United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
4607
EPA815-R-06-010
April 2006
&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Point-of-Use or Point-of-
Entry Treatment Options for
Small Drinking Water
Systems
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Prepared For:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
Standards and Risk Management Division
Prepared By:
The Cadmus Group, Inc.
Arlington, VA
Printed on Recycled Paper
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This document provides public water systems and States with the Environmental Protection
Agency's (EPA's) current policy on point-of-use and point-of-entry devices used for compliance. The
statutory provisions and EPA regulations presented in this document contain legally binding
requirements. This document is not a regulation itself, nor does it change or substitute for those
provisions and regulations. Thus, it does not impose legally binding requirements on EPA, States, or
public water systems. This guidance does not confer legal rights or impose legal obligations upon any
member of the public.
While EPA has made every effort to ensure the accuracy of the discussion in this guidance, the
obligations of the regulated community are determined by statutes, regulations, or other legally binding
requirements. In the event of a conflict between the discussion in this document and any statute or
regulation, this document would not be controlling.
The general descriptions provided here may not apply to a particular situation based upon the
circumstances. Interested parties are free to raise questions and objections about the substance of this
guidance and the appropriateness of the application of this guidance to a particular situation. EPA and
other decision-makers retain the discretion to adopt approaches on a case-by-case basis that differ from
those described in this guidance where appropriate.
POU can refer to several different types of units: plumbed-in units; plumbed-in units with
separate faucets for the POU device; faucet-attached units; and faucet-connected counter top units. This
document focuses on plumbed-in units with separate faucets for the POU device. Such units are typically
installed under the kitchen sink so as to provide convenient use for drinking and cooking water. Separate
faucets allow for the use of untreated water for washing and cleaning, thus helping to reduce operating
costs of the treatment device.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for their use.
This is a living document and may be revised periodically without public notice. EPA welcomes
public input on this document at any time.
This document reflects the comments received from stakeholders on the March 2002 draft and
has undergone peer review by experts in the field of POU and POE devices.
The term "State" as used in this document means both State and Primacy Agency.
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Point-of-Use or Point-of-Entry Treatment Options
for Small Drinking Water Systems
Contents
1. Introduction 1-1
2. Federal Requirements for POU/POE 2-1
2.1 Safe Drinking Water Act 2-1
2.2 Federal Regulations 2-1
2.2.1 40 CFR Section 141.100 - Criteria and Procedures for PWSs Using POE
Devices 2-2
2.2.2 40 CFR Section 142.62 - Variances and Exemptions from the MCLs for
Organic Chemicals and lOCs 2-3
2.2.2.1 40 CFR Section 142.62 (f) 2-3
2.2.2.2 40 CFR Section 142.62 (h) 2-4
2.2.3 40 CFR Section 142.65 - Variances and Exemptions from the MCLs for
Radionuclides 2-5
2.2.4 Other Federal Regulations 2-5
3. POU and POE Treatment Technologies 3-1
3.1 Overview of POU and POE Treatment 3 -1
3.1.1 Summary of Available POU and POE Treatment Technologies 3-1
3.1.2 Water Quality Issues That Affect POU and POE Devices 3-6
3.1.3 O&M for POU and POE Technologies 3-6
3.2 Examples of Treatment Approaches for Specific Contaminants 3-7
3.2.1 POU Technologies 3-7
3.2.1.1 Adsorptive Media for Arsenic and Selenium 3-7
3.2.1.2 IX for Various lOCs, Radium, and Uranium 3-9
3.2.1.3 RO for Various lOCs, Radium, and Uranium 3-11
3.2.2 POU or POE Technologies—GAC for SOCs 3-12
3.2.3 POE Technologies—VOCs and Radon 3-13
3.3 Microbial Contaminants 3-15
3.4 References 3-16
4. Cost Considerations and Benefits of a POU or POE Treatment Strategy 4-1
5. Implementation Considerations for POU and POE Devices 5-1
5.1 General State and Local Regulations and Requirements 5-1
5.2 Pilot Testing 5-6
5.3 Number of Taps to Treat 5-8
5.4 Participation 5-8
5.5 Disinfection and HPC Monitoring 5-9
5.6 Warning and Shut-off Devices 5-11
5.7 Equipment Certification 5-11
5.8 Access 5-12
5.9 Disposal 5-13
5.10 Monitoring and Maintenance 5-15
5.11 Reporting, Record keeping, and Compliance Determination 5-17
5.12 Operator Certification Issues 5-17
5.13 Local Plumbing and Electrical Codes 5-18
5.14 References 5-19
6. Site-Specific Considerations for POU and POE Devices 6-1
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6.1 Public Education 6-1
6.2 Treatment Device Selection 6-3
6.3 Installation 6-4
6.4 Liability 6-4
6.5 Logistics and Administration 6-5
7. Case Studies 7-1
7.1 Arsenic Treatment 7-1
7.1.1 Fairbanks, Alaska and Eugene, Oregon (POU AA, AX, RO for Arsenic
Removal) 7-1
7.1.1.1 AA 7-3
7.1.1.2 AX 7-3
7.1.1.3 RO 7-3
7.1.1.4 Cost Data and Study Conclusions 7-4
7.1.2 San Ysidro, New Mexico (POU RO for the Removal of Arsenic, Fluoride,
and Other lOCs) 7-4
7.1.3 Hancock, New Hampshire (POE AA for Arsenic Removal) 7-8
7.1.4 Lummi Island, Washington (POE AX for Arsenic and Cyanide Removal) 7-9
7.1.5 Fallen Naval Air Station (POU RO for Arsenic Removal) 7-11
7.1.6 EPA Demonstration Project in Grimes, CA (POU AA and Iron Media for
Arsenic Removal) 7-12
7.1.7 American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AwwaRF)
Project 2730 (Multiple POU/POE Technologies for Arsenic Removal) 7-13
7.2 Copper Treatment 7-15
7.2.1 Florence, Montana (POU CX for Copper Removal) 7-15
7.2.2 Location 2, Montana (POU RO for Copper and Lead Removal) 7-16
7.3 Fluoride Treatment 7-16
7.3.1 Suffolk, Virginia (POU RO for Fluoride Removal) 7-16
7.3.2 Emington, Illinois (POU RO for Fluoride and TDS Removal) 7-19
7.3.3 New Ipswich, New Hampshire (POE RO, AA, UV for Fluoride Removal)
7-20
7.3.4 Opal, Wyoming (POU RO for Fluoride and Sulfate Removal) 7-22
7.4 Nitrate Treatment 7-23
7.4.1 Suffolk County, New York (POE/POU GAC, IX, RO, and Distillation for
Nitrate Removal) 7-23
7.4.2 Hamburg, Wisconsin (POE AX for Nitrate Removal) 7-25
7.4.3 Fort Lupton, Colorado (POU RO for Nitrate and Total Suspended Solids
(TSS) Removal) 7-26
7.5 Radon Treatment 7-27
7.5.1 Various States (POE GAC for Radon Removal) 7-27
7.5.2 Deny, New Hampshire (POE GAC and Aeration for Radon Removal) 7-28
7.6 Trichloroethylene (TCE) Treatment 7-30
7.6.1 Byron, Illinois (POU/POE GAC for TCE Removal) 7-30
7.6.2 Elkhart, Indiana (POE GAC, Aeration for TCE and Carbon Tetrachloride
(CC14) Removal) 7-31
7.6.3 Hudson, Wisconsin (POE GAC for TCE and 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (TCA)
Removal) 7-32
7.7 Radium Treatment: Illinois EPA Study (POE CX) 7-34
7.8 References 7-36
Appendix A: Small System Compliance Technologies A-l
Appendix B: Potential Funding Sources for the Implementation of a POU or POE Compliance
Strategy B-l
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Appendix C: Model Ordinance Language for a System Implementing a POU or POE Compliance
Strategy C-l
Appendix D: Sample Access and Maintenance Agreement D-l
Appendix E: Sample Monitoring Log for POU or POE Devices E-l
Appendix F: Sample Maintenance Logs for POU or POE Devices F-l
Appendix G: Sample Public Education Notice for Systems Using POU Devices for Nitrate
Removal G-l
Appendix H: Sample Public Education Notice for Systems Using POU Devices for Chronic
Contaminant Removal H-l
Exhibits
Exhibit 1.1: Typical POU Installation 1 -2
Exhibit 1.2: Typical POE Installation 1-2
Exhibit 3.1: Applicability of POU Treatment Technologies 3-3
Exhibit 3.2: Applicability of POE Treatment Technologies 3-5
Exhibit 3.3: Water Quality Parameters of Concern for POU and POE Technologies 3-6
Exhibit 3.4: O&M for Various POU and POE Treatment Devices 3-6
Exhibit 3.5: Typical POU Adsorptive Media Installation 3-9
Exhibit 3.6: Typical POU IX Installation 3-11
Exhibit 3.7: Typical POU RO Installation 3-12
Exhibit 3.8: Typical POU GAC Installation 3-13
Exhibit 3.9: Typical POE Aeration Installation 3-14
Exhibit 3.10: Typical POE GAC Installation 3-15
Exhibit 5.1: Summary of Survey Responses from State Regulatory Agencies 5-2
Exhibit 7.1: Source Water Quality of Surveyed Households in Fairbanks, AK and Eugene, OR 7-2
Exhibit 7.2: Operational Schedule for POU Devices During Phase B 7-14
Exhibit 7.3: POU and POE Performance Summary 7-14
Exhibit 7.4: Performance Data for a Typical POU RO Unit in Suffolk, VA 7-19
Exhibit 7.5: Performance Data for POU RO Devices in Emington, IL (1985$) 7-20
Exhibit 7.6: Performance Data for POU and POE Devices in Suffolk County, NY 7-24
Exhibit 7.7: Performance Data for POE GAC Devices 7-27
Exhibit 7.8: Cost Data for POE GAC Devices 7-28
Exhibit 7.9: Cost Estimates for POE GAC and Aeration Systems (1990$) 7-30
Exhibit 7.10: Performance Data for POE GAC Devices in Elkhart, IN 7-32
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Abbreviations
/j.g/1 Micrograms per Liter
/an Micron Meter
AA Activated Alumina
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AwwaRF American Water Works Association Research Foundation
AX Anion Exchange
BAT Best Available Technology
CC14 Carbon Tetrachloride
CCR Consumer Confidence Report
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
cfm Cubic Foot per Minute
cfu Colony Forming Units
CHC13 Chloroform
cm Centimeter
CTA Cellulose Triacetate
CWS Community Water System
CX Cation Exchange
DBA Diffused Bubble Aeration
DNR Department of Natural Resources
EBCT Empty Bed Contact Time
EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
GAC Granular Activated Carbon
GFH Granular Ferric Hydroxide
gpd Gallons per day
gpm Gallons per minute
HFTF High-flow Thin-film
HPC Heterotrophic Plate Count
