29 October 2014 magmatic eruption, the first such event in 150 years

This report primarily summarizes activity during January 2013 through mid-December 2014 (although a plot of SO₂ flux during 1 October 2008-30 November 2013 is also presented). That activity included frequent gas emissions, occasional increases in seismicity, intermittent gas explosions that generated ash plumes and ashfall, and strong gas explosions on 21 May 2013 and 29-31 October 2014. Material here are primarily extracted from a 2013 annual report and the suite of 2014 monthly reports, all prepared by the Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA).

Recent Bulletin reports (BGVN 37:06 and 38:02) indicated that the number of volcanic earthquakes and degassing events at Turrialba’s W crater during 2012 were lower than those in 2010 and 2011. The three main fumaroles present in the W crater were as follows: Boca 2010 on the W wall, Boca 2011 on the N wall, and Boca 2012 on the E wall.

Gas data, 2008-early 2013. Ultraviolet spectral analysis can yield estimates of volcanogenic SO₂. The methods to assess and express volcanogenic SO₂ vary, with some methods looking at the atmospheric column (total column mass) and others the flux of the gas close to the volcano (mass per unit time, for example, metric tons per day).

The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) travels in space onboard NASA’s Aura satellite and yields estimate of the column SO₂ mass. For Turrialba during the 2008-2013 period OMI determined SO₂ mass burdens generally below 1,500 metric tons and in a few cases to higher values including two cases in the range 2,500-4,000 metric tons (figure 36).

Figure 36. OMI satellite retrievals for SO2 masses in the atmospheric column during 1 October 2008-1 November 2013. Headers are in Spanish (unchanged from original source): Y-axis is SO2 mass in thousands of metric tons, X-axis is date (dd/mm/yyyy). Note the use of commas on the X-axis scale in the place of decimal points (0,5 = 0.5). Graphic is directly from the 2013 annual OVSICORI-UNA report (p. 6).

During 1 April 2013 to 27 November 2013, the ground-based differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) stations near Turrialbal recorded fluxes generally between 500-1,000 metric tons/day.

Based on the DOAS observations, OVSICORI-UNA plotted the CO₂ / SO₂ molar ratio. After an explosion on 21 May 2013, the observatory found this ratio generally increased progressively in available data during the nearly six months that followed (figure 37). In a similar manner, the H₂S / SO₂ molar ratio also showed a tendancy towards progressive increase in available data (figure 38).

Figure 37. CO2 /SO2 molar ratios at the Boca 2010 vent from DOAS measurements at Turrialba in the interval from 1 April 2013 to 27 November 2013. DOAS stands for Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy, measurements made by stations at the volcano. Spanish labels (left to right): ash emission, increase in seismicity, decrease in seismicity. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Figure 38. H2S/SO2 ratios between 1 April 2013 and late November 2013 at Turrialba’s Boca 2010, as measured by DOAS stations. Spanish-language labels correspond to triangles on the X-axis stating, from left to right: “ash emission,” “increase in seismicity,” and “decrease in seismicity.” Note error bar (incertidumbre) at upper left. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

2013 events and monitoring. According to OVSICORI-UNA, the year 2013 began with low seismic activity (shallow hybrid earthquakes) and weak gas emissions similar to those in 2012. In March and April 2013, volcano-tectonic earthquakes originating more than 5 km below the summit began to occur, along with the first tornillo earthquakes of the year. (Tornillo-type earthquakes are long period with wave forms that, at or near the start, contain higher amplitude signals that gradually decrease with time. Their shape on seismograms resembles a woodscrew.) The number of volcanic earthquakes increased from 10/day on 18 April to more than 500/day on 13 July. This high level persisted until the end of August 2013.

On 20 May 2013, increased gas emissions produced a sky-blue plume visible from nearby areas. An eruption followed the next day.

At 0452 on 21 May, the number of hybrid earthquakes became numerous. Continuous harmonic tremor increased at 0720. At 0830 and after 1100, explosions from both Boca 2010 and Boca 2012 vents generated ash plumes that rose more than 500 m (figure 39). Ashfall was reported in nearby communities to the N, W, and WSW. The 21 May ash emission event was discussed in the context of molar ratios of gas species in figures 37 and 38.

Figure 39. Gas explosions on 21 May 2013 at Boca 2010 and Boca 2012 on Turriabla’s W crater. Photo taken by the webcam OVSICORI-UNA-A. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

At noon on 21 May 2013, ash emissions ceased and seismicity decreased. Seismic activity declined sharply after the 21 May explosions, as did the CO2 /SO₂ ratio, as measured in situ by a portable Multigas station. As previously noted (figures 37 and 38), for plotted measurements, the CO2 / SO₂ and H2S / SO₂ ratios tended to progressively rise during the months that followed.

OVSICORI-UNA reported that a pilot flying past Turrialba about 40 km away observed a blackish plume on 29 May 2013. Officials from the Parque Nacional Volcán Turrialba observed a gas plume that was slightly darker than usual between 0730 and 0745; however, seismic records showed no abnormal activity at those times or seismic data signifying the discharge of a plume during the previous 48 hours. In addition, web camera images lacked evidence of ash emissions since 23 May. Gas plumes with temperatures more than 750°C were emitted from the two vents. The plume from Boca 2010 was whiter than the plume emitted from Boca 2012.

On 4 June 2013, light ashfall was reported in Pacayas (about 13 km W) and San Pablo in Oreamuno de Cartago (25 km SW). An observer in the previously closed National Park engulfing Turrialba noted that gas emissions that day were slightly stronger and more grayish than usual.

According to OVSICORI-UNA, seismic activity increased significantly again on 13 July 2013 with low-frequency signals (figure 40). On that day, the number of seismic events increased to more than 500/day. Seismicity remained at this level until late August when it decreased. During this period the gas temperature from Boca 2012 decreased from ~800°C to ~600°C. During 18-19 July, low-frequency tremor was detected. No morphological changes at the surface were observed.

Figure 40. As recorded at Turrialba between January-November 2013, the number of volcanic earthquakes (y-axis on plot at left) and the number of very long period (VLP) earthquakes (y-axis on plot at right). Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Volcanic earthquakes with very long periods ceased in November 2013. Tornillos also became less frequent.

2014. The 29 October magmatic eruption discussed below culminated years of high gas emissions at Turrialba. The eruption was sudden and impulsive, termed an explosion by OVSICORI-UNA, but was led by ongoing ash-bearing emission and a clear multihour escalation in tremor. No human injuries were reported. Costa Rica has bolstered its hazard infrastructure in recent years. According to GFDRR (2012) the legislation called the “Emergencies and Risk Prevention Law (No. 8488) requires Government agencies and municipalities to allocate resources for disaster risk reduction activities in their programs and budgets. Presidential Decree (No.36721-MP-PLAN) enhanced the risk management competencies of the CNE [the National Risk Prevention and Emergencies Management Commission] and provides a model to assess vulnerability (compulsory in governmental planning processes).”

During January-September 2014, the number of volcanic earthquakes often remained relatively low (under 100, figure 41, left plot). Occasionally the number approached 200. The low seismicity was broadly similar to that in the last half of 2013; the majority of earthquakes were of low magnitude, including those of tornillo, volcanic-tectonic, and hybrid affinities. During January-September 2014, volcano-tectonic (VT) seismicity was generally stable (at 3 or fewer events per day)(figure 41, right plot).

Figure 41. The number of daily seismic events at Turrialba during 1 January 2014-30 September 2014. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

On 28 July 2014, a swarm of small, low-amplitude, short-duration, and high-frequency events lasted two hours. OVSICORI-UNA attributed the swarm to movement of fluids through cracks.

Conde and others (2014a) published an article about volcanic SO₂ and CO2 fluxes at Turrialba during early 2013. They discussed SO₂ and CO2 measurement methodologies used at Turrialba and Telica. OVSICORI-UNA reports during January-March 2014 noted the development of significantly more accurate, continuous ground-based SO₂ monitoring. In addition, OVSICORI-UNA acquired and used an additional instrument, a Flyspec (a mini-spectrometer to measure SO₂ levels). According to the OVSICORI-UNA September 2014 monthly report, SO₂ fluxes in 2014 through September ranged from 400 to 1,500 metric tons/day, well below the maximum ~3,500 t/d they recorded during several days in June-August 2009 (Conde and others, 2014b).

In addition, reported CO2/SO₂ ratios were ~8 in May, 2-4 in June, and ~2.5 in July 2014. H2S/SO₂ molar ratios were ~1.2 in May and 0.2-0.7 in June 2014. Several authors in the two cited articles by Conde and others are affiliated with the NOVAC project (Network for Observation of Volcanic and Atmospheric Change). According to its website, the main objective of NOVAC is to establish a network for the measurements of volcanic gas and aerosol emissions--in particular SO₂ and BrO--and to use the data from this network for risk assessment and volcanological research, both locally and on a regional and global scale. OVSICORI-UNA is part of the NOVAC consortium.

The temperatures at the W crater vents during January-July 2014 were about 600°C or lower, similar to the values of the previous six months as measured 15-20 m from the vents. In August and September, temperatures rose slightly to ~650°C; the composition of the gases were stable and interpreted as primarily magmatic.

Deformation in the August and September 2014 OVSICORI-UNA reports was determined by using interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), Global Position System (GPS), and electronic distance meter (EDM) surveys. According to the August 2014 report, the InSAR and EDM measurements showed, in the 2013-2014 time interval, a relative contraction of several centimeters around the E and W craters. The September 2014 OVSICORI-UNA reported that a GPS survey on a 4-point transect from the base of the volcano to the summit yielded preliminary results indicating that one of the stations (VTQU, on the S flank) had sunk 2-3 cm/year since 2011. The September 2014 report did not report deformation at other stations.

According to OVSICORI-UNA, seismic activity, which had been low earlier in the year, began to increase in late September 2014. In mid-October instruments recorded a three-day swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes. The largest event, M 2.8, occurred at 2035 on 16 October at a depth of 5 km beneath the active crater. SO₂ flux remained low to moderate ranging between 400 and 1,500 metric tons per day during through October 2014. Magmatic influenced degassing intensified during 28-29 October; the SO₂ flux was ~2,000 t/d, higher than the 1,300 t/d average measured in September 2014 and the highest to date during 2014. (Recalling the previously mentioned interval 1 April-27 November 2013, the recorded fluxes also stood lower, generally in the range 500-1,000 tons/day).

The 30 October report by OVSICORI-UNA, which contains informative graphics omitted here, including photos of the plume, tephra deposited on a car, seismic instrument records and spectral information, a helicorder record for a 24-hour interval bracketing the explosion). OVSICORI-UNA described the eruption on the 29th as a moderate eruption of ash between 2310 and 2335 (25 munutes).

According to that report, tremor began at 0600 on the 29th and continued unbroken into at least early the next day. The tremor and the associated RSAM escalation was sufficiently ominous as to lead OVSICORI to notify locals of the situation (including the CNE, the National Park, as well as a nearby lodge. The same OVSICORI-UNA report added that at unstated time during this episode the lodge’s chief Tony Lachner noted the plume was darker than usual, contained a yellowish tinge, and was judged to contain ash. At 1700, OVSICORI-UNA again informed local authorities on the situation. The tremor had increased in amplitude and continuity (duration) during the afternoon. Tremor became strongest around 2310-2320 on the 29th coincident with the strong explosion then. The same report noted that OVSICORI-UNA had alerted aviation authorities of the explosion around midnight.

The explosion, heard by local residents, also left a clear record on instruments in the region including those at Poas and Irazu. The explosion ended what started as an initially small eruption from the West Crater that lasted about 25 minutes. The explosion was heard by nearby villagers. An ash cloud rose to an altitude of 5.8 km and drifted WSW. Ash fell on numerous nearby communities, including parts of the capital of San José (whose outskirts are ~30 km W) and Heredia (centered less than 40 km WNW of the volcano). In more detail, settlements noted by OVSICORI-UNA included San Gerardo de Irazú, San Ramón de Tres Ríos, Coronado, Moravia, Curridabat, Desamparados, Aserrí, Escazú, Santa Ana, Belén, Guácima de Alajuela, Río Segundo de Alajuela, San Pedro Montes de Oca, Guadalupe, areas of Heredia, and the capital of San José (population ~350,000, with central downtown located~ 70 km SW of Turrialbla).

The explosion on the 29th destroyed the wall between the West and Central craters, depositing material around the Central Crater and partially burying it. According to a news report (Agence France-Presse), Turrialba National Park remained closed, and eleven people from Santa Cruz de Turrialba were evacuated to shelters. Some schools were also temporarily closed, affecting over 300 area students. OVSICORI-UNA literature (including the 30 October report discussed above) noted that magma had not previously reached the surface at Turrialba since an eruption in 1866 (~150 years ago).

The magmatic eruption continued during 30-31 October (figure 42) with growing magmatic components seen in samples. Analyses of tephra showed that the proportion of juvenile material increased during 30 and 31 October, respectively, rising from the range of 3-5% by volume to the range of 7-10% by volume. A 30 October OVSICORI-UNA report noted that the ash dispersion modeling assumed a plume height of 1.5 km, consistent with a photo they showed (time unstated), which showed much of the plume remaining comparatively low in the area of view near the volcano. According to the Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), the 30-31 October eruption produced a continuous emission of gas and light ash with an occasional burst of heavier ash, generally moving W and SW.

Figure 42. A photo of emissions at Turrialba’s West Crater on 31 October 2014. The photo was taken from the tourist vista point at Turrialba Volcano National Park. The image shows two distinct plumes adjacent each other, a dark ash-bearing plume and a white plume rich in condensed steam. The plumes rose ~1 km above the vent. Courtesy of Raúl Mora (National Seismological Network, RSN, and University of Costa Rica).

