (Petrie, 1997). The use of these in vitro methods, besides
eliminating the use of animals, have the added advantage of being
free of contaminating antibodies, cytokines and similar biologically
active materials. Because the primary purpose of the IACUC is
to minimize pain in animals, it should always encourage the use
of alternative methods of MAb production at both the institutional
and laboratory level. To assist IACUCs, a comprehensive bibliography
on adjuvants and antibody production is available at
http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/antibody/
(Smith et al., 1997). Proceedings of a conference Alternatives in
Monoclonal Antibody Production sponsored by NIH and The Johns
Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing are
available at
http://altweb.jhsph.edu/meetings/mab/proceedings.htm
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The 1985 amendments to the U.S. Animal Welfare Act have had a
profound effect on the way that scientific research is conducted
in the United States. With the establishment of institutional
animal care and use committees, scientists wishing to conduct
research using animals must receive approval from a committee
composed of their peers and a representative of the general public.
This accountability, for the privilege of using live animals in
scientific endeavors, is enforced by periodic, unannounced inspections
by veterinarians from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Although
no system of oversight is without problems, the animal care and
use committee process in the United States seems to be doing its
job of facilitating science while allowing for the welfare of
those animals that must be used in research. However, with continuing
societal concern over the use of animals in research, these committees
should be advocates for alternative methods that implement the
3R's of Russell and Burch (1959) whenever possible.
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