IOC Inorganic Chemical
IX Ion Exchange
kgal 1,000 gallons
MCL Maximum Contaminant Level
meq Milliequivalents
MGD Millions of Gallons per Day
mg/L Milligrams per Liter
ml Milliliter
vii
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NPDWR National Primary Drinking Water Regulation
NSF National Sanitation Foundation
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PCE Tetrachloroethylene
pCi/L picoCuries per Liter
POE Point-of-Entry
POTW Public Owned Treatment Works
POU Point-of-Use
ppb Parts per Billion
ppm Parts per Million
psi Pounds per Square Inch
PTA Packed Tower Aeration
PWS Public Water System
RCRA Resource Recovery and Conservation Act
RO Reverse Osmosis
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SDWIS Safe Drinking Water Information System
SOC Synthetic Organic Chemical
SSCT Small System Compliance Technology
TCA 1,1,1-trichloroethane
TCE Trichloroethylene
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TTHM Total Trihalomethanes
UL Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
UV Ultraviolet Light
VOC Volatile Organic Chemical
WHO World Health Organization
WIA Wattenburg Improvement Association
WQCD Colorado Water Quality Control Division
WQA Water Quality Association
Vlll
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Point-of-Use or Point-of-Entry Treatment Options for Small Drinking
Water Systems
1. Introduction
The challenges facing small public water systems (PWSs) (systems serving 10,000 people or
fewer) were a major focus of the 1996 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). One way
Congress sought to help systems meet these challenges was by explicitly allowing systems to install
point-of-use (POU) and point-of-entry (POE) treatment devices to achieve compliance with some of the
maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) established in the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
(NPDWRs) (Section 1412(b)(4)(E)(ii) of SDWA).
POU and POE treatment devices rely on many of the same treatment technologies that have been
used in central treatment plants. However, while central treatment plants treat all water distributed to
consumers to the same level, POU and POE treatment devices are designed to treat only a portion of the
total flow. POU devices treat only the water intended for direct consumption (drinking and cooking),
typically at a single tap or limited number of taps (Exhibit 1.1), while POE treatment devices are typically
installed to treat all water entering a single home, business, school, or facility (Exhibit 1.2). The cost
savings achieved through selective treatment may enable some systems to provide more protection to
their consumers than they might otherwise be able to afford. Ultimately, POU or POE treatment devices
may be an option for PWSs where central treatment is not affordable.
POU can refer to several different types of units: plumbed-in units; plumbed-in units with
separate faucets for the POU device; faucet-attached units; and faucet-connected counter top units. This
document focuses on plumbed-in units with separate faucets for the POU device. Such units are typically
installed under the kitchen sink so as to provide convenient use for drinking and cooking water. Separate
faucets allow for the use of untreated water for washing and cleaning, thus helping to reduce operating
costs of the treatment device. It should be emphasized that when such a unit is installed for purposes of
compliance with a contaminant regulation, the regular kitchen faucet itself (as well as any other faucet in
the house) should only be used for cleaning and washing purposes. Water for cooking or drinking should
come only from the tap with the POU device.
This guidance outlines the technical, operational, and managerial issues involved in implementing
a POU or POE treatment strategy. It describes the types of contaminants that can and cannot be treated
with POU and POE devices and offers recommendations on how to select, install, operate, maintain, and
monitor this equipment. This guidance document is intended for small community water systems
(CWSs), but non-community water systems also may find information in this document useful.
See section 5.7 for additional information on certification of POU and POE devices.
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Exhibit 1.1: Typical POU Installation
From
Distribution
System
\
POU device
under kitchen sink with its
own separate tap.
Exhibit 1.2: Typical POE Installation
To
Irrigation
System
From
Distribution
System
m
POE installation
that treats all water prior
to entering the house .
1-2
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This document is organized into six remaining chapters and eight appendices as follows:
Chapter 2. Existing Regulations. This chapter provides information on existing regulations
that pertain to POU and POE devices. Applicable sections of SDWA and Title 40 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (40 CFR) are presented and discussed.
Chapter 3. POU and POE Treatment Technologies. This chapter discusses POU and POE
treatment technologies that are either listed in a final rule, listed in a proposed rule, or identified
by EPA as a small system compliance technology (SSCT).
Chapter 4. Cost Considerations and Benefits of a POU or POE Treatment Strategy. This
chapter briefly discusses the cost considerations and benefits a system may realize when
implementing a POU or POE treatment strategy. For more detailed information on costs, refer to
Cost Evaluation ofPoint-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment Units for Small Systems (EPA,
2006).
Chapter 5. Implementation Considerations for POU and POE Devices- State and Local
Regulations. This chapter presents system considerations, such as pilot studies, monitoring
frequency, disposal permits, and other issues related to a POU and POE treatment strategy. The
system should consult State and local regulatory personnel to identify regulations, requirements,
or permits that may need to be addressed in order to implement a POU or POE treatment strategy.
Chapter 6. Site-specific Considerations for POU and POE Devices. This chapter will present
issues the system should consider to effectively implement a POU or POE treatment strategy,
such as public education, device selection, installation, liability, logistics and administration, and
costs.
Chapter 7. Case Studies. This chapter contains case studies from systems throughout the
country that have implemented a POU or POE treatment strategy. These case studies are
presented to provide other systems with information on how to successfully implement a POU or
POE treatment strategy.
Appendix A. Small System Compliance Technologies. This appendix lists the approved
compliance technologies for small systems for arsenic and radionuclides.
Appendix B. Potential Funding Sources for the Implementation of a POU or POE
Compliance Strategy. This appendix presents information on funding sources and contact
information for different funding sources.
Appendix C. Model Ordinance Language for a System Implementing a POU or POE
Compliance Strategy. This appendix contains model ordinance language a system may want to
adopt for a POU or POE treatment strategy.
Appendix D. Sample Access and Maintenance Agreement. This appendix contains a sample
access agreement systems may want to use to obtain access to private dwellings and facilities.
Appendix E. Sample Monitoring Log for POU or POE Devices. This appendix contains a
sample monitoring log systems may want to use to document monitoring of POU and POE
devices.
Appendix F. Sample Maintenance Log for POU or POE Devices. This appendix contains a
sample maintenance log systems may want to use to document maintenance activities on POU
and POE devices.
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Appendix G. Sample Public Education Notice for Systems Using POU Devices for Nitrate
Removal. This appendix contains a sample public education flyer that a system could use when
POU devices are installed for nitrate removal.
Appendix H. Sample Public Education Notice for Systems Using POU Devices for Chronic
Contaminant Removal. This appendix contains a sample public education flyer that a system
could use when POU devices are installed for chronic contaminants besides nitrate.
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2. Federal Requirements for POU/POE
Federal requirements establish a national basis for implementing a POU or POE treatment
strategy. The most fundamental of these requirements are found in the 1996 Amendments to the Safe
Drinking Water Act (SDWA) that are discussed below. Also important are existing federal regulations,
which are discussed in Section 2.2.
2.1 Safe Drinking Water Act
To ensure the protection of public health, Section 1412(b)(4)(E)(ii) of SDWA regulates the
design, management, and operation of POU and POE treatment units used to achieve compliance with an
MCL. Key provisions of this section of SDWA are summarized in bold and italics as follows:
1. The statute prohibits EPA from listing any POU treatment units as an affordable
technology to achieve compliance with an MCL or treatment technique for a microbial
contaminant or an indicator of a microbial contaminant. However, the Act is silent on
the use of POE devices to achieve compliance with microbial contaminants or indicators.
2. POU and POE units must be owned, controlled, and maintained by the PWS or by a
contractor hired by the PWS to ensure proper operation and maintenance of the
devices and compliance with MCLs. This provision does not require the PWS staff to
perform all maintenance or management functions; the PWS can contract out these tasks.
However, it does emphasize that the PWS retains final responsibility for the quality and
quantity of the water provided to the service community and must closely monitor all
contractors. Further, the PWS may not delegate its responsibility for the operation and
maintenance of installed POU or POE devices to homeowners as part of a compliance
strategy.