In their 7 November 2014 report, OVSICORI-UNA discussed how named staff collected and ran tests on leachate acidity for material deposited in the explosions during 29-31 October. Leachate reached pH 3.3 (highly acidic). In contrast, ash erupted during 4-5 January 2010 yielded leachate with pH 6.7-7.1 (near neutral). The 2014 report cautioned that such values were of considerable concern to human health, to environmental impacts (native vegetation, aquatic species, etc.), to cultivated plants, and to the well being of livestock and farm animals. The authors attributed the low pH values to the magmatic nature of the eruption and to absorption of those gases on the ash particle surfaces.

An explosion at 0520 on 1 November 2014 generated an ash plume that drifted toward the E and N parts of the Central Valley. A 3 November report stated that during the previous 24 hours seismicity had decreased significantly and no explosions had been detected; seismicity remained elevated. An phone and online (Facebook) public survey allowed residents to record if they had observed ashfall in their localities during the eruptive interval. Responses depicted a W-directed dispersal pattern that covered much of the urban area around San Jose.

OVSICORI-UNA reported a seismic signal indicating a strong emission lasting 50 minutes that started at 2320 on 6 November. The same 7 November report noted that in broad terms seismicity had decreased overall during the previous few days.

An ash-bearing explosion from Turrialba started at 1926 on 13 November and lasted about 10 minutes. Another explosion occurred at 1342 on 14 November and lasted about 15 minutes, although the strongest part was 7-minutes long. The OVSICORI-UNA report issued at 1635 on the 14th emphasized the associated explosive signal of these two emissions in terms of seismicity, for example, noting the dominant frequencies for the respective events were centered at 6.8 and 4.0 Hz. The report also said that of National Park officials reported ashfall at the top of Irazú. Volcanologists observed the 14 November explosion and collected samples at Hacienda La Central, 3 km SE of West Crater.

According to news reports (The Tico Times and crhoy.com), OVSICORI-UNA reported a strong gas emission on 13 November, accompanied by a massive outpouring of ash. A pilot reported ash plume S of the volcano at an altitude of 3.7-4.3 km.

According to OVSICORI-UNA, a strong Strombolian explosion occurred at 2128 on 8 December 2014, considered by them as one of the large explosions in the series that started with the magmatic eruption on 29 October 2014. The explosion lasted about ten minutes and had no precursory activity. The main pulse of ash emissions took place in under 100 seconds. Ashfall, 1 cm thick, and ballistics up to ~5 kg were deposited as far as 300 m W. Ashfall of 0.01 to 2 cm thickness was reported in the Central Valley and in towns to the W and SW, with 23 reports from citizens consistent with ash at distances of 45-80 km from the source. The report also noted constant inflation at Turriabla, ~10-15 mm annually, since the year 2010.

Citizen input to acquire ash thickness data. The Turriabla reporting took advantage of an OVSICORI questionare (Encuesta Alcance de Cenizas, V. Turrialba) to engage citizen observations on ash deposition. The online questionnaire (find link in “Information Contacts” section below) features a scalable map that features a positionable icon to show the location of ash-thickness observation. This position then automatically computes the resulting coordinates (latitude and longitude). The questionare includes several other questions relating to thickness, date and time of observation, rainfall, and weather conditions (which can perturb the original thickness). Entering contact information is optional.

References. Conde V., Robidoux, P., Avard, G., Galle, B. Aiuppa, A.,? Muñoz, A., and Giudice, G., 2014a, Measurements of volcanic SO₂ and CO2 fluxes by combined DOAS, Multi.GAS and FTIR observations: a case study from Turrialba and Telica volcanoes, Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch), 103, pp. 2335-2347, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. (Also Errata November 2014, 103 (8), p 2349.)

Conde, V., Bredemeyer, S., Duarte, E., Pacheco, J., Miranda, S., Galle, B., and Hansteen, T., 2014b, SO₂ degassing from Turrialba Volcano linked to seismic signatures during the period 2008–2012, International Journal of Earth Sciences (Geol Rundsch) 103, pp. 1983–1998, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.

GFDRR, 2012, Costa Rica Country Update – GFDRR, October 2012; Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). (URL: http://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr.org/files/COSTA_RICA.pdf) (Accessed 12 July 2015).

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA)(URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr ; Questionare, http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=122); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/); Network for Observation of Volcanic and Atmospheric Change (NOVAC)(URL: http://www.novac-project.eu/index.html); The Tico Times (URL: http://www.ticotimes.net/); Agence France-Presse (URL: http://www.afp.com/); The Costa Rica Star (URL: http://news.co.cr/); and crhoy.com (URL: www.crhoy.com).

Information is preliminary and subject to change. All times are local (unless otherwise noted)

July 1981 (SEAN 06:07) Cite this Report

Low-temperature gases collected

Between 14 June and 11 July, personnel from PIRPSEV, CNRS, and the volcano observation section of IPG sampled gases from five Central American volcanoes. Low-temperature gases were collected at Turrialba and Irazú.

Information Contacts: H. Delorme, Univ. de Paris; J.L. Cheminée, IPG, Paris.

May 1982 (SEAN 07:05) Cite this Report

Fumarole temperature measurements

Fumarole temperatures averaged 86°C.

Information Contacts: J. Barquero H., Univ. Nacional, Heredia.

December 1982 (SEAN 07:12) Cite this Report

Activity level unchanged; no activity seen in the E crater

Activity remained the same as in previous years. The mean temperature was 86°C in the central crater and 89°C in the W crater. The E crater showed no activity.

Information Contacts: J. Barquero H., E. Malavassi R., Univ. Nacional, Heredia.

January 1983 (SEAN 08:01) Cite this Report

Temperature and gas data

Between 5 December and 20 December, 1982, a team from PIRPSEV (CNRS) and a volcanological team from the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica sampled gases from Turrialba (table 1).

Table 1. Average values of gas compositions collected between 5 and 20 December 1982 compared to earlier data.

    Year  SO2%  CO2%  H2%  H2S%  CO%  CH4% He ppm

    1981  0.016 99.95 0.022  0.003 0.001  0   4.7
    1982  0.018 99.93 0.047  0.008 0    0   1.7

Information Contacts: J. Cheminée, IPG, Paris; M. Javoy and H. Delorme, Univ. de Paris.

October 1983 (SEAN 08:10) Cite this Report

Fumarolic activity

Fumarolic activity continued in the central and W craters, where a mean temperature of 89°C was measured.

Information Contacts: J. Barquero H. and E. Fernández S., Univ. Nacional, Heredia.

July 1985 (SEAN 10:07) Cite this Report

Gas emission

Fumarolic activity continued, with temperatures averaging 90°C in the W crater and 85°C in the central crater.

Information Contacts: J. Barquero H. and E. Fernández S., Univ. Nacional, Heredia.

August 1987 (SEAN 12:08) Cite this Report

Fumarolic activity from two craters

Fumarolic activity continued, with temperatures of 91°C in the W crater and 85° in the central crater, similar to those measured in mid-1985 (10:07).

Information Contacts: J. Barquero, OVSICORI.

April 1990 (BGVN 15:04) Cite this Report

Continued summit fumarolic activity

Fumarolic activity continued from the main crater, with temperatures of 90°C, and from the N wall of the central crater.

Information Contacts: J. Barquero, OVSICORI.

September 1990 (BGVN 15:09) Cite this Report

Low-temperature fumarolic activity

Fumarolic activity continued with an average temperature of 90°C. Similar temperatures have been reported since 1982.

Information Contacts: J. Barquero, OVSICORI.

January 1991 (BGVN 16:01) Cite this Report

Continued fumarolic activity; rockfalls

Continued fumarolic activity in the central and SW craters was noted during fieldwork on 3 January. Fumarole temperatures ranged from 84° to 89°C. Minor morphologic changes had occurred, caused by rockslides down the inner walls of the SW crater, possibly related to an [M 5.7] earthquake near Puriscal (roughly [60 km] WSW of Turrialba) on 22 December.

Information Contacts: G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE; Mario Fernández and Wilfredo Rojas, Escuela Centroamericana de Geología, Univ de Costa Rica.

April 1991 (BGVN 16:04) Cite this Report

New fractures found after major 22 April earthquake

Shortly after the [M 7.6] earthquake on 22 April [85 km WSW], numerous small concentric fractures were found along the S and SW rims of the central crater and the W rim of the main crater. Small landslides continued on the S, SW, and N walls of the main crater, and fumarole temperatures remained at 89°C.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, V. Barboza, and J. Barquero, OVSICORI.

January 1992 (BGVN 17:01) Cite this Report

Continued fumarolic activity

Fumarolic activity continued in the central and SW craters. Fumaroles on the N and W walls of the SW crater were at 89°C in January; temperatures have been similar since 1982 (15:9, and 16:1 and 4). Small landslides continued to occur on the S wall of this crater.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, V. Barboza, and J. Barquero, OVSICORI.

February 1992 (BGVN 17:02) Cite this Report

Continued fumarolic activity

Fumarolic activity continued in February, with temperatures of 90°C. Similar temperatures have been measured since 1982. A monthly total of 37 low-frequency earthquakes, a maximum of 4/day (4 February), was recorded (at station VTU, 0.7 km from the crater).

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, V. Barboza, and R. Van der Laat, OVSICORI.

March 1992 (BGVN 17:03) Cite this Report

Continued low-frequency seismicity

Low-frequency seismicity continued at levels similar to February. An average of 1-2 events were recorded daily (at station VTU, 0.5 km E of the crater), with a maximum of four events on 6 March.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI.

April 1992 (BGVN 17:04) Cite this Report

Occasional seismicity; gas emission

Low-temperature (89°C) fumarolic activity continued in and between the central and SW craters. Low- and medium-frequency earthquakes were recorded sporadically, totalling 32 in April.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI; G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE.

June 1992 (BGVN 17:06) Cite this Report

Occasional seismicity

A telemetering seismic station (VTU) 0.5 km E of the active crater recorded 17 events in June. The maximum daily number, 4, occurred on 13 June.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI.

July 1992 (BGVN 17:07) Cite this Report

Fewer seismic events

The seismic station (VTU) 0.5 km E of the main crater recorded six low-frequency events in July, compared to 17 in June.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI.

August 1992 (BGVN 17:08) Cite this Report

Continued seismicity and fumarolic activity

Fumarole temperatures in the central crater were <=93.6°C during fieldwork by ICE geologists on 13 August, similar to observations in previous years. No changes in surface activity were evident. The UNA seismograph (VTU) 0.5 km E of the main crater recorded 14 low-frequency events in August.

Information Contacts: G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE; E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI.

September 1992 (BGVN 17:09) Cite this Report

Occasional seismicity

Only 13 low-frequency events were recorded in September by UNA station VTU, 0.5 km E of the main crater; three occurred on 29 September.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI; G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE.

December 1992 (BGVN 17:12) Cite this Report

Fumarolic activity

Fumarolic activity continued on the N, W, and SW walls of the main crater, at temperatures of about 90°C. One condensate sample had a pH of 4.8. Small landslides continued from the crater's S and W walls.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández and J. Barquero, OVSICORI.

January 1993 (BGVN 18:01) Cite this Report

No deformation detected since 1982

Tilt measurements made quarterly beginning in 1982 and twice a year since 1987 have revealed no changes above detection limits. Turrialba's last eruption, in 1864-66, produced ash and pyroclastic surges.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obaldía, T. Marino, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

April 1993 (BGVN 18:04) Cite this Report

Fumarolic activity unchanged

Fumarolic activity continued in the N, W, and SW walls of the main crater. Temperatures at the fumaroles, 90°C, have remained relatively unchanged since 1982 (17:02). A condensate sample had a pH of 4.5, similar to the pH of 4.8 recorded in December 1992 (17:12). Small landslides from the N, S, and W walls continued.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, V. Barboza, and Walter Jimenez, OVSICORI.

May 1993 (BGVN 18:05) Cite this Report

Seismic activity continues

A seismograph 0.5 km E of the active crater recorded 18 low-frequency events during May. Seismicity has remained at approximately the same level for the past year. There were 17 low-frequency events recorded in June 1992, 6 in July, 14 in August, and 13 in September (17:6-9). Tilt measurements reported in January revealed no changes since 1982 (18:01). Fumarolic activity and landslides from the main crater walls were continuing in April (18:04).

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, F. De Obaldía, T. Marino, R. Van Der Laat, V. Barboza, and R. Saenz, OVSICORI.

September 1993 (BGVN 18:09) Cite this Report

Regional earthquake causes visible cracks in crater area

Seismic station VTU, 0.5 km E of the main crater, recorded sporadic low-frequency microseismic activity in June-September. The number of events recorded ranged from 28 in June to 5 in July; specific values were not reported for August and September. An earthquake of M 5.0 took place on 10 July about 25.5 km to the SE. As a result of the earthquake, small cracks developed along the S margin of the central crater. Fumarolic activity continued from the N, NW, and SW walls of the main crater. On 13 July, fumarolic gases had a temperature of 90°C and a pH of 4.6. Temperature measurements in 1982 and 1985 show comparable values of 86°C and 85°C, respectively.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obaldia, T. Marino, V. Barboza, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI.

March 1994 (BGVN 19:03) Cite this Report

Weak fumarolic activity

A visit on 25 March revealed almost no activity at the central part of the main crater, and very weak fumarolic activity at the SW part. Maximum temperature at the SW part of the crater reached 89°C -- nearly the same as measured in July 1993.

Information Contacts: G. Soto, Guillermo E. Alvarado, and Francisco (Chico) Arias, ICE.