3. POU and POE units must have mechanical warnings to automatically notify customers
of operational problems. Each POU or POE treatment device installed as part of a
compliance strategy must be equipped with a warning device (e.g., alarm, light, etc.) that
will alert users when their unit is no longer adequately treating their water. Alternatively,
units may be equipped with an automatic shut-off mechanism to meet this requirement.
4. If the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has issued product standards for
a specific type of POU or POE treatment unit, then only those units that have been
independently certified according to these standards may be used as part of a
compliance strategy. ANSI has adopted the standards for POU and POE devices
developed by National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) International, formerly known as the
National Sanitation Foundation. See Section 5.7 for more information on standards.
2.2 Federal Regulations
Existing Federal statutory language is not meant to be exhaustive, and Federal regulations do not
address all aspects of system requirements that need to be considered when implementing a POU or POE
treatment strategy. Therefore, systems are strongly encouraged to consult State and local regulatory
personnel to obtain information on additional State and local requirements (see Chapter 5).
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2.2.1 40 CFR Section 141.100 - Criteria and Procedures for PWSs Using FOE Devices
40 CFR Section 141.100 (July 2005 Edition)
addresses POE devices and contains language similar to
that in SDWA. However, 40 CFR Section 141.100 is
specific to POE devices only and does not address POU
devices. This section of the rules states that POE
devices may be used for MCL compliance if they meet
the following criteria:
• It is the responsibility of the PWS to
operate and maintain the POE
treatment system. This section of the
rule coincides with SDWA language
and again establishes the requirement
that the PWS is responsible for the
POE device.
Systems should check with
State and local regulatory agencies to
determine if any State or local regulations
exist for POU and POE devices. State and
local regulations could exist that would
preclude the use of some or all POU or
POE devices. See Exhibit 5.1 in Chapter 5
for more information.
The PWS must develop and obtain State approval for a monitoring plan before POE
devices are installed for compliance. Under the plan approved by the State, POE
devices must provide health protection equivalent to central water treatment.
"Equivalent" means that the water would meet allNPDWRs and would be of
acceptable quality similar to water distributed by a well-operated central treatment
plant. In addition to the volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), monitoring must include
physical measurements and observations such as total flow treated and mechanical
condition of the treatment equipment. When a POE device is used for compliance with
an MCL, the system must develop a monitoring plan that addresses the contaminant of
concern and obtain State approval of the monitoring plan prior to installing the POE
device. The monitoring plan should include frequency of monitoring for the contaminant
of concern and number of units to be monitored. For instance, the system may propose to
monitor every POE device during the first year for the contaminant of concern and then
monitor one-third of the units annually, each on a rotating schedule, such that each unit
would be monitored every three years. Also, the POE devices must provide health
protection equivalent to central water treatment. In order to satisfy this requirement, the
water system may be required to conduct a pilot study to verify the POE device can
provide treatment equivalent to central treatment. In addition, the system would have to
track the POE flow for a given time period, such as monthly, and maintain records of
device inspection.
Effective technology must be properly applied under the plan approved by the State and
the microbiological safety of the water must be maintained. The State must require
adequate certification of performance, field-testing, and if not included in the
certification process, a rigorous engineering design review of the POE devices. The
design and application of the POE devices must consider the tendency for increase in
heterotrophic bacteria concentrations in water treated with activated carbon. It may be
necessary to use frequent backwashing, post contactor disinfection, and heterotrophic
plate count (HPC) monitoring to ensure that the microbiological safety of the water is
not compromised. Again, the system must demonstrate that the technology is effective in
removing the contaminant of concern and the system may be required to verify
effectiveness through a pilot study or some other means. The system may also need to
provide documentation that the POE device is adequately certified by an independent
party for the applicable ANSI/NSF standards (see Section 5.7). If a rigorous engineering
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design review was not included in the certification process, the State must require the
system to provide the engineering design review. The system also needs to maintain the
microbiological safety of the water through such means as routine HPC testing at the
POE devices (frequency of testing to be determined by the State), the installation of
centralized disinfection, or the installation of disinfection, such as ultraviolet light (UV),
at the POE device.
All consumers shall be protected through proper installation, maintenance and
monitoring. Every building connected to the system must have a POE device installed,
maintained, and adequately monitored. The State must be assured that every building
is subject to treatment and monitoring, and that the rights and responsibilities of the
PWS customer convey with title upon sale of property. The system must install a POE
device at every building connected to the system. Therefore, the system must obtain 100
percent participation of all property and/or building owners. Public education in order to
obtain 100 percent participation is important to successfully implement a POE strategy
(see Section 6.1). Also, the property owner's responsibilities for the POE device must be
contained in the title to the property and "run with the land" so subsequent property
owners understand their responsibilities.
2.2.2 40 CFR Section 142.62 - Variances and Exemptions from the MCLs for Organic
Chemicals and IQCs
40 CFR Section 142 (July 2005 Edition) provisions relate to State programs for the
implementation and enforcement of the NPDWRs. This section of 40 CFR also allows States to grant a
variance or an exemption to a PWS at the State discretion.
2.2.2.1 40 CFR Section 142.62(f)
This section of the CFR reads as follows:
The State may require a PWS to use bottled water, POUdevices, POE devices, or other means
as a condition of granting a variance or an exemption from the requirements of §§141.61 (a)
and (c) and 141.62, to avoid an unreasonable risk to health. The State may require a PWS to
use bottled water and POU devices, or other means, but not POE devices, as a condition for
granting an exemption from corrosion control treatment requirements for lead and copper in
§§141.81 and 141.82 to avoid an unreasonable risk to health. The State may require a PWS to
use POE devices as a condition for granting an exemption from the source water and lead
service line replacement requirements for lead and copper under §§141.83 and 141.84 to avoid
an unreasonable risk to health.
This regulation allows the State to grant a variance or an exemption from the VOCs and synthetic
organic chemicals (SOCs) listed in 40 CFR Sections 141.61(a) and (c) and the lOCs listed in 141.62 (that
now includes arsenic) for a system using POU or POE devices. The POU and POE devices can be used
by the system to avoid an unreasonable risk to health. This regulation also allows the use of POU
devices, but not POE devices, as a condition of granting an exemption from corrosion control
requirements for lead and copper (as required in 40 CFR Sections 141.81 and 141.82) which are briefly
discussed in Section 2.2.4. The State may allow POE devices to be used as a condition of an exemption
from the source water and lead service line replacement requirements for lead and copper (as required in
40 CFR Sections 141.83 and 141.84). See Section 2.2.4 for a brief discussion of these sections.
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2.2.2.2 40 CFR Section 142.62(h)
This regulation reads as follows:
PWSs that usePOU or POE devices as a condition for obtaining a variance or an exemption
from NPDWRs must meet the following requirements:
(1) It is the responsibility of the PWS to operate and maintain the POU and/or the POE
treatment system.
(2) Before the POU or POE devices are installed, the PWS must obtain the approval of a
monitoring plan which ensures that the devices provide health protection equivalent to that
provided by central water treatment.
(3) The PWS must apply effective technology under a State-approved plan. The
microbiological safety of the water must be maintained at all times.
(4) The State must require adequate certification of performance, field-testing, and if not
included in the certification process, a rigorous engineering design review of the POU and/or
POE devices.
(5) The design and application of the POU and/or POE devices must consider the potential for
increasing concentration in heterotrophic bacteria concentrations in water treated with
activated carbon. It may be necessary to use frequent backwashing, post contactor
disinfection, andHPC monitoring to ensure that the microbiological safety of the water is not
compromised.
(6) The State must be assured that buildings connected to the system have sufficient POU or
POE devices that are properly installed, maintained, and monitored, such that all consumers
will be protected.
(7) In requiring the use of a POE device as a condition for granting an exemption from the
treatment requirements for lead and copper under §§141.83 and 141.84, the State must be
assured that use of the device will not cause increased corrosion of lead and copper bearing
materials located between the device and the tap that could increase contaminant levels at the
tap.
Regulations in 40 CFR Section 142.62(h) apply to both POU and POE devices; however, under
this regulation, systems can only use these devices if they have been granted a variance or exemption
from their State. The language in 40 CFR Section 141.62(h) is very similar to the language in 40 CFR
Section 141.100, except that 40 CFR Section 141.62(h) allows the use of both POU and POE devices (in
most instances) under a variance or an exemption. Also included in 40 CFR Section 142.62(h) is a
condition for granting an exemption from the lead and copper source water and lead service line
replacement requirements when a POE device is used. Under these circumstances, the State must be
assured that the POE device will not cause increased corrosion of lead and copper between the POE
device and the drinking water tap(s).
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2.2.3 40 CFR Section 142.65 - Variances and Exemptions from the MCLs for
Radionuclides
This regulation reads as follows:
(a)(2)A State shall require community water systems to install and/or use any treatment
technology identified in Table A to this section [see Exhibit A.2 of Appendix A], or in the case
of small water systems (those serving 10,000 persons or fewer), Table B and Table C of this
section [see Exhibits A.3 and A.4], as a condition for granting a variance except as provided in
paragraph (a)(3) of this section. If after the system's installation of the treatment technology,
the system cannot meet the MCL, that system shall be eligible for a variance under the
provisions of section 1415(a)(l)(A) of the Act.
(5) The State may require a community water system to use bottled water, point-of-use devices,
point-of-entry devices, or other means as a condition of granting a variance or an exemption
from the requirements of Section 141.66 of this chapter, to avoid an unreasonable risk to
health.
This section of the CFR (July 2005 Edition) discusses the criteria the State must apply when
issuing a variance or an exemption for regulated radionuclides. This section is similar to 40 CFR Section
142.62 (the provisions for granting a variance or an exemption to MCLs for organic chemicals and lOCs).
It specifically lists both POU IX (for radium, beta particle activity and photon activity, and uranium) and
POU RO (for all regulated radionuclides) as allowed SSCTs under a variance or exemption. Also
included in 40 CFR Section 142.65 is the requirement for the system that uses POU or POE devices as a
condition for obtaining a variance or an exemption from the regulated radionuclides to meet the
conditions in 40 CFR Section 142.62(h)(l) through (6), as presented in Section 2.3.2 of this document.
2.2.4 Other Federal Regulations
40 CFR Section 141.62(d) lists both POU activated alumina (AA) and POU reverse
osmosis (RO) as SSCTs (applies to systems serving 10,000 or fewer) for compliance with
the revised arsenic standard of 0.010 milligrams per liter (mg/L), as promulgated in the
Arsenic and Clarifications to Compliance and New Source Contaminants Monitoring
Rule (Arsenic Rule) (January 22, 2001). This section of the CFR will not be discussed in
this chapter, but more details on POU AA and RO are contained in Chapter 3 of this
document. See also Appendix A for a list of SSCTs.
40 CFR Section 141.66(h) lists both POU ion exchange (IX) and POU RO as SSCTs
(applies to systems serving 10,000 or fewer) for compliance with radionuclides, as
promulgated in the Radionuclides Rule (December 7, 2000). POU IX is listed as an
SSCT for compliance with the radium, beta particle activity and photon activity, and
uranium MCLs. POU RO is listed as an SSCT for compliance for all regulated
radionuclides. This section of the CFR will not be discussed in this chapter, but more
details on POU IX and RO are contained in Chapter 3 of this document. See also
Appendix A.
40 CFR Section 141.81 describes the criteria for compliance with the lead and copper
corrosion control requirements. Basically, systems are considered to have optimized
corrosion control if they meet the lead and copper action levels during two consecutive
six-month periods, according to monitoring requirements in Section 141.86 (Section
141.86 requires that samples be taken from taps that do not have POU or POE devices).
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Section 141.82 describes the options for corrosion control and the process for state
approval, installation, and continued operation and monitoring.
40 CFR Section 141.83 describes the source water monitoring and treatment
requirements for lead and copper. Systems that exceed the lead or copper action level, as
measured under Section 141.86, must monitor source water. If lead or copper are found
in the source water at levels of concern to the state, systems must install treatment and
conduct follow-up monitoring at the tap. Systems that exceed the lead or copper action
level after installing corrosion control treatment and/or source water treatment must
replace lead service lines in their distribution systems, as required by Section 141.84.
40 CFR Section 141.23(a)(l) and (2) define a sampling point for monitoring purposes as
occurring after the application of treatment. Therefore, monitoring of POU devices for
the contaminant being treated should occur at the tap receiving the treatment. The
treatment effectiveness of POE devices should be monitored after treatment has been
applied.
While not a regulation per se, EPA's 1998 Federal Register notice (63 FR 42032, August
6, 1998) published a list of small system compliance technologies appropriate for other
contaminants. These technologies are described further in Section 3.1.1.
2-6
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3. POU and POE Treatment Technologies
POU and POE treatment technologies are very similar to many centralized treatment
technologies. As a State and system start evaluating POU or POE technologies, they should consider
current rules and regulations that exist that govern POU and POE devices. Federal rules and regulations
on POU and POE devices were presented in Chapter 2. Other rules (final and proposed) also exist that
explicitly list POU or POE devices as SSCTs. They should also consider site-specific water quality issues
and O&M issues that can impact the effectiveness of the technologies. These factors are summarized in
Section 3.1.
3.1 Overview of POU and POE Treatment
3.1.1 Summary of Available POU and POE Treatment Technologies
The POU technologies discussed in this chapter include adsorptive media, ion exchange (IX),
granular activated carbon (GAC), and reverse osmosis (RO). Adsorptive media such as activated alumina
is listed as an SSCT for arsenic. Preliminary treatability data also suggest that it is effective for fluoride.
AX is an SSCT for uranium and also can be used to remove arsenic. RO can remove contaminants as
small as a molecule and is listed as an SSCT for arsenic, copper, lead, fluoride, radium and uranium.
GAC is an SSCT for synthetic organic contaminants (SOCs, e.g., pesticides and herbicides). Both RO
and IX are being studied for their ability to remove nitrate, which can also be removed through
distillation.
Although some POU technologies are capable of removing microbial contaminants, VOCs, or
radon, POU devices should not be used for achieving compliance with these contaminant rules. The
SDWA strictly prohibits EPA from listing the use of POU devices as a compliance technology for any
MCL or treatment technique requirement for a microbial contaminant or indicator of a microbial
contaminant. VOCs and radon are both volatile and present an inhalation or contact exposure risk at
untreated taps (e.g., showerheads). Therefore, POU devices at a single kitchen tap would not sufficiently
protect the public from these risks.
The POE technologies discussed in this chapter include GAC and aeration. The proposed Radon
Rule listed POE GAC as an SSCT. The proposed Radon Rule also explicitly stated that POU devices
cannot be used for radon due to concerns of radon becoming airborne at untreated household taps.
Aeration is a questionable POE technology for VOCs and Radon, due to off-gas emissions that make it
unsuitable for residential use. As both of these technologies are prone to microbiological growth
(particularly heterotrophic bacteria) in the filter media, it may be necessary to use UV disinfection and/or
conduct heterotrophic plate count (HPC) monitoring after these treatment devices.
Currently, only two rules, the Arsenic Rule and the Radionuclides Rule, list POU devices as
SSCTs. The Arsenic Rule lists POU AA and POU RO as SSCTs for those systems serving 10,000 or
fewer people. The Radionuclides Rule lists POU IX (for radium, uranium, and beta particle activity and
photon activity) and POU RO (for all regulated radionuclides) for those systems serving 10,000 or fewer
people. (This chapter will focus on radium and uranium removal technologies as opposed to all regulated
radionuclides.) These are the only two rules finalized since the 1996 SDWA Amendments that list POU
technologies.
EPA has also developed an SSCT list for microbial and non-microbial contaminants, which was
published in the Federal Register (Volume 63, No. 151, August 6, 1998). Three guidance documents
were published by EPA to accompany the Federal Register notice for the SSCTs:
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1. Small System Compliance Technology List for the Surface Water Treatment Rule (EPA 815-R-
97-002, August 1997).
2. Small System Compliance Technology List for the Non-Microbial Contaminants Regulated
Before 1996 (EPA 815-R-98-002, September 1998).
3. Variance Technology Findings for Contaminants Regulated Before 1996 (EPA 815-R-98-003,
September 1998).
The aforementioned documents present background on the SSCT list published in the Federal Register.
Exhibits 3.1 and 3.2 present POU and POE technologies that could be used to remove the
regulated contaminants listed. The exhibits list when POU or POE devices are:
• Listed or being considered as an SSCT by EPA; or,
• Considered technologically capable in the literature, but not listed as an SSCT by rule or
in the Federal Register. Technologies denoted by an "x" as being able to remove a
particular contaminant will not necessarily represent the most technically or economically
feasible approach to the removal of that contaminant. A thorough evaluation of all the
factors presented in Chapters 5 and 6 is required before selecting a treatment technology.
Note that EPA's cost evaluation document will include only those devices certified under
ANSI/NSF drinking water standards.
Even though Exhibits 3.1
and 3.2 show some treatment technologies as
being able to remove a particular
contaminant, only those technologies that
have been through EPA's extensive
regulatory review are listed as SSCTs.
3-2
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Exhibit 3.1: Applicability of POU Treatment Technologies
Treatment Technology
Activated Alumina (AA)
Distillation l
Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
Anion Exchange (AX)
Cation Exchange (CX)
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Other Adsorption Media 2
Contaminant
Arsenic
SSCT
X
X
SSCT
X
Copper
X
SSCT
SSCT
Lead
X
SSCT
SSCT
Fluoride
UI
SSCT
Nitrate
SSCT
SFI
SFI
SOCs
SSCT
Radium
?
SSCT
SSCT
Uranium
X
?
SSCT
SSCT
1 Large device size is not suitable for installation under the sink and has limited production capability, typically under 10 gallons/day
2 Such as iron-, aluminum-, or titanium-dioxide-based media
SSCT = Treatment technology has been identified by EPA as an SSCT (Federal Register, Volume 63, No. 151, August 6, 1998).
SFI = Treatment technology has been suggested to receive further investigation for the listed contaminant (Federal Register, Volume 63, No. 151,
August 6, 1998); anion exchange for nitrates is not currently recommended. See page 3-9.
UI= Under investigation; even though EPA continues to investigate the use of POU AA treatment, the preliminary view of treatability data indicates that
it is effective.
X = Treatment technology can remove the noted contaminant, but is not listed as an SSCT in the Federal Register or in a rule.
? = Treatment technology is questionable for the listed contaminant.
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Exhibit 3.1 (continued): Applicability of POU Treatment Technologies.