March 1995 (BGVN 20:03) Cite this Report

Weak fumarolic activity

"Weak fumarolic activity was witnessed in the SW and Central craters during an overflight in February." Previously described tilt measurements in 1994 (18:01) disclosed no changes above detection limits.

Information Contacts: G. Soto, ICE.

January 1996 (BGVN 21:01) Cite this Report

Weak fumarolic activity

During January, observers witnessed weak fumarolic activity continuing along the NE, N, NW, and W walls. Fumarole temperatures measured 83-89 °C. Mass wasting had taken place mainly on the S and W walls.

Information Contacts: Rodolfo Van der Laat, Vilma Barboza, Erick Fernández, Jorge Barquero, Franklin de Obaldia, Tomás Marino, and Rodrigo Sáenz, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.

June 1996 (BGVN 21:06) Cite this Report

Microseismicity escalates from 0 (background) to 246 events/month

After 23 May Turrialba's seismic station (VTU, located 0.5 km E of the active crater) registered a sudden increase in microseismicity. During the first four months of 1996 nearly no events were registered. In late May there were over 50 events; in June, 246 events. The dominant frequency of these events varied between 2.5 and 4.0 Hz.

Information Contacts: Erick Fernández, Elicer Duarte, Vilma Barboza, Rodolfo Van der Laat, and Enrique Hernandez, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.

August 1996 (BGVN 21:08) Cite this Report

Fumaroles at 90°C with pH values of ~4

During July observers witnessed weak fumarolic activity continuing along the NE, N, W, and S sides of the crater. Small landslides were prevalent along the main crater's N, S, and W walls. Annual fumarole temperature and condensate pH measurements (figure 1) show a rough correspondence with variations in other observed activity. Seismicity recorded at station VTU (0.5 km E of the active crater) during July included 146 local earthquakes. In August, local earthquakes took place 299 times; some of their signals had dominant frequencies around 2.5-4.0 Hz.

Figure 1. Turrialba's annual fumarole temperatures and condensate pH values, 1992-1996. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, E. Duarte, V. Barboza, R. Van der Laat, E. Hernandez, M. Martinez, and R. Sáenz, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.

December 1996 (BGVN 21:12) Cite this Report

Number of microseismic events continues to increase

Microseismic events, which were only detected locally, appeared 540 times during September, leading to the largest monthly total yet seen in 1996. The totals for October and November were 308 and 220 (the latter was extrapolated from 17 days of recording). Monthly microearthquake totals were essentially zero for the first four months of 1996 and generally grew steadily through September. The seismic station (VTU) lies 0.5 km SW of the active crater. The cumulative dry-tilt for the first 10 months of 1996 measured 10 µrad. The temperature and pH, however, remained relatively stable for the two available measurements during 1996 (BGVN 21:08).

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, E. Duarte, V. Barboza, R. Van der Laat, E. Hernandez, M. Martinez, and R. Sáenz, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.

May 1997 (BGVN 22:05) Cite this Report

Fumarolic temperatures near 90°C; two M 2 earthquakes in May

Fumaroles emitted comparatively little gas but remained active in the main crater's NE, N, NW, and W parts, with temperatures in the range 89-90°C. In the N and S parts of the crater, small areas of mass-wasting covered some fumaroles. Seismicity at a station 500 m E of the active crater (station VTU) has been measured consistently since May 1996; reported local earthquake counts included 72 in December 1996, 146 in January 1997, 194 in February, 182 in March, and 137 in April. During May, seismic station VTU registered a total of 72 earthquakes. On 10-11 May, four of these were located at 5-6 km depths at 8-9 km distances NE of the crater, with magnitudes of 2.1-2.6. Their origin was possibly related to a local fault.

Information Contacts: E. Fernandez, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obaldia, T. Marino, V. Barboza, W. Jimenez, R. Saenz, E. Duarte, M. Martinez, E. Hernandez, and F. Vega, Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.

September 1997 (BGVN 22:09) Cite this Report

Modest number of monthly earthquakes during June-August

OVSICORI-UNA continues to monitor Turrialba's seismicity. Available monthly earthquake totals were as follows: June, 90 (all of small magnitude); July, 33; and August, 29.

Information Contacts: E. Fernandez, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obaldia, T. Marino, V. Barboza, W. Jimenez, R. Saenz, E. Duarte, M. Martinez, E. Hernandez, and F. Vega, Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica; G.J. Soto, Oficina de Sismologia y Vulcanologia del Arenal y Miravalles (OSIVAM), Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), Apartado 10032-1000, San Jose, Costa Rica.

March 1998 (BGVN 23:03) Cite this Report

Fumarolic condensate data and monthly earthquakes to March 1998

OVSICORI-UNA scientists have taken sporadic samples of the chemistry, pH, and temperature of Turrialba's fumaroles (figures 2 and 3). During January, fumaroles had low emissions but the temperature of one fumarole remained fixed at 90°C (figure 3). Small landslides down the N and S sides of the crater walls covered fumaroles on the crater floor during January; however, during this time new fumaroles also appeared on the crater floor as well.

Figure 2. Chlorine and sulfate in Turrialba fumarolic condensate at [nine] sampling dates during late 1996-early [1997]. For sampling and analytical methods, contact the authors. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Figure 3. The pH and temperature of Turrialba fumarolic condensate at four sampling dates during the interval late 1996 to early 1998. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

The local seismic station ("VTU," located 500 m S of the active crater) was out of service during September-December 1997. After that, the station registered microearthquakes as follows: January, 53; February, 83; and March 96. Two of the February earthquakes, one high- and one low-frequency, also registered on the more distant seismic station IRZ2, ~15 km from the active crater. Besides the 96 microearthquakes registered during March, several more low- and high-frequency earthquakes also took place.

Information Contacts: E. Fernandez, V. Barboza, R. Van der Laat, R. Saenz, E. Duarte, E. Malavassi, T. Marino, M. Martinez, and E. Hernandez, Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica; Mauricio Mora Fernandez, Sección de Sismologia, Vulcanologia y Exploración Geofisica, Escuela Centroamericana de Geología, Universidad de Costa Rica, P.O. Box 35-2060, San José, Costa Rica (Email: mmmora@cariari.ucr.ac.cr).

June 1998 (BGVN 23:06) Cite this Report

Fumarolic activity and small landslides continue; new fumaroles in April

During April-June, fumaroles on the NE, N, W, and SW flanks continued to discharge modest emissions with temperatures around 90°C (see plot, figure 3 in BGVN 23:03). Small landslides continued along the N and S walls of the principal crater.

Scientists collect condensate from one low-temperature fumarole one to three times per year. The temperature of this fumarole has remained stable at 89-90°C; however, the sulfate and chloride concentrations have varied from low values of around 5 ppm to values over ten-fold larger. The most recent reading was taken on 22 April 1997. The sulfate concentration, about 70 ppm, was higher than those for many of the past few years (see plot, figure 2 in BGVN 23:03 but note the correction below).

Around the time the higher sulfate concentration was measured, new fumaroles opened in the central crater, and the local seismic system registered increased monthly counts of high-frequency earthquakes (seen during both April and May, table 2). On 2 May a M 1.6 earthquake occurred at 7 km depth centered 6.5 km SW of the principal crater.

Table 2. Earthquakes at Turrialba during the first half of 1998. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

  Month (1998)     High-frequency  Low-frequency  Microseisms

  January                0               0            53
  February               1               1            83
  March                  3               2            96
  April                 12               1            28
  May                   15               4            99
  June                   2               3            60

Information Contacts: E. Fernandez, V. Barboza, E. Duarte, R. Saenz, E. Malavassi, M. Martinez, and Rodolfo Van der Laat, Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.una.ac.cr/ovsi/).

July 1998 (BGVN 23:07) Cite this Report

Not erupting; seismicity and fumarolic condensate chemistry

During July, the main crater continued to weakly emit fumarolic gases with temperatures of 90°C. These escaped along the crater's NE, N, W, and S walls, and small landslides along the crater's N and S walls have partly covered the crater floor. Also, in the central crater, new points appeared on the N side where sulfur-rich gases gently escaped; gas temperatures measured 88°C.

Condensate chemistry and fumarole temperatures taken during 1992 through July 1998 appear on figure 4. Elevated SO₄ was measured in condensate sampled on 22 April 1998 (figure 4). This coincided with the appearance of high-frequency earthquakes. Although the SO₄ concentration declined in the next condensate sample (22 July), there were 68 high-frequency earthquakes from April through July (table 3).

Figure 4. Turrialba fumarolic temperature (top) and condensate chemistry (bottom) shown for the interval 14 January 1992 to 22 July 1998. The measured pH appears as a series of points; Cl and SO4 concentrations, as shaded and unshaded bars, respectively. Note that the horizontal scale ("Sample date") is non-linear and that the lower right-hand vertical axis (Cl and SO4 concentration) is broken into segments of dissimilar scale. Courtesy of OVSICORI-LAQAT (National University).

Table 3. Seismicity registered at Turrialba's seismic station VTU, January-June 1998. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

  Month     High-frequency  Low-frequency  Microseisms

  January         0              0              53
  February        1              1              83
  March           3              2              96
  April          15              1              28
  May            15              4              99
  June            2              3              60
  July           36              4              61

During 1998 the seismic system (station VTU, 0.5 km NE of the active crater) registered fewer than either 100 microseisms a month or five low-frequency earthquakes a month (table 3). The growth in the number of high-frequency earthquakes was thought to be related to the above-mentioned appearance of the new fumaroles in the central crater. Microseisms were generally weak, with amplitudes below 10 mm.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, V. Barboza, M. Martinez, E. Duarte, R. Van der Laat, E. Hernández, and T. Marino, Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.

June 1999 (BGVN 24:06) Cite this Report

A 4-fold increase in microseisms during December-April 1999

During the 17 months ending in May 1999, microseisms varied from ~30 to ~180 a month (figure 5). A 4-fold progressive increase began after December 1998.

Figure 5. A histogram showing Turrialba's monthly microseisms during January 1998- April 1998. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

In March 1999, the main crater's fumaroles were visible on the NE, N, NW, E and SW walls. Escaping gases appeared constant and had a temperature of 89°C. During March, the seismographic station VTU, located 0.5 km NE of the active crater registered a total of 252 earthquakes. Of those 81 had high frequency, with S-P duration of less than 1.5 seconds and frequencies greater than 3.0 Hz. The 166 microseisms registered had amplitudes under 10 mm, short durations, and frequencies between 2.1 and 3.0 Hz. An earthquake registered at 1846 on 7 March, with a Richter magnitude of 2.3, a depth of 7 km, and an epicenter 4 km NE of the main crater.

During April, the station VTU registered 287 earthquakes. Of those, 105 were of high frequency (with S-P of less than 1.5 seconds and frequencies above 3.0 Hz), and 4 were of low frequency. The 178 microseisms registered were of short duration; their dominant frequencies were between 2.1 and 3.0 Hz.

During May, a total of 309 events were recorded, of which 120 were type AB with S-P less than 1.5 seconds and frequencies less than 3.0 Hz. There were 3 low-frequency events. The 186 microseisms registered had amplitudes under 10 mm.

Information Contacts: E. Fernandez, V. Barboza, E. Duarte, R. Saenz, E. Malavassi, M. Martinez, and R. Van der Laat, T. Marino, and E. Hernandez; Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.una.ac.cr/ovsi/); Wendy Perez Fernandez, Seccion de Seismologia, Vulcanologia y Exploracion Geofisica, Escuela Centroamericana de Geologia, Universidad de Costa Rica, POB 35-2060, San Jose, Costa Rica (Email: wendyp@cariari.ucr.ac.cr).

March 2000 (BGVN 25:03) Cite this Report

Microseisms diminish in number during July-November 1999

Mass wasting and elevated seismicity continued at Turrialba during July-November 1999 (table 4). The seismicity has appeared anomalously high since it increased suddenly during May 1996, escalating to 540 such events in September 1996. Microseisms have dropped since then, although they still remained at over 100 per month during September and October 1999. Between April and August 1999 scientists made surveys of the distance to a reflector 500 m from the active crater on the SW flank; these failed to show significant changes in length. After 18 September three new seismic receivers helped detect and locate three earthquakes, M 1.7-2.8, at depths of 3-11 km centered 2.5-10 km E, SE, and SW of the volcano.

Table 4. Monthly seismicity at Turrialba as recorded at station VTU, ~ 0.5 km E of the active crater. Microseisms were defined as earthquakes registered on the local seismic system with amplitudes under 15 mm. NR indicates information not reported. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

    Month       Total    Microseisms  Type-AB    Tremor       Max
             earthquakes             earthquakes duration  fumarolic
                                                              temp.

    Jul 1999     89          54          35         NR        NR
    Aug 1999    155          99          55         NR        90°C
    Sep 1999    213         134          76         NR        91°C
    Oct 1999    209         120          39       9 minutes   90°C
    Nov 1999    144          39          42      35 minutes   90°C

Information Contacts: E. Fernandez, E. Duarte, V. Barboza, R. Sáenz, E. Malavassi, R. Van der Laat, T. Marino, J. Barquero, and E. Hernández, Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.una.ac.cr/ovsi/).

November 2001 (BGVN 26:11) Cite this Report

Seismic and fumarolic activity during January 2000-August 2001

During January 2000 to at least August 2001, seismic and fumarolic activity continued at Turrialba (table 5). On 12 March 2000 an M 3.2 earthquake was registered at a depth of 7 km, 6.5 km E of the active crater. The EDM lines (radial lines of distances) as well as the dry clinometers did not show significant changes during 2000.

Table 5. Summary of earthquakes and fumarolic temperatures at Turrialba during January 2000 to August 2001, registered by a seismograph at station VTU, located ~0.5 km SE of the active crater. Microearthquakes were defined as earthquakes registered on the local seismic system with amplitudes under 15 mm. Missing months indicate that no data was available for that month. NR indicates information not reported. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

    Month      AB   LF   Micro-       Total   Maximum fumarolic
                         earthquakes          temperature (°C)
      Comment

    Jan 2000   29    2      33          64          NR
      Seismicity registered only 13 days.
    Feb 2000   91   --      75         166          NR
      Seismicity registered only 16 days.
    Mar 2000   44   --      65         113          91
    Apr 2000   NR   NR      NR          NR          90
    May 2000  286    5     330         616          NR
    Jul 2000   50   --     104         167          90
    Aug 2000   76   --     148         229          89
    Sep 2000  243   --     244         493          89
    Oct 2000   NR   NR      NR          NR          93
    Mar 2001  399  948     718        2075          NR
    May 2001  128   --     334         464          92
      An average of 15 earthquakes per day.
    Jun 2001   3    --     185         194          92
      Six VT earthquakes.
    Jul 2001   24   --     310         334          91
    Aug 2001   14   --     261         275          90

Fumarolic activity was persistent in the N, NW, NE, and E walls of the main crater. Fumarolic activity in the S and SW walls diminished by July 2000 and began to reappear during October 2000. Activity in the N wall during May 2001 was more vigorous than previously. Small landslides persisted in the walls of the main crater, covering some fumaroles at the bottom and revealing other new ones.

During March 2001 sulfur precipitation and gaseous emanations in the internal walls occurred throughout most of the central craters. Gaseous activity also persisted in the W crater walls. During June 2001, a small patch of vegetation at the center of the main crater showed partial burns due to the gas escaping in the NE part of the main crater.

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.una.ac.cr/ovsi/).

August 2007 (BGVN 32:08) Cite this Report

Increased degassing and opening of fissures

Non-eruptive fumarolic activity was reported at Turrialba through August 2001 (BGVN 26:11). This report covers the time interval January 2002 to mid-2007. Central and W craters were both scenes of fumarolic activity, and reports mentioned generally modest seismicity.

No eruption occurred, although fumarolic and seismic activity remained elevated and some other noteworthy changes also took place. Figure 6 presents a summary of seismicity measured during 1990-2006. Seismicity increased beginning in 1996, reached a peak in 2001 and although it remained elevated, it decreased somewhat from the peak through 2006. In general seismic activity was modest and of short duration with numerous micro-earthquakes of amplitude smaller than 15 mm, and frequencies between 2.1 and 3.0 Hertz (Hz).

Figure 6. The numbers of earthquakes recorded at Turrialba during 1990 through 2006. Courtesy of Vilma Barboza (OVSICORI-UNA ).

Fumarolic activity of 2002-2006. A summary of fumarolic activity at the central crater during the period 2002 through 2006 indicated the S, SW, NW, and N walls were collecting sulfur as a product of gas emissions. Monthly vapor temperatures at the central crater ranged from 87 to 91°C. In March 2006, a pair of cracks continued to be visible in the central crater's S, SE, and SW walls. By August 2006, a pair of cracks in the central crater were particularly significant. Visiting scientists noted that during August 2006, localized vegetation in and around the summit area had been heavily impacted by gases. Areas not affected by increased fumarolic activity in June 2005 had been burned, including a tree belt on the NW outer flank. Below the tree belt, farmers reported an intensification of gas odors. The shapes of the burned areas reflected prevailing wind directions.

From 2002 through 2006, Turrialba's W crater displayed fumarolic activity in the N, NE, W, NW, and SW sides with low levels of emission and gas temperatures remaining consistent from 88 to 93°C . New points of sulfur deposition were noted throughout the period.

An interval of increased seismicity (a pulse) recorded by station VTU located 0.5 km NE of the active crater occurred during 9 July to 14 September 2003. Through December 2003, the emissions continued to increase in the main crater, gradually generating gas columns that were carried W. Observers noted that the vegetation of the SW wall and W of the central crater continued to deteriorate, as well as effects such as heating of the ground, salt deposition at the surface, and escaping gases.

In June 2005, a significant increase in fumarolic gas emission was noted by OVISCORI-UNA and they also indicated changes in gases venting at the W crater. Chemical analysis indicated carbon dioxide gas had decreased and sulfur dioxide had increased, with the result that bushy species and minor plants that managed to survive in the open summit area (inner walls) became completely burned (figure 7). In the external walls to the N, NW, and W, the gases killed the vegetation.

Figure 7. Increased degassing and resultant burned vegetation around Turrialba's W crater, as illustrated in this photograph from June 2005. Courtesy Eliécer Duarte, OVISCORI-UNA.

A 2006 report noted that bushy species and minor plants that had previously managed to survive in the open summit area (inner walls) had by August 2006 appeared completely burned (figure 8). The tree belt on the NW outer flanks (reported in 2005 as partially burned) contained a significant percentage of dead birch (Alnus acuminata). The belt, ~ 200 x 900 m in area, included species taller than 25 m, and was visible from the lower inhabited farms where residents reported increasingly potent gas odors. The shape and location of the belt correlated with the seasonal prevailing wind directions.

Figure 8. Aerial photograph depicting vegetation impacts at Turrialba and to its W, emphasizing zones affected by increased gas emissions from June 2005 through August 2006. Spanish labels translate as follows: 1) Coyote habitat, 2) Inhabited farms, 3) Area of partial deforestation, 4) Area of totally killed vegetation, 5) W crater, and 6) Central crater. Courtesy E. Duarte, OVISCORI-UNA.

Behavior during January-August 2007. At the end of February 2007, a flight over Turrialba's summit revealed significant growth in the area of burned vegetation. On that day, dwarf and tall trees looked yellowish due to sustained degassing from the W crater.

On 21 April, observers measured the temperatures of fumaroles emitting steam at ~ 40°C as far as 1.5 km SW of the summit, a spot coinciding with the well known, ENE-trending Ariete fault. Two larger fumaroles were reported on 2 May located 200 m SW from the first one along the same fault. This site released significant vapor plumes (~ 90°C) that rose above the thick forest.

During June and July 2007, enhanced fumarolic activity was accompanied by new fractures at the summit. The fumaroles spread over a larger area and their temperatures increased to ~ 90°C. Micro-seismicity also grew.

The main fumarole at the bottom of W crater reached 138°C producing a distinctive sound similar to a high pressure valve; this sound could be heard up to ~ 500 m away. These fumaroles had melted sulfur, a phenomenon previously not seen in OVISCORI's more than 25 years continuous monitoring. Sulfur condensate colored most of the inner crater walls with a fine yellowish film.

Besides the multiple cracks associated with the expansion of the fumarolic areas around the W crater, two new ones appeared. Such cracks (longer than 100 m) oriented radially from the volcano's W and NW borders suggested a significant degree of summit instability. A wide fumarolic field between these two fractures along with the large number of vapor and gas spots on the outer walls also reflected considerable permeability in that area (figure 9).

Figure 9. The three fumarolic fields and their associated cracks on Turrialba's NW outer wall, as seen 10 August 2007. Fumaroles are indicated by patten of white lines; cracks ("grietas") indicated by rows of dots. From left to right, the three fields are associated with cracks aligned approximately NW-SE, W-E, and S-N. The latter site contains two N-trending cracks adjacent new fumaroles. Courtesy OVISCORI-UNA.

The effect of gases on the surrounding vegetation (in a 4-km radius) expanded to areas previously protected from damage by prevailing winds (figures 10-11). Acute chemical burning of important patches of natural forest had occurred. Vegetation to the NW, W, and SW appeared yellowish to dark brown (figure 10). By mid-2007 some of the effects had reached potato fields and dairy pastures.

Figure 10. Acute effects of gases on vegetation are easily visible on Turrialba's steep NW outer wall (25 July 2007). Burns on leaf tissue diminish with distance from the source. Zones of dead climbing vines are visible at closest range in the photo's lower right corner. Courtesy OVISCORI-UNA.

Figure 11. Despite the rainy season at Turrialba, the impact of volcanic gases on both exotic and native vegetation increased during June and July 2007. This 27 July 2007 photo identifies three zones of chemical burning, efectos agudo (acute effects), efectos intermedios (intermediate effects), and efectos menores (minor effects). Courtesy E. Duarte, OVISCORI-UNA.

On 5 September 2007, OVSICORI-UNA visited Turrialba's outer NW wall to document the gas damage to vegetation in the area from the crater to the seismic station PICA, a distance of 2.5 km. The observers found three bands of severe damage: across an upslope area, a forested zone, and dairy-farm fields.

The upslope band contained a smaller, dense zone of sparse, dwarfed, woody bushes abutting the forest in a fine loose soil in steep terrain. Plants here were very dry and showed a surface layer of white-yellowish material. This effect was most intense within 100 m of the crater, but still partly visible up to 400 m away in patches. A second section with very dense growth was dead.

The mid-slope band through primary forest contained several tree species, including Jaúl and oak. Although all the trees in portions of this band had apparently died, they did so episodically with varying species seemingly more or less resistant to volcanic gases. The upper parts of the trees showed the greatest visible changes. Among the other plant species killed was a climbing vine that where killed turned an intense coffee color.

The topographically lowest band, consisting of pastures with occasional trees, had burned completely over a zone 400 m from the lower line of the forest, leaving grasses a straw-yellow color, and sufficiently brittle to be easily broken by contact. Gasses had also strongly corroded relatively new barbed wire in the ESE sector, and in lower parts of this zone they reacted with fixtures on buildings and damaged gardens.

The August 2007 OVSICORI-UNA report described ongoing fumarolic activity at Turrialba. At the Central and W craters, the respective maximum temperatures were 91°C and 176°C (up from 138°C during late July). Deposition at the fumaroles included sulfur and sulfurous sublimates, in some cases draping walls and forming minor flows up to 2 m from the point of emission. Small landslides were apparent on many sides of the W crater's walls, and these too were places where sulfur or sulfurous sublimates were seen. One of two major fracture directions trended SW; it was visible as a crack 100 m in length and underwent a maximum opening of 1 to 3 cm between 28 July and 16 August.

Information Contacts: Eliécer Duarte, Erick Fernández, and Vilma Barboza, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apdo. 2346-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Francois Robichaud, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada.

January 2008 (BGVN 33:01) Cite this Report

Fumarolic increases during August 2007-January 2008

Enhanced fumarolic activity accompanied by new fractures at the summit was noted during June-September 2007 (BGVN 32:08). The earlier report noted that the fumaroles had spread over a larger area and contained molten sulfur, a condensate previously not seen here in more than 25 years of continuous monitoring by the Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA). By mid-August 2007, acute chemical burning of important patches of natural forest had occurred. This report covers the period from October 2007 through January 2008.

During October, new sites of gas discharge, small landslides, and accelerated vegetation die-off were noted from various locations within and around the crater. Fumaroles were active and widespread across the central crater. Many exhibited sulfur deposits and those in the S, SE, and SW reached a temperature of 91°C.

Areas burned by acute acidification extended during November. Fieldwork conducted by OVSICORI-UNA confirmed an unusual output of gas from several fumaroles along the S outer wall of the volcano. Pastures turned yellowish near the upper areas, and native and exotic tree species were impacted as well as birch tree patches along most drainage basins.

During December, within the W crater, fumarole temperatures reached 280°C and significant sulfur deposits were noted. Local residents confirmed an unusual output of gas from several fumaroles along the S outer wall of the volcano. Areas burned by acute acidification extended during the month. On 5 December, members of the media and local communities observed a gas-and-steam plume from Turrialba that rose to an altitude greater than 5.3 km (figure 12).

Figure 12. Column from Turrialba observed and photographed from Heredia City, located 40 km W of the volcano taken at 0540 on 5 December 2007. Courtesy OVSICORI-UNA.

On a team visit between 30 and 31 January 2008, OVSICORI staff documented the progression of fumarolic activity in the W crater, the external W crater walls, and distant areas towards the W, NW, and SW. Some of the fumaroles correspond with two fractures. One to the SW of the W crater, trending SW, was 100 m in length and 2 to 3 cm wide, and deposited sulfur. The second crack to the NW of the W crater, also trending SW , had temperatures of 72°C and discharged steam and gas affecting the adjacent vegetation. To the NW of the W crater, the team studied an area of about 20 x 50 m with constant gas emission and a temperature of 88°C.

Information Contacts: Eliécer Duarte, Erick Fernández, and Vilma Barboza, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apdo. 2346-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Tellez and Francois Robichaud, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada.

September 2009 (BGVN 34:09) Cite this Report

Non-eruptive in August 2009, but degassing and with widening cracks

The Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) continued monitoring the Turrialba non-eruptive interval of February 2008 through August 2009. As during the previous four months (BGVN 33:01), Turrialba continued to emit sulfurous gas from its central and W craters, and elsewhere, including some new cracks.

Activity during February-December 2008. During February 2008, the area around Turrialba affected by acid rain increased due to degassing. The degassing vents on the N, NW, W, and SW walls were rich in sublimated native sulfur. Gas-emission temperatures ranged from 72 to 132°C. Owing to prevailing winds, the vegetation most affected was on the N, NW, and SW flanks. The effects ranged from discoloration to death of various plant species. Residents in the area reported occasional nausea and irritation of the skin and eyes. On 22 February, local observers reported a gas plume up to ~ 2 km in height.

On the SE and SW walls of the central crater two cracks 2-3 cm wide and 100 m long continued to emit gases at ~ 90°C and produced sulfur deposits (figure 13). In stable atmospheric conditions gas columns often rose ~ 500 m above the crater. Rockslides sometimes covered emitting fumaroles, and new sulfur deposits tended to develop in these areas.