Treatment Technology
Anion Exchange (AX)
Cation Exchange (CX)
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Contaminant
Antimony
SSCT
SSCT
Barium
SSCT
SSCT
Beryllium
SSCT
SSCT
Cadmium
SSCT
SSCT
Chromium
SSCT
SSCT
Selenium
SSCT
SSCT
Thallium
SSCT
SSCT
SSCT = Treatment technology has been identified by EPA as an SSCT (Federal Register, Volume 63, No. 151, August 6, 1998).
3-4
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Exhibit 3.2: Applicability of POE Treatment Technologies
Treatment Technology
Activated Alumina (AA)
Aeration: Diffused Bubble
or Packed Tower
Granular Activated Carbon
(GAC)
Ion Exchange (IX)
Anion Exchange
(AX)
Cation Exchange
(CX)
Ozonation
Reverse Osmosis (RO) :
Other Adsorption Media 2
Ultraviolet Light (UV)
Contaminant
Arsenic
X
X
X
X
Copper
X
X
Lead
X
X
Fluoride
X
X
Nitrate
X
X
SOCs
UI
X
VOCs
Q
Radon
Q
PR
Radium
X
X
Uranium
X
X
X
Microbial
X
X
X
1 Currently, POE is excluded from NSF/ANSI 58 for RO devices; issues include the generation of large quantities of reject water and potential
incompatibility of product water with copper pipes
2 Such as iron-, aluminum-, or titanium-dioxide-based media
PR = Treatment technology is identified as an SSCT in the proposed Radon Rule for systems serving fewer than 500 people.
UI = Treatment technology is being investigated by EPA for the listed contaminant (Federal Register, Volume 63, No. 151, August 6, 1998).
Q = Questionable for residential use due to off-gas emissions; see discussion of limitations on page 3-13
X = Treatment technology can remove the noted contaminant, but is not listed as an SSCT or in a rule and may not be economically viable in certain
situations.
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3.1.2 Water Quality Issues That Affect POU and FOE Devices
The use of specific types of POU and POE technologies may be restricted by site-specific water
quality issues. The presence of high concentrations of competing contaminants or foulants can
significantly reduce the removal efficiencies of these devices, making water quality testing and pilot
testing important first steps in selecting a POU or POE technology. The table in Exhibit 3.3 shows the
water quality parameters and competing ions that may reduce the efficiency of POU and POE devices.
Exhibit 3.3: Water Quality Parameters of Concern for POU and POE Technologies
Technology
Ion Exchange
Adsorptive Media
Reverse Osmosis
Granular Activated Carbon
Aeration
Water Quality Parameter of
Concern
Iron, Manganese, Copper
Silica, Fluoride, Phosphate, Sulfate,
Dissolved Iron and Manganese
Hardness, Iron, Manganese
Organics, multiple SOCs or VOCs
present
Hardness, Iron, Manganese
Issue
Fouling, Competing Ions
Interfering/Competing Ions
Fouling
Competing Ions
Fouling, Scaling
3.1.3 O&M for POU and POE Technologies
All POU and POE devices require maintenance if they are to continue removing contaminants.
Exhibit 3.4 presents O&M requirements for different POU and POE installations.
Exhibit 3.4: O&M for Various POU and POE Treatment Devices
Treatment Technology
Operation and Maintenance1
Adsorptive Media:
Activated Alumina (AA)2 and
Specialty Media3
POU: Replacement of spent cartridges and particulate pre-filters (if used).
POE: Periodic backwashing. Replacement of spent media and particulate pre-
filters (if used). Maintenance and cleaning of storage tank (if used).
Aeration:
Diffused Bubble or
Shallow Tray
Only appropriate for POE
Replacement of particulate pre-filters. Replacement of air filters for fan intake
and for exhaust. Maintenance of fan, motors, and repressurization pumps.
Replacement of post-treatment GAC polishing filters. Maintenance and
cleaning of storage tank.
If UV is used for post-treatment disinfection, replacement of UV bulb and
cleaning bulb housing. If ozonation is used for post-treatment disinfection,
maintenance of ozonation element.
Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
POU: Replacement of spent cartridges and particulate pre-filters (if used).
POE: Periodic backwashing. Replacement of spent media and particulate pre-
filters (if used). Maintenance and cleaning of storage tank (if used). If UV is
used for post-treatment disinfection, replacement of bulb and cleaning bulb
housing. If ozonation is used for post-treatment disinfection, maintenance of
ozonation element.
-------
Exhibit 3.4 (continued): O&M for Various POU and POE Treatment Devices
Treatment Technology
Ion Exchange (IX):
Anion Exchange (AX) and
Cation Exchange (CX)
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Ultraviolet Light (UV)
Operation and Maintenance1
POU: Replacement of spent resin cartridges and particulate pre-filters (if used).
POE: Regular regeneration and periodic backwashing. Replacement of salt used
for resin regeneration. Replacement of lost or spent resin and replacement of
particulate pre-filters. Maintenance and cleaning of storage tank (if used).
POU and POE: Replacement of exhausted membranes, particulate pre-filters, and pre- and
post- treatment GAC filters. Maintenance and cleaning of storage
tank. Maintenance of (re) pressurization pumps (if used).
POU and POE: Replacement of UV bulbs. Cleaning bulb housing.
Systems that elect to implement any POU or POE treatment strategy should conduct monitoring at each
household according to a monitoring schedule approved by the appropriate regulatory agency (discussed in
greater detail later in Section 5.10 of this document) to ensure proper unit operation.
The regeneration process for AA is complex and requires the use of strong caustics and acids. Therefore, to
avoid potential health risks associated with the storage of these chemicals in residences, POE AA should only
be considered for use on a throwaway basis unless systems can provide offsite regeneration and/or vessel
exchange facilities.
Regeneration of specialty media is generally not effective due to the high affinity of the media for the
contaminant(s) of concern and is typically a complex operation. Therefore, specialty media installed at the
POU or POE should only be considered for use on a throwaway basis.
3.2 Examples of Treatment Approaches for Specific Contaminants
The following section focuses on the more likely applications of POU and POE devices. While
many possible applications of either POU or POE are possible, it is beyond the scope of this guidance to
address every one. The section is divided into subsections on contaminants that are most likely to be
treated by POU devices, those that are apt to be treated equally well by either device, and those that are
most likely to be treated only by POE devices. It should be noted that contaminants treated by POU
devices could also be treated by POE devices under certain circumstances. Depending on the
contaminant, economic factors and technical issues may influence whether a POE or POU approach is
chosen. For example, just because arsenic treatment is discussed under POU technologies doesn't mean
POE technologies might not be applicable in certain circumstances.
3.2.1 POU Technologies
3.2.1.1 Adsorptive Media for Arsenic and Selenium
Adsorptive media includes activated alumina (AA), granular ferric hydroxide (GFH), or other
specialty iron-based media. AA is a hydrated aluminum oxide that has been heat-treated. Iron-based
media is typically generated in a proprietary process and may consist of granules of ferric oxide or ferric
hydroxide, activated alumina coated with iron, or natural minerals impregnated with a substantial quantity
of ferric hydroxide.
Centralized AA treatment systems are often used for fluoride removal but are also applicable for
arsenic (in an oxidized state) and selenium removal. Inorganic arsenic in groundwater supplies exists in
two forms: as arsenate (As V) and arsenite (As III). The arsenite form of inorganic arsenic is uncharged at
a pH below 9.2 and is, therefore, harder to remove from water. Arsenate, however, is an anion at a pH
3-7
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above 2.2 and is therefore easier to remove using an iron-based and/or other specialty media. Source
water pH is typically adjusted in a centralized AA treatment setting to achieve optimum contaminant
removal. Because POU AA units are not equipped to adjust the pH of the incoming water from typically
neutral pH values of 7.0, the removal efficiency of POU AA may not be as optimal for these contaminants
when compared to centralized treatment. However, EPA has determined POU AA to be a feasible
treatment option for small systems treating for arsenic assuming the AA media is used on a throw-away
basis (i.e., no regeneration) and that arsenic exists in the oxidized state of arsenate (final Arsenic Rule).
EPA is continuing to investigate the use of POU AA for fluoride and selenium; a preliminary review of
treatability data indicates it is an effective treatment technology.
The use of specialty iron-based media is a relatively new treatment technology for arsenic
removal and the media are currently being tested for POU feasibility by several companies using this
media for centralized treatment. These iron-based media are not as sensitive to competing ions as AA and
are typically used on a throwaway basis.
Raw water characteristics should be known, particularly pH and competing ions (fluoride and
sulfate), when considering adsorptive media treatment options. When using AA, the greatest removal
capacity for fluoride occurs at pH 5.5, and for arsenic, between pH 5.5 and 6.0. Hydroxide ions, which
are the most highly preferred ions by AA, are more prevalent at higher pHs, and therefore compete with
arsenic, fluoride, and selenium for available sites. Iron-based media have better arsenic removal over a
broader range of pH, but manufacturers still do not recommend exceeding a pH of 8.5. Another factor
inhibiting arsenic removal is the presence of interfering or competing ions such as silica, fluoride,
phosphate, sulfate and dissolved iron and manganese. At certain concentrations, these competing or
interfering ions can reduce the adsorptive capacity of the media for arsenic. However, iron-based media
are typically not as sensitive to competing ions as AA.
In some cases, pilot testing may be very important to determine the adsorptive media's capability
for each application. Water systems should consult with their State drinking water agencies concerning
pilot testing requirements. Adsorptive media units should be installed with a particulate pre-filter to
remove particles followed by the vessel containing the adsorptive media.