Figure 13. Elongated cracks (red lines on colored version) mapped at Turrialba during in August 2009. From first being noticed in mid-2009 to being measured in August 2009, some cracks opened by as much as 12 cm. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

During 7-8 March 2008, gas sampling at the summit fumaroles determined the maximum temperature at the largest W wall vent was 278°C. Degassing vents were also noted at spots in the middle of the forest. In some cases emissions had killed all local vegetation.

On 7-8 March 2008, Erick Fernandez and Eliécer Duarte of OVSICORI, and the National University (UNA) took gas samples. The analysis, done by Jorge Andrés Diaz and Sergio Achí of the University of Costa Rica, revealed the presence of He at 80,000 ppm (parts per million), whereas the typical He concentration in the neighborhood of a volcano is 25 ppm.

OVSICORI-UNA reported continued degassing during August and September 2008. Multiple fumaroles and areas of sulfur deposition were noted in both the central and W craters. Fumarolic emissions on the S and SE flanks of the W crater continued to damage vegetation in that area.

On 23 September 2008, OVSICORI fieldwork confirmed a severe impact of acid-rain on areas that had been only mildly affected during the preceding 3 years of degassing. At least three sectors showed new impacts on vegetation and infrastructure, from the summit downhill ~ 3 km along the S and SE flanks. The upper sector, which includes the entire caldera and lower sectors to the E, S, and SE near the summit, had been severely burned during August and September. This area goes from the summit down to an elevation of ~ 2,900 m. By 23 September, weeds, dwarf vegetation, and trees had been completely burned; however in these areas some resistant species maintained some green and appeared seemingly viable. Along the external walls to the S of the W crater, plants had been burned down to the soil. Due to the removal of that natural coverage, erosion had cut extended radial gullies.

Between the elevations of 2,900 and 2,600 m, significant forest patches have been partially seared by extreme acidification, particularly the dense birch forests. Below 2,600 m elevation mild burns to the tree canopy and pasture areas were evident. The evidence of chemical burns due to the heavy gases are amplified along canyons and depressions. These conditions caused residents to voluntarily leave their farms in 2007.

Monitored SO₂ emissions during the early part of 2008 had been ~ 750 metric tons per day (t/d). At the end of April 2008, an increase to ~ 1,000 t/d was noted, which then increased to ~ 2,000 t/d well into July. During the end of July the emissions declined to ~ 1,100 t/d. The increase in SO₂ flux corresponded to increases in vegetation damage.

Activity during January-June 2009. In May 2009 OVSICORI reported ongoing fumarolic degassing during the preceding months from the central crater, from the N, NW, W, SW and S walls, from new vents on the S and SW walls, and other locations. Some locations continued to form sublimated sulfur deposits. The two cracks in the SE and SW walls had temperatures of ~ 87°C. The emissions in the W wall registered ~ 91°C and displayed sulfur deposits. In meteorologically quiet conditions, gas plumes were noted up to 500-600 m above the crater floor. All of these areas had experienced small landslides that occasionally covered some vents.

SO₂ flux was variable during early 2009 (figure 14). The flux data were collected with a roughly consistent sun angle, between 0900 and 1100 in the morning on the SW flank. In the graph the SO₂ flux varies between ~ 0 and ~ 2,000 t/d, the maximum flux occurred on 23 April.

Figure 14. SO2 fluxes measured at Turrialba during April 2009 (with y-axis showing SO2 flux in metric tons per day and x-axis dates in the format, month/day/year). Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

On 14 June 2009, OVSICORI-UNA reported that fumarolic activity from Turrialba had been observed all around the upper flanks of the active W crater. During the previous two months, the fumarolic activity was also accompanied by widening radial cracks (1.5 cm on average), 1-2 km tall gas-and-vapor plumes, and one sustained seismic swarm. Temperatures of fumarolic vents in the lower parts of the crater were between 120 and 160°C. The temperature of summit cracks was 94°C. By mid-June, dairy pastures and forests had been chemically burned as far away as 3.5 km NW and W. During the last week of August 2009, the W and NW lower flanks, sectors previously reported with moderate effects, showed acute burns, and yellow pastures within 3 to 4 km radius (figures 15, 16, and 17).

Figure 15. Vegetation damage as of late August 2009 at Turrialba plotted on a shaded relief map by F. Robichaud. E. Duarte and others found that damage was generally within several kilometers of the volcano and in broader areas on the W flanks. The large dotted line indicates the boundary of detectible damage. Severe damage covered an irregular area, a strip both directly W of the active crater and a lobe to its SW as well. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Figure 16. Newly emerging fumaroles on Turrialba's upper NW flank and burns on vegetation, August 2009. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Figure 17. A view from Turrialba's seismic station PICA on the NW flank, showing active degassing from a variety of locations in August 2009. Left mid-ground shows plumes from the lowest fumaroles yet developed on this flank. Green grass is in the foreground, but most of the other foliage is brown to orange. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Near the Toro Amarillo river (4 km E of the crater) chemical burning surrounds stands of trees. Such whitening effect had been previously reported at the end of 2007 for areas closer to the active crater, 1.5 km W (figure 18).

Figure 18. An example of a zone with intense burns on grass at the foot of injured trees, damage attributed to acidic gases from Turrialba. The spot is near the Toro Amarillo river in late August 2009. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Several elongated cracks were mapped just south of the W crater as well as 1 km downslope NW. One main crack, noticed during mid-2009 due to sulfur depositions on the surface, was opened by August in places as much as 12 cm. In late August 2009 it emitted gasses at 90°C. The crack trends E-W, in places intersecting a trail used to reach the summit's SW and W sides.

The last two years have caused residents to leave owing to the burned and dead pastures. Some commented on their apprehension related to the emergence of the lower fumaroles. Along the S side of the Irazú summit located 10 km SW of Turrialba's summit, mild burns have been observed on patches of birch, eucalyptus and pine. Lesser impact was reported last year in that same area.

False eruption report. The Washington VAAC received surface observations from an airport near the volcano erroneously indicating an eruption on the morning of 23 September 2009.

The VAAC decided to initially describe the activity as an eruption because it was the first time the airport had reported emissions, the volcano was known to have been degassing for some time, and early morning satellite imagery showed cloud cover, preventing good analysis. In addition, attempts to reach local volcanologists by telephone using contact numbers from the ICAO [International Civil Aviation Organization] handbook and the OVSICORI webpage were not successful. OVSICORI-UNA personnel reported a few hours later that the volcano had not erupted. As a result of the incident, the VAAC has obtained current contact numbers, including personal cell phones, for future use.

Information Contacts: Eliécer Duarte, Erick Fernández, Vilma Barboza, S. Miranda, L. Ortiz, G. Chavez, Jorge Brenes, Thomás Marino, Javier Pacheco, Juan Segura, andRodolfo van der Laat, Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apdo. 2346-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/informacion_general/prensa.htm or http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/vulcanologia/Volcan_Turrialba.htm); Francois Robichaud, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boul. de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada; Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center, Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/).

February 2010 (BGVN 35:02) Cite this Report

Phreatic eruption of 5-6 January 2010 opens SW crater's upper wall

Since 2002, elongate cracks have opened at Turrialba, and new points began degassing, emitting high levels of sulfurous gas and helium, but no eruptions had occurred (BGVN 32:08, 33:01, and 34:09). Ongoing fumarolic activity through August 2009 caused significant damage to local vegetation (BGVN 34:09). This report continues through February 2010. Phreatic eruptions on 5 and 6 January 2010 resulted in ashfall ten's of kilometers from the active W crater. New vents formed on the crater wall, ultimately merging into an elongate fissure.

On 25 September 2009, scientists from the Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) reported results from three trips to inspect new fissures and to assess the impact of gases. Gases blown 10 km SW mildly burned trees to a greater degree than the previous year. Vegetation within a 4-km radius on the W, NW, and E flanks was also burned more severely that previously noted. Several elongated fissures were documented on the rim S of the W crater, as well as 1 km downslope to the NW. One E-W-trending crack that was first seen several months before had opened as much as 12 cm, and emitted gas and vapor at 90°C. On the lower NW flanks, at least three radial fissures emitted high gas-and-steam plumes. Some fissures near the summit were 5-10 cm wide. The last of the remaining residents in the affected areas had moved away due to the intensification and impact of the gases.

Report from the Red Sismológica Nacional, January 2010. Gerardo J. Soto sent a report by the Red Sismológica Nacional (National Seismological Network; RSN: UCR-ICE) summarizing events during early January. The seismic signals recorded during 2009 consisted mostly of B-type earthquakes, tremor, and some A-type earthquakes. The seismic records through the afternoon of 3 January remained typical, but after 1000 on 4 January signals underwent a sudden change. Tremor became common and was of long duration (~ 4 events/hour with typical durations of 10-20 minutes), but signals did not suggesting internal fracturing. Abundant low-frequency signals (B-type earthquakes) corresponded with substantial gas plumes. After 1400 on 5 January tremor occurred almost constantly. Two strong earthquakes occurred, at 1429 and 1445.

These two earthquakes coincided with the first reports of ash, which fell mainly over the farms adjacent to La Central and La Silvia, Capellades town. Finer ash was reported at Tierra Blanca, Llano Grande and Tres Ríos, ~ 25 km SW, and in eastern San José, ~ 30 km away. The ash was expelled for over 22 hours, in a continuing sequence of pulses.

The RSN report further stated that field and aerial trips inspected the two small pits that opened on the upper SE wall of the SW crater. These pits later joined and formed a fracture-like structure (aligned N40°E, the same trend as the tectonic depression and faults on the summit). The ash emitted from the pits was devoid of new (juvenile) magma material and most clasts were hydrothermally altered. Fumaroles expelled gas and ash at high pressure with a jet-type noise heard several kilometers away. Observers approaching the pits on the 6th watched pulsating emissions coming from both new vents on the upper wall.

Report from OVSICORI-UNA, January-February 2010. An OVSICORI-UNA report written on 6 January also noted that the phreatic eruption began at 1400 on 5 January, followed by reports of ashfall as far away as 30 km, particularly in areas to the SW. Residents of the village La Central located ~ 4 km SW of the crater heard nothing but received fine ash (figure 19) accompanied by rain. In contrast, in the village of La Silvia located roughly the same distance W of the crater, people heard noises attributed to eruptions. Erupted material was generally fine-grained (sub-millimeter in diameter) and dark.

Figure 19. Sketch map of Turrialba emphasizing the fresh deposits mapped on 6 January 2010 (shaded area). The town of La Central (~ 4 km from the W crater) lies on the approximate dispersal axis and received 1-1.5 mm of ash fall. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Mapping by OVSICORI-UNA on 6 January traced the deposit WSW (figure 21); the deposit had a thickness of 1-1.5 mm between La Central and La Silvia. At 8 km from the vent on the road near Oreamuno the deposit was ~ 0.5 mm thick. Some fine ashfall was seen 15 km from the vent (at Llanos Grande) and reached ~ 30 km away to neighborhoods of SE San Jose. The delicacy of the deposit and the associated rain meant that some of the best samples came from roof tops and plant leaves. On corrugated roofs the uppermost portions of the ridges still preserved considerable ash. Some of the near-source ejecta were on the order of a meter in diameter.

Field observations on 6 January revealed that two small vents had opened and joined together on the SE inner wall of the SW crater. Gas emission temperatures were more than 350°C. On 8 January seismic activity and gas emissions decreased. Observations on 9 January revealed that the combined vent was about 20-25 m wide and 65-80 m long (figures 20 and 21).

Figure 20. An aerial view on 9 January 2010 of Turrialba's W crater and one or more new cavities developed in the upslope area (see enlarged view in next figure). Courtesy OVSICORI-UNA.

Figure 21. Close-up of the area affected by Turrialba's phreatic eruption as seen from the air on 9 January 2010. The vent on the far wall began as two small separate ones. The cover of fresh fine-grained deposits appears as a smooth area around the new vent. Some of the larger near source ejecta reached on the order of a meter or so across. Courtesy OVSICORI-UNA.

A plume on 15 February that reached 1.5-2 km in height was photographed by OVSICORI-UNA (figure 22). The noise from the emission was heard 4 km to the SW.

Figure 22. Photograph of a weak, inclined steam-and-gas plume from Turrialba taken on 15 February 2010. Courtesy OVSICORI-UNA.

Aviation notices, January 2010. Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) reports started on 7 January, and began with pilot reports of ash to the E of the summit, but analysts lacked clear evidence of ash based on satellite imagery. METAR reports (routine, in most cases hourly, aviation weather reports from places such as airports) continued to mention the plume on the 7th, but weather clouds prevented detection of possible ash clouds. Later on the 7th, analysts began to rely on a wider array of data, and although still unable to see the plume in imagery, they began to put out numerous regular reports through the 9th. On 16 January the VAAC reported that the "Observatory has confirmed that there are no ash emissions at this time. Gas and steam emissions are possible."

Information Contacts: E. Duarte, E. Fernández, J. Brenes, R. Van der Laat, and T. Marino, Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Gerardo J. Soto, Red Sismológica Nacional, Escuela Centroamericana de Geología (UCR). Apdo. Postal 214-2060, San José, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.rsn.geologia.ucr.ac.cr/); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center, Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/).

September 2011 (BGVN 36:09) Cite this Report

Frequent degassing and occasional ashfall, March 2010-June 2011

During 5-6 January 2010, Turrialba discharged a phreatic eruption that resulted in a new vent and ashfall up to 30 km from the crater (BGVN 35:02). This report discusses activity from February 2010 through October 2011. Portions of this report were initially synthesized and edited by Shereena Dyer, as part of a graduate student writing assignment in a volcanology class at Oregon State University under the guidance of professor Shan de Silva.

Since the January eruption, Turrialba (figure 23) has continued to eject gas and ash intermittently, maintained elevated fumarolic output and temperatures, and produced strong SO₂-bearing plumes from the vent. This activity continued over much of the reporting interval. The Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) annual report highlighted the 5-6 January eruption as the key event during 2010. According to OVSICORI-UNA, field observations on 6 January found that two small vents had opened and joined together on the SE inner wall of the SW crater. Current monitoring includes a web camera 600 m from the active crater that takes an image every 10 seconds.

Figure 23. View of Turrialba's SW crater (depression in foreground) and central crater (at distance). The photo documents the character of persistent ongoing fumarolic degassing on an unstated day in January 2011. The yellow zones on the hillsides represent sulfur-bearing deposits sublimated from the sulfur-rich gas emissions. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

After the 5-6 January eruptions, emission levels dropped. In late February 2010, scientists found a pool of molten sulfur at the base of the S crater wall with a temperature of 153°C.

OVSICORI-UNA reported that scientists visited Turrialba on 7 March 2010. A gas plume, common with this volcano, was observed that night rising 1.5 km above the crater and drifting NW. Noises from the crater were described as sounding like a jet engine and rumblings. The January 2010 vent emitted gas in March with surface temperatures between 300 and 320°C. Small blocks 3-12 cm in diameter and of different colors dominated the surface around the vent. Lithics ejected 30-50 m away from the vent measured 170°C. Incandescence seen at night originated from the vent that ejected reddish-colored tephra. Two SO₂ measurements taken on or around 13 March from a ground-based spectrometer yielded 1,100 and 750 t/d, the former taken closer to the volcano.

According to OVSICORI-UNA, most of the gas emitted in April originated from the January 2010 vent; in April it produced plumes that rose 2 km above the crater rim. Gas also rose from other areas, including fissures SW of the W crater and from multiple vents and fissures in the main crater. Gas plumes mainly drifted NW, W, and SW, coinciding with areas where vegetation had suffered the greatest damage from the gases.

In April 2010, OVSICORI-UNA reported that multiple years of rain data had been collected at the station La Silvia on the W flank and was frequently found to be acidic (pH often well below 5). During 2007 though mid-2010, the rain had pH 2.8-5.7 and elevated specific conductivity (figure 24). Note that the lowest pH values on the plot were collected during 2009 and 2010.

Figure 24. Specific conductivity (microS/cm) and pH of rainfall collected at La Silvia station associated with Turrialba during parts of the 1980s and then from 2007 through mid-2010. Note break in horizontal scale owing to absence of data. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA/CONARE.

In May scientists noted that on the NW, W, SW sides there were new effects of acid-rain-damaged leaves and vegetation up to 4 km from the main crater. During August, observers noted farms 18 km SW of Turrialba with burns on onions, chemical damage attributed to volcanic gases.

A farm 3 km NW of the summit appears in comparative photos from 2007 and 2011 (figure 25). The houses in the photos were abandoned for a few months after the seismic swarms in the middle of 2007. The residents returned during February-March 2008, only to permanently leave in the middle of 2008 due to harsh atmospheric conditions. This farm remained abandoned in November 2011. Many others were also abandoned in areas of intense impact.

Figure 25. For Turrialba, comparative views from 2007 (top) and 2011 (bottom) of a farm below the crater and to the NW. These photographs show the effects of acidification on the vegetation and infrastructure. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Based on web camera views, the Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) reported that on 24 July 2010 a plume of steam, gas, and ash drifted W. Over the next three hours, the plume became more diffuse and steam-rich. Another ash emission was observed on 15 August 2010; the plume drifted about 600 m E of the active crater. Satellite imagery showed an approximately 10-km-wide ash plume drifting 15 km W.

The volcano was relatively quiet during November and December. In January 2011, vegetation damage from acid rain could be observed on the SW, W, and NW flanks. Residents in the village of Silvia, 2.3 km SW of the crater, reported a strong stench of SO₂ during the month. On 14 January, nearby residents reported minor ashfall and rumbling noises, and again, strong sulfurous odors. OVSICORI closed the Turrialba Volcano National Park temporarily, evacuated a few people as a precaution, and installed a surveillance base in the town of La Central (~4 km SW of the crater). OVSICORI-UNA noted that a blue-and-white gas plume rose from Turrialba the next day.

During a visit to the volcano in January 2011, OVSICORI-UNA found that a 2- to 5-cm-thick layer of freshly ejected material, with clasts ranging in size from a few millimeters to 5 cm, blanketed the W edge of the crater. Officials discovered two small landslides on the walls of the crater. The walls were considered unsafe due to the loose material. The cavity in the crater that formed in January 2010 had been widened as a result of falling material and the W part of the cavity was offset by about 4 m. A new cavity in the vent appeared to have formed from one of the explosions. Heavy rainfall created a large gully, incising the W edge of the crater at a depth of 0.4-1.5 m. Despite the intense rainfall, the crater was covered in sulfur-bearing deposits. An "eerie sound," which at times could be heard kilometers from the summit, was associated with the emission of gas. A gray plume had a temperature at the vent ranging from 480-498°C.

OVSICORI-UNA reported that on 9 June 2011 scientists conducting fieldwork at Turrialba observed a new lake in the SW crater. Since February, rock landslides along with abundant mud and clay had accumulated in the bottom of the crater, blocking the vent. Meteoric water from rains starting in May had formed a light-green-colored lake that was 70 m in diameter and ~1 m deep. Minor bubbling in the SW and NE shores was noted, and steam and sulfur dioxide gas emissions rose from many fumarolic vents around the crater.

OVSICORI-UNA reported on 12 October 2011 that degassing at Turrialba had affected the vegetation, soil, infrastructure, and economy (figure 25). Acidification of the soil had impaired, possibly permanently, vegetation growth; the economic effect on farms and livestock has yet to be determined. A school building near the volcano was still used by students and teachers, despite having been deemed unsafe. The extent of the effect of acidification on livestock and the economy had not yet been determined.

Reference. OVSICORI-UNA, 2010, Real-time webcamera of Turrialba volcano, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/vulcanologia/videoturri.html)

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/).

June 2012 (BGVN 37:06) Cite this Report

New fumarolic vent opens on the SW flank of the W crater on 12 January 2012

Turrialba is the eastern-most of Costa Rica’s active volcanoes, located 65 km E of the capitol, San Jose. The previous Bulletin report discussed frequent degassing and occasional ashfall between March 2010-June 2011 (BGVN 36:09). This report discusses activity between July 2011 and May 2012.

A recent comprehensive report prepared by Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) provides an excellent background of activity at Turrialba: “Since May 1996, Turrialba volcano has shown an important increase in activity, which can possibly be interpreted as precursory of a new eruptive phase. The volcano-tectonic activity and degassing increase is particularly noticeable since 2007, and even more since the opening of the first fumarolic vent in the W crater [the main crater ‘pLa Quemada’] in January 2010, which suggested a magmatic intrusion between 2005 and 2007 as well as the beginning of a new eruptive phase. A new vent opened on January 12th, 2012, (Boca 2012 or 2012 vent) on the southeast external flank of the W crater, with few hours of ash emission, followed by a second ash emission from the same vent on January 18th, 2012.” A chronology of events leading up to the 12 January 2012 event is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Events since 1996 leading up to the 12 January 2012 vent opening event, and associated previous Bulletin coverage. Dates and event descriptions courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Date     Remarks                                                            BGVN report(s)1996     During the first four months of 1996 nearly no events were         21:06 (Jun 1996)           registered. After 23 May Turrialba registered a sudden           21:08 (Aug 1996)           increase in microseismicity. In late May there were over         21:12 (Dec 1996)           50 events; in June, 246 events. During July, observers           witnessed weak fumarolic activity continuing along the NE,           N, W, and S sides of the crater which included 146 local           earthquakes. In August, 299 local earthquakes were detected.2001     Seismic swarms and increase in the fumarolic activity with the     26:11 (Nov 2001)           appearance of magmatic gases.2003-    Seismic swarms and increase in the fumarolic activity with the     32:08 (Aug 2007) 2005      appearance of magmatic gases.2007     Seismic swarms and increased fumarolic activity at the bottom      32:08 (Aug 2007)           of the W crater, forming a plume up to 2 km hight.2007-    Increase in the fumarolic activity with a strong magmatic          33:01 (Jan 2008) 2012      component and high temperatures.                                 34:09 (Sep 2009)5-6 Jan  Phreatic eruption and opening of the 2010 vent on the W flank      35:02 (Feb 2010) 2010      inside the W crater accomanied by ash emission.14 Jan   Small Ash emission. 2010Early    “Roaring” sound from the vent located on the N side of the W       36:09 (Sep 2011) 2011      Crater. This vent may have opened at the beginning of the           rainy season, around May 2011; no confirmation possible.5 Jan    Eruption and local area ashfall in areas to the SW. New vent       Current report 2012      suspected in main crater.12 Jan   Opening of the 2012 vent on the SE flank of the W crater           Current report 2012      accompanied by an ash emission.

Seismicity at Turrialba from early November through December 2011 was variable with event frequency ranging from as low as 20 events per day to an occasional high of 80 events per day. The frequency of events dropped significantly in early December to generally less than 60 per day until there was a dramatic increase on 31 December when 155 seismic events were recorded. Event frequency in early January 2012 showed a steady increase from 40 events per day reaching about 80-100 events per day between 6 and 13 January. This increase in seismic events was concurrent with emissions recorded on 5 January and 12 January (table 6).

On 5 January 2012 an eruption at Turrialba produced ashfall in local areas, particularly in areas to the SW, including areas near Irazú volcano (11 km SW). Later reporting suggested a new fumarolic vent may have opened in the main crater on 5 January. According to news articles, about 20 people evacuated the area.

2012 vent opens. After midnight on 9 January 2012, residents of the Central Valley heard booming and crashing sounds. Investigators at OVSICORI-UNA reviewed the seismic records but did not find associated seismic or volcanic activity. On 11 January, residents again reported several instances of rumbling. On 12 January, OVSICORI-UNA reported that a new vent, located on the SE flank of the volcano’s W crater had opened. According to OVSICORI-UNA, the new vent exhibited “a vigorous output of bluish gas at high temperature (T > 592°C) that generated a jet-like sound audible from the visitor lookout.” This activity included a few hours of ash emission. A second ash emission from the same vent occurred on 18 January (see subsection below). Seismic recordings, deformation, and diffused gas flux measurements allowed the conclusion that the opening of the 2012 fumarolic vent is not due to a change in the magmatic activity but to an excessive shallow accumulation of gas. This conclusion is substantiated by information obtained from a network of Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) equipment using five reference points (prisms) which have been taking measurements since 2009. No significant variations of the distance relationships that would coincide with the ash emissions of 2010 and 2012 had been noted. EDM data after March 2011 showed a decrease in measured distances, mainly in the N direction with small variations in the other directions. This information is considered corroborated by Global Position System (GPS) data provided by two GPS stations which show a small but continuous trend of decreasing distance observed during April 2010-January 2012.

Similar vent openings occurred at Turrialba prior to the 1864-66 eruption and at Irazú volcano prior to its 1963-65 eruption. Hence, other openings of fumarolic vents can be expected in the future, especially along the fractures and weak zones aligned in a SW-NE direction that passes by the three upper craters of Turrialba.

The activity of 12 January was a pressure release on the SE flank of the W crater. OVSICORI-UNA considered the release to have penetrated weakened rock, not a magmatic or phreatic (steam-driven) eruption. (The rock at the summit of Turrialba is considered to be very weak due to the intense rainfall and the persistent hydrothermal activity at the summit. This weakness facilitates the development of vents.) An ash plume rose ~500 m above the crater and drifted NNE and NNW, rising to an altitude of ~4 km. Later that day residents reported a dark plume coming from the main crater and a white vapor plume that rose from the fumarolic vent which had formed in the main crater on 5 January 2010. The emissions caused OVSICORI-UNA to raise the Alert Level to Yellow in the communities of La Central (34 km SW), Santa Cruz (7 km SE), and around the perimeter of the crater. Towns of Jiménez (21 km N), Oreamuno (45 km SW), Alvarado (38 km SW), and Cartago (25 km SW) remained at Alert Level Green. Ashfall was reported in Tres Ríos (27 km SW).

Gas emission analysis the day before the opening of the 2012 vent (11 January) showed high values of CO₂ and H₂S over the entire E flank of the W crater. A 115-m-long liquid sulfur flow was observed in the main crater from the E side of W crater.

18 January eruption. During the evening of 18 January 2012, scientists observed gas emissions and ejection of tephra from the vent. They also observed reddish flames from combusting gas, estimated to be ~700°C. Degassing of Turrialba is considered a normal ongoing activity. An OVSICORI-UNA pilot observed an ash plume that rose to altitudes of ~4.3-6.1 km.

The seismogram from the 18 January eruption (figure 26) showed strong tremor coincident with the tephra and gas emissions. The tremor, which started at 1455, was most intense between 1502 and 1610 according to OVSICORI-UNA. Figure 26a shows >5,000 seconds of the most intense part of the tremor having significant variations in amplitude, especially at the beginning of the activity. Figure 26c shows the signal’s frequency content over the same interval, with the highest normalized amplitudes having peaks between 5 and 15 Hz.