Exhibit 3.5 shows a typical POU adsorptive media installation. The units shown in Exhibit 3.5
are equipped with a pre-filter and one vessel filled with adsorptive media or a pre-manufactured cartridge
that contains adsorptive media.
-------
Exhibit 3.5: Typical POU Adsorptive Media Installation
To Separate
Tap
Particulate Adsorptive
Pre-filter Media Vessel
Flow
meter
Note: A participate pre-filter is
typically used to remove
particles and extend the life of
the adsorptive media. All
treatment units would typically
be placed under the kitchen
sink.
3.2.1.2 IX for Various IQCs, Radium, and Uranium
IX can consist of anion exchange (AX) or cation exchange (CX). IX achieves the selective
removal of charged inorganic species from water using an ion-specific resin (AWWA/ASCE 1998). As
water containing undesired ions passes through a column of resin media, charged ions on the resin surface
are exchanged with the undesired ions in the water. In a large centralized treatment system, the resin is
regenerated and a regenerant waste stream is discharged. For POU units, the resin is replaced periodically
as opposed to regenerating.
Resin fouling may occur if influent water has high concentrations of total suspended solids, iron,
magnesium, or copper. Channels may develop in the resin bed if the pressure drop across the bed is too
high due to fouling. These channels may permit water to pass through the unit without adequate contact
with the treatment resin. Since POU IX units cannot be backwashed, the media life of these devices may
be shortened when levels of these solids, iron, magnesium, or copper are high, and may preclude the use
of these devices.
POE AX may be a preferred treatment alternative for nitrate, but POE AX is not listed as an
SSCT at this time for any contaminant due to waste disposal and cost considerations. However, POU AX
has been suggested by EPA to receive further investigation for nitrate removal. POU AX is listed by EPA
as an SSCT for fluoride, antimony, chromium, selenium, and uranium.
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Special Considerations for Nitrate Treatment
Because POU devices do not treat all the water taps in a house, there is a potential health risk to
household residents who consume untreated water. Households would need to be careful not to
use untreated water to make infant formula. Nitrate is a potential hazard to infants; serious and
occasionally fatal poisonings in infants have occurred following ingestion. Almost all established
cases of water-related nitrate-induced methemoglobinemia in the United States have resulted from
the ingestion of private well water used to make infant formula.
Water systems using POU treatment for nitrate removal should make special efforts to educate
customers about the need for using only the tap that is treated, the health risks associated with
consuming untreated water, and the need for a proper replacement frequency of the AX resins.
Public education could include using the local newspaper, public notification by mail or posted in
prominent places within the community, radio, television media and public forums. Including
educational materials with the water bill is another option, as is the use of door hangers and fliers.
Public outreach may result in significant costs and may offset any savings from using POU
devices.
POU CX is listed by EPA as an SSCT for copper, lead, barium, beryllium, cadmium, and
thallium. POU CX is listed as an SSCT in the final Radionuclides Rule for radium. Exhibit 3.6 shows a
typical POU IX installation.
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Exhibit 3.6: Typical POU IX Installation
To Separate
Tap
Participate
Pre-filter
IX Cartridge
Flow
meter
Note: A participate pre-filter is
typically used to remove
particles and extend the life of
the IX cartridge. All treatment
units would typically be placed
under the kitchen sink.
3.2.1.3 RO for Various IQCs, Radium, and Uranium
POU RO units essentially use the same technology as in centralized treatment. In RO, water
dissolves into and through a membrane, while contaminant ions are rejected and discharged in a
concentrated waste stream. Thus, POU RO units need to be provided with a means of discharging reject
water to a drain. Some RO membranes are sensitive to chlorine, a consideration for those systems that
have centralized chlorination installed. RO typically has a low production rate (around 40%), and storage
is typically needed for a POU RO application.
High levels of water hardness tend to reduce membrane efficacy and result in more frequent
replacement of the RO membrane. Also, high levels of iron, manganese, and aluminum can also cause
membrane fouling. Additionally, RO units may not be the optimal treatment technology in arid or water-
limited regions since RO units have low recovery rates.
POU RO has been identified in both the Arsenic and Radionuclides Rules as an SSCT for arsenic,
uranium, and radium. POU RO is also listed as an SSCT by EPA for copper, lead, fluoride, antimony,
barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, selenium, and thallium. POU RO is suggested to receive further
investigation for its potential application for nitrate removal. The issues associated with using POU RO
for nitrate are the same as presented in Section 3.2.2 for POU AX for nitrate. (See box on p. 3-10)
Exhibit 3.7 shows atypical POU RO installation.
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Exhibit 3.7: Typical POU RO Installation
Participate
Pre-filter
GAG Pre-filter RO Membrane
Post-Treatment UV Disinfection
GAG Filter (optional)
Inflow
<£>
Flow
meter
V /
^ 1
\ 1
^_^ V_^ V_^
^^^^
1
r
To Waste
1
Storage Tank
No
use
life
me
use
dar
To Separate Tap
Note: A particulate pre-filter is typically
used to remove particles and extend the
life of the GAC cartridges and RO
membrane. A GAC pre-filter is typically
used to remove chlorine, which can
damage some types of RO membranes.
A post-treatment GAC filter is typically
installed to improve taste and odor. Due
to the low production rate of most POU RO
units, a storage tank is needed to store
treated water and provide adequate water
at the tap. UV disinfection is optional. All
treatment units would typically be placed
under the kitchen sink.
3.2.2 POU or FOE Technologies—GAC for SOCs
POU and POE GAC are both potentially useful for small system applications for removal of
SOCs. The capacity of GAC to adsorb SOCs varies, depending on the chemical properties of the SOCs.
GAC has the added benefit of improving aesthetics (taste, odor, and color) of the water and is sometimes
included in POU or POE applications for improved aesthetics. GAC unit performance and bed life
depend on the amount of GAC used in the device, presence of co-occurring SOCs, other raw water
parameters (e.g., pH) and the nature of the contaminants being removed.
In addition, GAC media are prone to microbial colonization (heterotrophic bacteria) on the GAC
media. Some form of HPC monitoring and/or disinfection should be considered when using POU GAC
and when using POE GAC, as mentioned in 40 CFR 141.100(d)(2).
POU GAC is listed as an SSCT for all regulated SOCs. POE GAC for SOC removal has been
identified by EPA to receive further investigation. Exhibit 3.8 shows a typical POU GAC installation. A
typical POE GAC installation is shown in Exhibit 3.10 in Section 3.4.
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Exhibit 3.8: Typical POU GAC Installation
Particulate GAC
Pre-filter Cartridge
Flow
meter
To Separate
Tap
UV Disinfection
(optional)
Note: A participate pre-filter is
typically used to remove particles
and extend the life of GAC
cartridges. UV disinfection may be
needed due to GAC media's
susceptibility to heterotrophic
bacterial growth. All treatment units
would typically be placed under the
kitchen sink.
3.2.3 FOE Technologies—VOCs and Radon
Due to the volatile nature of both VOCs and radon, many of the same concerns apply to both
contaminants. Although not explicitly prohibited in SDWA or by rule, POU treatment devices should not
be used to treat for radon or for most VOCs, including total trihalomethanes (TTHM) for compliance
purposes, since these devices do not provide adequate protection against inhalation or contact exposure to
these contaminants at untreated taps (e.g., showerheads). Therefore, POU technologies are not considered
for compliance technology listing even though many POU units have been certified for VOC reduction
and a few for radon reduction. They have also been used by some consumers for further reducing the risk
from at least the drinking water portion.
Aeration
Air stripping technologies such as shallow tray aeration and diffused bubble aeration (DBA) have
been used in POE systems to remove VOCs from ground water (NRC, 1997). Similar to other aeration
technologies, these systems rely on mass transfer to remove VOCs from water. While POE aeration is
technically feasible, it is not commonly used for water systems and may not be as cost- effective as
centralized aeration systems. Therefore, POE aeration has not yet been identified by EPA as an SSCT for
VOCs. In addition, POE aeration was not identified in the proposed Radon Rule since it was not
determined to be cost-effective.
The presence of high levels of iron or manganese can cause fouling of POE aeration units. The
oxygen in the air bubbling through the water can oxidize the iron and manganese in the water and cause it
3-13
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to precipitate. Therefore, preoxidation and pre-filtration may be needed to remove iron and manganese
and prevent fouling. In addition, UV disinfection may be necessary after as aeration devices are prone to
bacterial and algal growth.
The potential for off-gas emissions from POE units is more likely to be a problem because these
POE units would be located near homes. Off-gases may have to be treated using a scrubber, thereby
increasing the complexity and the cost of the aeration units. Also, there is the potential for water quality
deterioration from oxidized inorganics and instability resulting in corrosion and biological growth in the
aeration device. Post-treatment disinfection may be needed with POE aeration units. For these reasons,
this type of technology may be more appropriate for institutions that have adequate maintenance
capabilities, rather than for homeowners. Exhibit 3.9 shows a typical POE aeration installation.
Exhibit 3.9: Typical POE Aeration Installation
Inflow
Participate
Pre-filter
Ventilation
Piping to
Atmosphere
Shallow Tray
or
DBA Unit
Note: Pre-filtration may be needed to
remove iron and manganese and to
prevent fouling.
UV Disinfection
(Optional)
To House
Repressurization
Pump
GAC
POE GAC has been identified in the proposed Radon Rule as an SSCT. This technology was determined
to be a cost-effective and feasible treatment option for small systems. Proper disposal of GAC media
should be evaluated since the spent media will contain radionuclides. Exhibit 3.10 shows atypical POE
GAC installation. Note that the Exhibit is only suggesting vessel bypass and not raw water bypass. This
would only happen when media in either column is being replaced.
As discussed in Section 3.3, natural organic matter and co-occurring VOCs or SOCs can reduce
the efficiency of GAC. The pH of the water and the presence of iron, manganese, and calcium salts can
affect the adsorption ability of the GAC media. In addition, GAC media are prone to microbial
colonization (heterotrophic bacteria) on the GAC media. Some form of HPC monitoring and/or
disinfection should be considered when using POU GAC and when using POE GAC, as mentioned in 40
CFR141.100(d)(2).
3-14
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Participate
Pre-filter
Exhibit 3.10: Typical POE GAC Installation
Vessel 1 Bypass Vessel 2 Bypass
Post-Treatment
UV Disinfection
Inflow
To House
Sampling Taps
Note: A participate pre-filter is typically used to remove particles and extend the life of the GAC media. The GAC vessels are
typically installed in series as a safety measure, with the first vessel functioning as a roughing unit and second vessel functioning
as a finishing unit. A storage tank may be needed to store treated water and provide adequate water at the tap. UV
disinfection is needed due to GAC media's susceptibility to heterotrophic bacterial growth.
3.3 Microbial Contaminants
SDWA (Section 1412(b)(4)(E)(ii)) states that POU devices cannot be listed as a compliance
technology for any MCL or treatment technique requirement for a microbial contaminant or an indicator
of amicrobial contaminant.
SDWA does not exclude POE devices to be used to achieve compliance with microbial
contaminant regulations or an indicator of a microbial contaminant. Several questions regarding
disinfection require resolution before POE disinfection units, such as UV or ozonation, may be considered
a viable option. As a result, EPA has not yet listed any POE device for microbial contaminant removal.
If POE devices were used for a microbial contaminant or an indicator of a microbial contaminant, it
would be necessary to determine a suitable degree and frequency of monitoring finished water quality to
ensure health protection. Frequent monitoring needs could render POE devices impractical as a
compliance technology for a microbial contaminant or an indicator of a microbial contaminant. Therefore
systems should evaluate the cost effectiveness of centralized treatment in comparison with POE devices.
In some systems, such as those serving large irrigated farms with worker housing, there may be cost
savings associated with the POE disinfection option.
3-15
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3.4 References
AWWA/ASCE. 1998. Water Treatment Plant Design. Third Edition. McGraw Hill. New York, NY.
NRC (National Research Council). 1997. Safe Drinking Water from Every Tap: Improving Water
Service To Small Communities. National Academy Press. Washington, B.C.
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4. Cost Considerations and Benefits of a POU or POE Treatment Strategy
Implementing a POU or POE treatment
strategy may be substantially less expensive than
building, expanding, or upgrading a central treatment
plant since only a portion of water used in the
household is treated to a higher level. Systems
should understand both capital and O&M costs
associated with a device and factors that impact costs.
For further information on costs, refer to Cost
Evaluation ofPoint-of-Use andPoint-of-
Entry Treatment Units for Small Systems
from EPA, which should be available during
the 2nd half of 2006.
When a system determines that a POU/POE treatment device can adequately address site-specific
factors and can comply with all State, local, and Federal regulations, (see Chapters 5 and 6) the system
should then develop a cost estimate. The system should seek assistance from a professional when
developing the estimate. The goal of the cost estimate is to determine if the POU or POE treatment
strategy selected for consideration would be economically feasible in a full-scale application when
compared to other alternatives.
When developing an estimate, systems should obtain capital costs and O&M costs. All the
considerations listed in this chapter and Chapters 2, 5 and 6 should be evaluated. However, O&M costs
associated with inspection, maintenance, and monitoring POU or POE devices may be difficult to
determine. Systems should contact several vendors when seeking to purchase or lease POU or POE units
to request references and replacement part costs from each vendor. Systems should also keep in mind that
higher maintenance and monitoring costs may offset initial reduction in capital expenditures. In other
words, the lowest bid may not necessarily be the cheapest option for a system if higher O&M costs are
incurred.
Capital costs are affected by the following:
Purchase costs. Purchase costs can be influenced by device configuration, ANSI/NSF
certification, device production rate, volume discount rates, post-device disinfection,
alarms, meters, and life of the unit.
Installation costs. Installation costs can vary significantly depending on the type of
POU/POE unit, complexity of the unit, and size of the unit. Some devices, such as POU
RO or POE IX devices that regenerate automatically, require that a waste discharge line
be installed that could affect costs. Also, POU devices installed under a sink may require
additional carpentry work for the POU device to fit under the sink. Some systems may
also elect to have a licensed plumber or other professional install the device, which would
further affect installation costs.
Number of taps being treated. If the system decides to install POU devices at multiple
taps within each household (such as at the kitchen and bathroom sinks), then the capital
costs will increase since more devices will need to be purchased.
• Engineering analysis or preliminary study. The system should acquire a professional to
assist the system with evaluating all alternatives and determining if a POU/POE treatment
strategy is the most cost-effective alternative.
4-1
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Permitting costs. The system may incur costs for permitting of the POU/POE treatment
strategy. For instance, some States require an engineering review and approval of any
treatment installed at a public water system and a fee is usually assessed by the State for
this review.
Pilot testing. In some instances, the system may elect or may be required to conduct a
pilot study to verify the selected POU or POE device will adequately treat the water. A
professional is usually needed to assist the system with establishing the pilot test
protocol, overseeing the pilot test, taking samples to verify level of treatment (resulting in
laboratory analysis costs), and developing a report that presents the pilot test results.
Legal costs. The system may need to obtain legal assistance to develop access
agreements that will grant system personnel, or an individual under contract with the
system, legal access to all POU or POE devices for maintenance and monitoring.
Public education. The system should invest in public education prior to installation of a
POU or POE device. The system should educate its customers about POU/POE devices,
how the devices work, required maintenance and monitoring, and the need for someone
to have access to the device to perform required maintenance and monitoring.
O&M costs will be affected by the following:
Maintenance frequency. The maintenance frequency will depend on site-specific
conditions and should be established through a pilot test study. Maintenance will include
replacement components (such as replacement cartridges) and labor. Labor costs
typically consist of system personnel (a certified operator and clerical staff) or an
individual under contract with the system to perform maintenance. Labor will include
making the arrangements for the maintenance call and performing the maintenance call.
A device that requires frequent maintenance visits may result in substantial O&M costs.
For additional information on maintenance frequencies and associated costs, consult
Chapter 6 of the EPA/AWWARF study, "POU/POE Implementation Feasibility Study
for Arsenic Treatment."
Emergency maintenance contingencies. The calculation of maintenance costs should also
take into account unanticipated service calls to address leaks and other repairs. Service
calls attended by the local vendor/representative are often charged by the hour (traveling
time and repair time) and can represent an additional expense to the POU unit owner.
Monitoring frequency. Monitoring costs consist of laboratory analyses costs and labor.
Labor costs typically consist of system personnel (a certified operator and clerical staff)
or an individual under contract with the system to perform monitoring. Labor will
include making the arrangements for the monitoring visit and taking the water sample. A
device that requires frequent monitoring may result in substantial O&M costs.
Residual disposal. In some instances, the system may have to develop a new waste
disposal system to accept the waste from devices, such as RO devices or IX devices that
regenerate automatically. The system will probably experience ongoing costs for the
O&M of the waste disposal system.
4-2
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• Public education. The system should provide continued public education to customers
and have someone available to answer questions. Also, the system should educate new
customers on the POU/POE devices.
Insurance costs. The system may need to obtain additional insurance to cover itself and
employees since POU/POE devices are installed inside a private residence. The system
should have adequate coverage in the event personal property is damaged (such as a
POU/POE device that leaks and damages flooring).
Refer to Chapters 5 and 6 for more information on factors influencing POU/POE costs.
The system should consult a professional to assist the system with identifying alternatives,
developing costs, and device selection. Leasing POU units could also significantly influence both capital
and O&M costs. Under a purchase arrangement, the water system is responsible for capital and O&M, as
well as for monitoring and repair costs to keep all the units operating properly. Under a lease
arrangement, on the other hand, the system pays a fixed lease price to the vendor who then becomes
responsible for all the above services. Thus, purchasing is likely to result in higher costs initially for
capital expenditures. But under a leasing arrangement, the monthly payments would likely exceed
operating, replacement and repair costs ordinarily associated with a treatment system that was purchased.
The systems should therefore evaluate each option by estimating total costs over a considerable period of
time, such as the expected lifetime of the units. Some sources of funding may be available to small
systems attempting to achieve compliance with the NPDWRs by implementing a POU or POE strategy.
Refer to Appendix B for more information on funding sources.
The cost findings for POU and POE devices compared to centralized treatment are discussed in
Cost Evaluation ofPoint-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment Units for Small Systems, which should be
available from EPA during the second half of 2006. The POU and POE devices examined in the cost
document are only those certified under ANSI/NSF Standards 44, 53, or 58 (see Section 5.7 for more
information on ANSI/NSF Standards).
4-3
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5. Implementation Considerations for POU and POE Devices
The considerations discussed in this chapter should be thoroughly addressed prior to any long-
term investment in a POU or POE device, since each may impact the total cost of the entire undertaking.