Figure 26. (a) A seismic recording for Turrialba on 18 January 2012 at station VTUN showing the most intense phase of the tremor that prevailed during the eruption that day. (b) Spectrogram of the seismicity shown in (a). (c) Normalized frequency spectrum of the seismic signal; the main peaks are between 5 and 15 Hz. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

A false color satellite image of Turrialba taken on 21 January 2012 highlights ongoing impacts to vegetation from high gas emissions (figure 27). One of the concerns of the government is the amount of acid rain that has fallen on the region surrounding Turrialba. The acid rain, with a pH as low as 3.2, has degraded the local agricultural and livestock economy.

Figure 27. A false-color satellite image of Turrialba (a combination of near infrared, red, and green light) acquired on 21 January 2012. Healthy vegetation appears bright red, while vegetation damaged by years of acidic gas emissions is brown. Bare ground in the summit craters is brown or gray. This image was acquired by NASA’s Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Reflecton and Emission Radiometer (ASTER) instrument aboard the TERRA satellite. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

Vent incandescence in February 2012. A nocturnal visit to the W crater by volcanologists from OVSICORI-UNA on 2 February revealed several incandescent spots. Figure 28 (a view from the overlook taken on 9 February), shows a panoramic view of vent locations in relation to the West, Central, and East Craters.

Figure 28. A panoramic view of the relative locations of the three vents which have been the sites of activity since 2010. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Each vent had different gas and vapor output, and different incandescence intensities. The 2012 vent, which opened on 12 January, registered temperatures above 700°C on 22 February. Continued degassing was noted in conjunction with incandescent spots at several locations on the W crater (figure 29).

Figure 29. A view of the 2012 vent from the overlook taken on 9 February 2012. The insert on the right is the second ash emission from the 2012 vent on 18 January. Courtesy of G. A. Avard, OVSICORI-UNA.

March-May 2012. Residents reported that two large steam-and-gas emissions (~90% water vapor) rose above the volcano on 27 March. The two gas columns rose ~1 km in height and drifted towards the N face of the volcano. A small phreatic eruption was noted on 12 April.

On 2 May 2012, following an increase in seismic and degassing activity with vigorous steaming, there were occasional phreatic explosions that produced ash. According to Tico Times, on 20 May the government raised the Alert Level to Yellow. Temperatures around some fumaroles had risen to as much as 800°C. High-temperature gas emissions (including SO₂) increased and caused incandescence in some of the fumaroles.

On 23 May, based on seismometers in Turrubares and Puntarenas, OVSICORI-UNA reported an earthquake with an epicenter ~84 km WSW of Turrialba. The M 3.9 earthquake was at a depth of ~14 km. The earthquake was reported to be a very brief jolt for residents of Esparza, Jaco Beach, and Puntarenas. Some residents of Monteverde, San Pedro, and Santa Ana reported having felt an earthquake of very slight intensity. It is not clear whether the earthquake and the earlier increased Turrialba activity were related.

Information Contacts: Avard G., Pacheco J., Fernández E., Martínez M., Menjívar E., Brenes J., van der Laat R., Duarte E., Sáenz W., Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/); Tico Times (URL: http://www.ticotimes.net/); Reuters (URL: http://www.reuters.com/); NASA Earth Observatory (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/).

February 2013 (BGVN 38:02) Cite this Report

Decreased seismicity and emissions in 2012

As noted by our previous report (BGVN 37:06), on 12 January 2012 Turrialba emitted ash for a few hours due to the opening of a vent, named 2012 Vent, on the SW inside slope of Central Crater. Since then, 2012 Vent has been an active contributor to the regular plume generation at the volcano. Our previous report noted activity through May 2012. This report primarily highlights activity through December 2012, based on online documents from the Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) showing a diminution in activity during 2012 compared to 2010 and 2011.

Seismicity. According to OVSICORI-UNA, the seismic activity at Turrialba in 2012 was characterized primarily by shallow and volcano-tectonic events concentrated in the upper part of the edifice, and minor seismicity in nearby faults. In general, seismicity was lower in 2012 than in 2011, and notably lower than that in 2010. Seismic activity climbed slightly during September-October 2012 (from about 20/day, peaking at 150/day on 13 October, and then declining back to normal values after 1 November; figure 30). OVSICORI-UNA noted that seismic activity in 2012 was caused by water and heat interactions causing gas pressure.

Figure 30. The number of seismic events registered per day at Turrialba during 2012. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Deformation. OVSICORI-UNA reported that during 2012 the distances between the Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) station “Pilar” and several nearby reflectors contracted from 2 to 7 cm/year, with the highest value at the N reflector and lowest at the ENE and NE reflectors (see figure 31 for EDM station locations).

Figure 31. The location of geodetic monitoring stations at Turriabla during 2012. Red circles are reflectors of the EDM network, and measurements were made from the Pilar station (red square). Blue circles are permanent GPS stations (CAPI and GIBE). Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Emissions. According to OVSICORI-UNA, the opening of the 2012 vent was not associated with new magmatic activity. Vent temperatures measured with a thermocouple were similar during 2010-2012, suggesting to OVSICORI-UNA a sustained and common magmatic source. Measured vent temperatures also correlated with CO₂ and H₂S gas emissions (figure 32).

Figure 32. (Background image) Thermal image of Turrialba’s W wall in Cráter Central (Central Crater) on 27 October 2012. Two vents are indicated, Boca 2012 (2012 Vent) and Cráter Oeste (West Crater). (Plots) For the measurement locations indicated by arrows, plots compare CO2 flux measurements (black) to both H2S flux measurements (blue) and thermal measurements acquired at 10-cm depth (red). Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA; thermal photo taken by G. Avard.

OVSICORI-UNA noted that gas emissions during 2012 had decreased considerably compared to those during 2010 and 2011. OVSICORI-UNA suggested that this decrease might be due to various factors, including a decline in rainfall that resulted in less water vapor, the primary component of the emissions. In a report discussing activity during January-February 2013, OVSICORI-UNA noted that the emissions from 2012 Vent had decreased, even though nighttime incandescence could be observed. Emissions drifted primarily NW during 2012.

Figures 33 and 34 summarize SO₂ measurements from both miniature Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer (mini-DOAS, fluxes) and OMI satellite data (masses). SO₂ fluxes were lower than those in 2010-2011 when fluxes often reached above 1,000 tons/day (and in one case, nearly 4,000 tons/day; figure 34).

Figure 33. (Left) Daily SO2 flux (metric tons/day) at Turrialba measured by a mini-DOAS station at La Central school, ~2.2 km SW of West Crater, between 1 May 2012 and 1 January 2013. (Right) SO2 mass (uncorrected for any noise) emitted by Turrialba as recorded by NASA’s Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) aboard the AURA satellite during 2012. The SO2 mass corresponds to the total mass detected by the OMI sensor in the Central America area at 1800-1900 UTC. According to OVSICORI, both mini-DOAS and OMI measurements were consistent and of the same magnitude. The red-shaded area in the satellite data represents the time period corresponding to that of the mini DOAS data. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA and NASA-OMI.

Figure 34. SO2 mass emitted by Turrialba as recorded by NASA’s OMI instrument aboard the AURA satellite between 1 October 2008 and 6 November 2012. These represent masses in the atmospheric column that are thought to have roughly 1 day residence times. Courtesy of NASA-OMI.

As in previous years, rain and fog absorbed volcanic gases in 2011 and 2012, producing acid rain with consequent damage and destruction to vegetation, especially in downwind areas in the sector sweeping clockwise from SW to N from the vents (figure 35).

Figure 35. Annotated photo of Turrialba taken on 26 August 2012. The vegetation on the top and on the flanks of the edifice (zone 1) showed severe effects such as necrosis. The pasture vegetation (zone 2), used for milk production, turned yellowish (chlorosis). Interestingly, part of the native vegetation such as the tall trees (Quercus species) showed a stronger resistance to environmental acidification. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA; photo taken by G. Avard.

OVSICORI-UNA observed that hydrothermal activity modified the mineralogy and decreased the cohesion of the rocks in contact with the fluids, which alter and reduce the stability of the slopes of the volcanic edifice, triggering gravitational collapses, rockfalls, and strong erosion during the main rain events. These phenomena were especially observed after storms on 15 August and in November 2012, when coarse and fine material was transported from the walls to the bottom of Central Crater, deepening the W and NW gullies.

In an M.S. thesis, Rivera (2011) compared SO₂ concentrations in Turriabla’s volcanic plume using a ground-based mini-DOAS and three new data analysis techniques using NASA’s OMI instrument. The three new techniques were the MODIS smoke estimation, OMI SO₂ lifetime, and OMI SO₂ transect techniques. All four techniques involve UV sensor analysis. She found that the OMI SO₂ lifetime technique provided qualitative agreement between the ground-based and satellite-based data, while the OMI transect technique provided occasional quantitative agreements with the mini-DOAS measurements. The MODIS smoke estimation technique was inaccurate in estimating SO₂ emission rates.

Reference. Rivera, A.M., 2011, Comparisons between OMI SO₂ data and ground-based SO₂ measurements at Turrialba volcano, M.S. Thesis, Michigan Technological University.

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/).

April 2015 (BGVN 40:04) Cite this Report

29 October 2014 magmatic eruption, the first such event in 150 years

This report primarily summarizes activity during January 2013 through mid-December 2014 (although a plot of SO₂ flux during 1 October 2008-30 November 2013 is also presented). That activity included frequent gas emissions, occasional increases in seismicity, intermittent gas explosions that generated ash plumes and ashfall, and strong gas explosions on 21 May 2013 and 29-31 October 2014. Material here are primarily extracted from a 2013 annual report and the suite of 2014 monthly reports, all prepared by the Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA).

Recent Bulletin reports (BGVN 37:06 and 38:02) indicated that the number of volcanic earthquakes and degassing events at Turrialba’s W crater during 2012 were lower than those in 2010 and 2011. The three main fumaroles present in the W crater were as follows: Boca 2010 on the W wall, Boca 2011 on the N wall, and Boca 2012 on the E wall.

Gas data, 2008-early 2013. Ultraviolet spectral analysis can yield estimates of volcanogenic SO₂. The methods to assess and express volcanogenic SO₂ vary, with some methods looking at the atmospheric column (total column mass) and others the flux of the gas close to the volcano (mass per unit time, for example, metric tons per day).

The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) travels in space onboard NASA’s Aura satellite and yields estimate of the column SO₂ mass. For Turrialba during the 2008-2013 period OMI determined SO₂ mass burdens generally below 1,500 metric tons and in a few cases to higher values including two cases in the range 2,500-4,000 metric tons (figure 36).

Figure 36. OMI satellite retrievals for SO2 masses in the atmospheric column during 1 October 2008-1 November 2013. Headers are in Spanish (unchanged from original source): Y-axis is SO2 mass in thousands of metric tons, X-axis is date (dd/mm/yyyy). Note the use of commas on the X-axis scale in the place of decimal points (0,5 = 0.5). Graphic is directly from the 2013 annual OVSICORI-UNA report (p. 6).

During 1 April 2013 to 27 November 2013, the ground-based differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) stations near Turrialbal recorded fluxes generally between 500-1,000 metric tons/day.

Based on the DOAS observations, OVSICORI-UNA plotted the CO₂ / SO₂ molar ratio. After an explosion on 21 May 2013, the observatory found this ratio generally increased progressively in available data during the nearly six months that followed (figure 37). In a similar manner, the H₂S / SO₂ molar ratio also showed a tendancy towards progressive increase in available data (figure 38).

Figure 37. CO2 /SO2 molar ratios at the Boca 2010 vent from DOAS measurements at Turrialba in the interval from 1 April 2013 to 27 November 2013. DOAS stands for Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy, measurements made by stations at the volcano. Spanish labels (left to right): ash emission, increase in seismicity, decrease in seismicity. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Figure 38. H2S/SO2 ratios between 1 April 2013 and late November 2013 at Turrialba’s Boca 2010, as measured by DOAS stations. Spanish-language labels correspond to triangles on the X-axis stating, from left to right: “ash emission,” “increase in seismicity,” and “decrease in seismicity.” Note error bar (incertidumbre) at upper left. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

2013 events and monitoring. According to OVSICORI-UNA, the year 2013 began with low seismic activity (shallow hybrid earthquakes) and weak gas emissions similar to those in 2012. In March and April 2013, volcano-tectonic earthquakes originating more than 5 km below the summit began to occur, along with the first tornillo earthquakes of the year. (Tornillo-type earthquakes are long period with wave forms that, at or near the start, contain higher amplitude signals that gradually decrease with time. Their shape on seismograms resembles a woodscrew.) The number of volcanic earthquakes increased from 10/day on 18 April to more than 500/day on 13 July. This high level persisted until the end of August 2013.

On 20 May 2013, increased gas emissions produced a sky-blue plume visible from nearby areas. An eruption followed the next day.

At 0452 on 21 May, the number of hybrid earthquakes became numerous. Continuous harmonic tremor increased at 0720. At 0830 and after 1100, explosions from both Boca 2010 and Boca 2012 vents generated ash plumes that rose more than 500 m (figure 39). Ashfall was reported in nearby communities to the N, W, and WSW. The 21 May ash emission event was discussed in the context of molar ratios of gas species in figures 37 and 38.

Figure 39. Gas explosions on 21 May 2013 at Boca 2010 and Boca 2012 on Turriabla’s W crater. Photo taken by the webcam OVSICORI-UNA-A. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

At noon on 21 May 2013, ash emissions ceased and seismicity decreased. Seismic activity declined sharply after the 21 May explosions, as did the CO2 /SO₂ ratio, as measured in situ by a portable Multigas station. As previously noted (figures 37 and 38), for plotted measurements, the CO2 / SO₂ and H2S / SO₂ ratios tended to progressively rise during the months that followed.

OVSICORI-UNA reported that a pilot flying past Turrialba about 40 km away observed a blackish plume on 29 May 2013. Officials from the Parque Nacional Volcán Turrialba observed a gas plume that was slightly darker than usual between 0730 and 0745; however, seismic records showed no abnormal activity at those times or seismic data signifying the discharge of a plume during the previous 48 hours. In addition, web camera images lacked evidence of ash emissions since 23 May. Gas plumes with temperatures more than 750°C were emitted from the two vents. The plume from Boca 2010 was whiter than the plume emitted from Boca 2012.

On 4 June 2013, light ashfall was reported in Pacayas (about 13 km W) and San Pablo in Oreamuno de Cartago (25 km SW). An observer in the previously closed National Park engulfing Turrialba noted that gas emissions that day were slightly stronger and more grayish than usual.

According to OVSICORI-UNA, seismic activity increased significantly again on 13 July 2013 with low-frequency signals (figure 40). On that day, the number of seismic events increased to more than 500/day. Seismicity remained at this level until late August when it decreased. During this period the gas temperature from Boca 2012 decreased from ~800°C to ~600°C. During 18-19 July, low-frequency tremor was detected. No morphological changes at the surface were observed.

Figure 40. As recorded at Turrialba between January-November 2013, the number of volcanic earthquakes (y-axis on plot at left) and the number of very long period (VLP) earthquakes (y-axis on plot at right). Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Volcanic earthquakes with very long periods ceased in November 2013. Tornillos also became less frequent.

2014. The 29 October magmatic eruption discussed below culminated years of high gas emissions at Turrialba. The eruption was sudden and impulsive, termed an explosion by OVSICORI-UNA, but was led by ongoing ash-bearing emission and a clear multihour escalation in tremor. No human injuries were reported. Costa Rica has bolstered its hazard infrastructure in recent years. According to GFDRR (2012) the legislation called the “Emergencies and Risk Prevention Law (No. 8488) requires Government agencies and municipalities to allocate resources for disaster risk reduction activities in their programs and budgets. Presidential Decree (No.36721-MP-PLAN) enhanced the risk management competencies of the CNE [the National Risk Prevention and Emergencies Management Commission] and provides a model to assess vulnerability (compulsory in governmental planning processes).”

During January-September 2014, the number of volcanic earthquakes often remained relatively low (under 100, figure 41, left plot). Occasionally the number approached 200. The low seismicity was broadly similar to that in the last half of 2013; the majority of earthquakes were of low magnitude, including those of tornillo, volcanic-tectonic, and hybrid affinities. During January-September 2014, volcano-tectonic (VT) seismicity was generally stable (at 3 or fewer events per day)(figure 41, right plot).

Figure 41. The number of daily seismic events at Turrialba during 1 January 2014-30 September 2014. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

On 28 July 2014, a swarm of small, low-amplitude, short-duration, and high-frequency events lasted two hours. OVSICORI-UNA attributed the swarm to movement of fluids through cracks.

Conde and others (2014a) published an article about volcanic SO₂ and CO2 fluxes at Turrialba during early 2013. They discussed SO₂ and CO2 measurement methodologies used at Turrialba and Telica. OVSICORI-UNA reports during January-March 2014 noted the development of significantly more accurate, continuous ground-based SO₂ monitoring. In addition, OVSICORI-UNA acquired and used an additional instrument, a Flyspec (a mini-spectrometer to measure SO₂ levels). According to the OVSICORI-UNA September 2014 monthly report, SO₂ fluxes in 2014 through September ranged from 400 to 1,500 metric tons/day, well below the maximum ~3,500 t/d they recorded during several days in June-August 2009 (Conde and others, 2014b).

In addition, reported CO2/SO₂ ratios were ~8 in May, 2-4 in June, and ~2.5 in July 2014. H2S/SO₂ molar ratios were ~1.2 in May and 0.2-0.7 in June 2014. Several authors in the two cited articles by Conde and others are affiliated with the NOVAC project (Network for Observation of Volcanic and Atmospheric Change). According to its website, the main objective of NOVAC is to establish a network for the measurements of volcanic gas and aerosol emissions--in particular SO₂ and BrO--and to use the data from this network for risk assessment and volcanological research, both locally and on a regional and global scale. OVSICORI-UNA is part of the NOVAC consortium.

The temperatures at the W crater vents during January-July 2014 were about 600°C or lower, similar to the values of the previous six months as measured 15-20 m from the vents. In August and September, temperatures rose slightly to ~650°C; the composition of the gases were stable and interpreted as primarily magmatic.

Deformation in the August and September 2014 OVSICORI-UNA reports was determined by using interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), Global Position System (GPS), and electronic distance meter (EDM) surveys. According to the August 2014 report, the InSAR and EDM measurements showed, in the 2013-2014 time interval, a relative contraction of several centimeters around the E and W craters. The September 2014 OVSICORI-UNA reported that a GPS survey on a 4-point transect from the base of the volcano to the summit yielded preliminary results indicating that one of the stations (VTQU, on the S flank) had sunk 2-3 cm/year since 2011. The September 2014 report did not report deformation at other stations.

According to OVSICORI-UNA, seismic activity, which had been low earlier in the year, began to increase in late September 2014. In mid-October instruments recorded a three-day swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes. The largest event, M 2.8, occurred at 2035 on 16 October at a depth of 5 km beneath the active crater. SO₂ flux remained low to moderate ranging between 400 and 1,500 metric tons per day during through October 2014. Magmatic influenced degassing intensified during 28-29 October; the SO₂ flux was ~2,000 t/d, higher than the 1,300 t/d average measured in September 2014 and the highest to date during 2014. (Recalling the previously mentioned interval 1 April-27 November 2013, the recorded fluxes also stood lower, generally in the range 500-1,000 tons/day).

The 30 October report by OVSICORI-UNA, which contains informative graphics omitted here, including photos of the plume, tephra deposited on a car, seismic instrument records and spectral information, a helicorder record for a 24-hour interval bracketing the explosion). OVSICORI-UNA described the eruption on the 29th as a moderate eruption of ash between 2310 and 2335 (25 munutes).

According to that report, tremor began at 0600 on the 29th and continued unbroken into at least early the next day. The tremor and the associated RSAM escalation was sufficiently ominous as to lead OVSICORI to notify locals of the situation (including the CNE, the National Park, as well as a nearby lodge. The same OVSICORI-UNA report added that at unstated time during this episode the lodge’s chief Tony Lachner noted the plume was darker than usual, contained a yellowish tinge, and was judged to contain ash. At 1700, OVSICORI-UNA again informed local authorities on the situation. The tremor had increased in amplitude and continuity (duration) during the afternoon. Tremor became strongest around 2310-2320 on the 29th coincident with the strong explosion then. The same report noted that OVSICORI-UNA had alerted aviation authorities of the explosion around midnight.

The explosion, heard by local residents, also left a clear record on instruments in the region including those at Poas and Irazu. The explosion ended what started as an initially small eruption from the West Crater that lasted about 25 minutes. The explosion was heard by nearby villagers. An ash cloud rose to an altitude of 5.8 km and drifted WSW. Ash fell on numerous nearby communities, including parts of the capital of San José (whose outskirts are ~30 km W) and Heredia (centered less than 40 km WNW of the volcano). In more detail, settlements noted by OVSICORI-UNA included San Gerardo de Irazú, San Ramón de Tres Ríos, Coronado, Moravia, Curridabat, Desamparados, Aserrí, Escazú, Santa Ana, Belén, Guácima de Alajuela, Río Segundo de Alajuela, San Pedro Montes de Oca, Guadalupe, areas of Heredia, and the capital of San José (population ~350,000, with central downtown located~ 70 km SW of Turrialbla).

The explosion on the 29th destroyed the wall between the West and Central craters, depositing material around the Central Crater and partially burying it. According to a news report (Agence France-Presse), Turrialba National Park remained closed, and eleven people from Santa Cruz de Turrialba were evacuated to shelters. Some schools were also temporarily closed, affecting over 300 area students. OVSICORI-UNA literature (including the 30 October report discussed above) noted that magma had not previously reached the surface at Turrialba since an eruption in 1866 (~150 years ago).

The magmatic eruption continued during 30-31 October (figure 42) with growing magmatic components seen in samples. Analyses of tephra showed that the proportion of juvenile material increased during 30 and 31 October, respectively, rising from the range of 3-5% by volume to the range of 7-10% by volume. A 30 October OVSICORI-UNA report noted that the ash dispersion modeling assumed a plume height of 1.5 km, consistent with a photo they showed (time unstated), which showed much of the plume remaining comparatively low in the area of view near the volcano. According to the Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), the 30-31 October eruption produced a continuous emission of gas and light ash with an occasional burst of heavier ash, generally moving W and SW.

Figure 42. A photo of emissions at Turrialba’s West Crater on 31 October 2014. The photo was taken from the tourist vista point at Turrialba Volcano National Park. The image shows two distinct plumes adjacent each other, a dark ash-bearing plume and a white plume rich in condensed steam. The plumes rose ~1 km above the vent. Courtesy of Raúl Mora (National Seismological Network, RSN, and University of Costa Rica).

In their 7 November 2014 report, OVSICORI-UNA discussed how named staff collected and ran tests on leachate acidity for material deposited in the explosions during 29-31 October. Leachate reached pH 3.3 (highly acidic). In contrast, ash erupted during 4-5 January 2010 yielded leachate with pH 6.7-7.1 (near neutral). The 2014 report cautioned that such values were of considerable concern to human health, to environmental impacts (native vegetation, aquatic species, etc.), to cultivated plants, and to the well being of livestock and farm animals. The authors attributed the low pH values to the magmatic nature of the eruption and to absorption of those gases on the ash particle surfaces.

An explosion at 0520 on 1 November 2014 generated an ash plume that drifted toward the E and N parts of the Central Valley. A 3 November report stated that during the previous 24 hours seismicity had decreased significantly and no explosions had been detected; seismicity remained elevated. An phone and online (Facebook) public survey allowed residents to record if they had observed ashfall in their localities during the eruptive interval. Responses depicted a W-directed dispersal pattern that covered much of the urban area around San Jose.

OVSICORI-UNA reported a seismic signal indicating a strong emission lasting 50 minutes that started at 2320 on 6 November. The same 7 November report noted that in broad terms seismicity had decreased overall during the previous few days.

An ash-bearing explosion from Turrialba started at 1926 on 13 November and lasted about 10 minutes. Another explosion occurred at 1342 on 14 November and lasted about 15 minutes, although the strongest part was 7-minutes long. The OVSICORI-UNA report issued at 1635 on the 14th emphasized the associated explosive signal of these two emissions in terms of seismicity, for example, noting the dominant frequencies for the respective events were centered at 6.8 and 4.0 Hz. The report also said that of National Park officials reported ashfall at the top of Irazú. Volcanologists observed the 14 November explosion and collected samples at Hacienda La Central, 3 km SE of West Crater.

According to news reports (The Tico Times and crhoy.com), OVSICORI-UNA reported a strong gas emission on 13 November, accompanied by a massive outpouring of ash. A pilot reported ash plume S of the volcano at an altitude of 3.7-4.3 km.

According to OVSICORI-UNA, a strong Strombolian explosion occurred at 2128 on 8 December 2014, considered by them as one of the large explosions in the series that started with the magmatic eruption on 29 October 2014. The explosion lasted about ten minutes and had no precursory activity. The main pulse of ash emissions took place in under 100 seconds. Ashfall, 1 cm thick, and ballistics up to ~5 kg were deposited as far as 300 m W. Ashfall of 0.01 to 2 cm thickness was reported in the Central Valley and in towns to the W and SW, with 23 reports from citizens consistent with ash at distances of 45-80 km from the source. The report also noted constant inflation at Turriabla, ~10-15 mm annually, since the year 2010.

Citizen input to acquire ash thickness data. The Turriabla reporting took advantage of an OVSICORI questionare (Encuesta Alcance de Cenizas, V. Turrialba) to engage citizen observations on ash deposition. The online questionnaire (find link in “Information Contacts” section below) features a scalable map that features a positionable icon to show the location of ash-thickness observation. This position then automatically computes the resulting coordinates (latitude and longitude). The questionare includes several other questions relating to thickness, date and time of observation, rainfall, and weather conditions (which can perturb the original thickness). Entering contact information is optional.

References. Conde V., Robidoux, P., Avard, G., Galle, B. Aiuppa, A.,? Muñoz, A., and Giudice, G., 2014a, Measurements of volcanic SO₂ and CO2 fluxes by combined DOAS, Multi.GAS and FTIR observations: a case study from Turrialba and Telica volcanoes, Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch), 103, pp. 2335-2347, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. (Also Errata November 2014, 103 (8), p 2349.)

Conde, V., Bredemeyer, S., Duarte, E., Pacheco, J., Miranda, S., Galle, B., and Hansteen, T., 2014b, SO₂ degassing from Turrialba Volcano linked to seismic signatures during the period 2008–2012, International Journal of Earth Sciences (Geol Rundsch) 103, pp. 1983–1998, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.

GFDRR, 2012, Costa Rica Country Update – GFDRR, October 2012; Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). (URL: http://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr.org/files/COSTA_RICA.pdf) (Accessed 12 July 2015).

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA)(URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr ; Questionare, http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=122); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/); Network for Observation of Volcanic and Atmospheric Change (NOVAC)(URL: http://www.novac-project.eu/index.html); The Tico Times (URL: http://www.ticotimes.net/); Agence France-Presse (URL: http://www.afp.com/); The Costa Rica Star (URL: http://news.co.cr/); and crhoy.com (URL: www.crhoy.com).