The requirements and considerations will vary depending on whether the POU or POE strategy is being
implemented as a long-term compliance strategy or is being allowed under a variance or exemption.
Regardless of the reasons for choosing POU or POE treatment devices, the system will need to
invest resources in public education of the service community prior to installing the device and have
ongoing public education after installation (see Section 6.1). Relevant case studies (where available) are
referenced at the end of each section in this chapter and can be found in their entirety in Chapter 7.
5.1 General State and Local Regulations and Requirements
In addition to the existing Federal requirements presented in Chapter 2, the system should fully
understand that State and local regulations that may also affect the selection of a POU or a POE strategy.
Many factors may deter or even prevent POU or POE as a treatment option. If POU or POE treatment is
a strategy that systems decide to consider, it is important to immediately begin discussions with State and
local regulatory agencies to identify their requirements for POU and POE devices.
The State may also want a feasibility study or similar study to justify the selection of POU or
POE option for achieving compliance as opposed to other alternatives, such as blending, developing a
new source, centralized treatment, or connection to a nearby water system. A pilot test may also be
required to demonstrate the performance of the selected POU or POE device (see Section 5.2).
Exhibit 5.1 on the following pages shows the results of a survey of twenty-four State regulatory
agencies dealing with the implementation of POU and POE policies. The table is taken from AWWA
Research Foundation report 2730, POU/POE Implementation Feasibility Study for Arsenic Treatment
(Narasimhan 2005). This table should not be considered a substitute for direct discussions with the State,
particularly as State rules and policies are continuously evolving in this area.
5-1
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Exhibit 5.1 Summary Of Survey Responses From State Regulatory Agencies
State
Alaska
Arizona
California
Delaware
Florida
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas
Maine
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Nevada
New York
North Dakota
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
S. Carolina
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
1. State agency with primacy
authority for POU/POE rules,
policy & guidance
Dept. of Environ. Conservation
Dept. of Environ. Quality
Dept. of Health Services
Dept. of Health & Social Services
Dept. of Environ. Protection
Dept. of Environ. Protection
Rules - IL Pollution Control Board
Policy - Illinois EPA
Dept. of Environ. Management
Dept. of Health & Environment
Maine Drinking Water Program
Dept. of Environ. Protection
Dept. of Environ. Quality Water Div.
Dept. of Natural Resources, Public
Drinking Water Program
State Health Div, Bureau of Health
Protection Services
State Dept. of Health
Department of Health
Dept. of Environ. Protection, Bureau
of Water Supply & Wastewater Mgt.
Department of Health, Office of
Drinking Water Quality
Dept. of Health & Environ. Control
Dept. of Env. Quality, Div. of DW
State Water Supply Division
Department of Health
State Dept. of Health
Dept. of Natural Resources
2. POU/POE rules, policy, or
guidance in place for
implementation, reporting?
None in place
POU & POE rules in place, policies
& guidance in process
POE requirements for irrigation
districts
POU policy under development
POU and POE rules
POU guidance, limited POE guidance
POU rules for emergency situations
POE rules allow installation POE
policy & guidelines being developed
None in place
None in place
None in place
POU & POE rules (3 10 CMR 22.23)
POU & POE policies under
development
None in place
None in place
None in place
POE rules in place, POE policy &
guidance under development
None in place
POU & POE rules in place
POU & POE rules in place
POU & POE rules in place
None in place
POU policy (case by case basis)
POU & POE rules in place
POU & POE policies in place POU &
POE guidance under development
POU rules in place
3. POU/POE rules, policy, or
guidance in place for monitoring
criteria?
None in place
POU & POE rules in place,
policies & guidance in process
POE requirements for irrigation
districts
POU policy being developed
POU and POE rules
POU guidance in place, limited
POE guidance
POE rules in place
POE policy & guidelines under
development
None in place
None in place
None in place
POU & POE rules in place,
POU/POE policies being
developed
None in place
None in place
None in place
POE policy & guidelines under
development
None in place
POE rules in place
POE rules in place
Not available
None in place
None in place
No answer provided
None in place (but under
development)
None in place
4. State experience in regulating POU/POEs for SDWA compliance
Limitations
Not available
Not available
POE operating cost for small system
Use of POUs limited to single service
connection
No experience
Achieving full participation by
individual customers
Just getting started, will adjust as
needed during development
Not available
No answer provided
Not available
No experience to date
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
Insuring continued O&M of the units
No answer provided
POU only treats at single tap & not
whole house
POUs not allowed for compliance
No answer provided
Not available
Only 1 potable tap
No answer provided
Securing access to homes, 100% of
connections must be treated
Not available
Potential solutions
Not available
Not available
None
Not available
No experience
National regs/guidance to require full
participation
Hardness as indicator of radium content
Not available
No answer provided
Not available
No experience to date
No answer provided
POUs for PB removal in school drinking
fountains
No answer provided
Require regular reporting as part of
routine monitoring
No answer provided
Restrict POUs to temp, use, restrict
POEs to v. small systems
No answer provided
No answer provided
Not available
No answer provided
No answer provided
Restrict units to non-community settings;
avoid monitoring at POU/POE taps
Not available
Reprinted with permission. Copyright AwwaRF 2005.
5-2
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Exhibit 5.1 (continued)
State
Alaska
Arizona
California
Delaware
Florida
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas
Maine
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Nevada
New York
North Dakota
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
S. Carolina
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
5. Guidance/procedures in place if
segment of community does not want to
install POUs?
None
In process of development
All must participate, water system
responsible for resolving problem
Not available
None
None at present
Need to have 100% compliance
None in place
None
Not available
No POU units approved for homes in a
PWS
No answer provided
None
None
None
No answer provided
POUs not acceptable for compliance short-
term use only accepted
None, all must be protected
No answer provided
Not available
None, this would be a major problem
No answer provided
100% of community must be covered,
policy being developed to prohibit
POU/POEs for community WSs
Not available
6. POUs or POEs allowed for which
contaminants?
None
Radionuclides, As, Cr, VOCs
Radionuclides, As, Cr, turbidity,
microbials, VOCs
Nitrates
Radionuclides, As
As, Cr, nitrate, F, Pb, Ba, Be, Cd, Cu,
Se, thallium, cadmium
Only radium at this time
May only be used temporarily
None
As under consideration
As, Cr, compliance with other MCLs if
ANSI/NSF certified
No answer provided
Lead, POU/POE use considered on a
case by case basis
No answer provided
Radionuclides, As, Cr, turbidity,
microbials, VOCs for POEs
No answer provided
Radionuclides, As, Cr, turbidity,
microbials, VOCs for POEs
No list of approved applications, case by
case basis
No answer provided
No answer provided
Radionuclides, As, microbials, VOCs -
Yes; turbidity - maybe
No answer provided
Radionuclides, Cr, As, VOCs
noncommunity only
Radionuclides, POEs - some TCR and
nitrate
7. What system sizes can use
POUs by regulation or policy?
None
All
All
25-100
25-100, 101-1000
<25, 25-100
None
None
No answer provided
None
No answer provided
No answer provided
None
No answer provided
None
No answer provided
None
None
No answer provided
None
None (case by case basis)
No answer provided
All
All
8. What size systems are
currently using POU
devices?
None
None
None
25-100
None
None
None
None
25-100
None
No answer provided
None
501-3300(515)
None
None
None
None
None
No answer provided
None
None
No answer provided
25-100, 101-500
None
9. Info, on systems currently using
POUs for compliance purposes
Not available
Not available
Pilot study in comm of 200, treating for
As using activated alumina
GW systems serving <100, nitrates, RO
& Ion Exchange
None used
2 small systems - <100 - have explored
POUs but not implemented
None used
None
57 connections, GW, RO for Se & As
Not available
No experience with POUs for
compliance
No answer provided
Elem school, GWw/Pb, cartridge POUs
on drinking fountains
No answer provided
No POU
No answer provided
POUs not accepted for compliance short-
term use only accepted
No answer provided
No answer provided
Not available
Not available
No answer provided
small GW systems with POUs for nitrate
treatment will not be allowed in future
None currently installed in community
systems
Reprinted with permission. Copyright AwwaRF 2005.
5-3
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Exhibit 5.1 (continued)
State
Alaska
Arizona
California
Delaware
Florida
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas
Maine
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Nevada
New York
North Dakota
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
S. Carolina
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
10. Info, on system currently
using POEs for compliance
purposes
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
None used
Not available
None so far, but have several
GW supplies <500 that will
use lEx for radium removal
None
No answer provided
Not available
Not available
No answer provided
Not available
No answer provided
Limited use of POEs for SW
& GW w/ VOCs & private
wells
No answer provided
Small GW systems using UV
POEs for disinfection
No answer provided
No answer provided
Not available
Not available
No answer provided
Not aware of any, some POEs
may be used for single
connection systems
Small non-community GW
systems for TCR compliance
11. Experience/policies re. to WQ degradation
due to membrane fouling, microbial
degradation, loss of adsorptive capacity, other?
Not available
No answer provided
Not available
Not available
None identified
None identified
Not available
Not available
No answer provided
No answer provided
Not available
No answer provided
No known problems
No answer provided
Yes - all, extensive experience w/ use of POEs for
VOCs at wells
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
Membrane fouling, policy requiring alarms under
development
No
12. For communities using POU systems,
estimate % that discharge wastewater to sewer,
and % that discharge to septic systems
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
100% septic systems
Not available
None
100% septic systems
No answer provided
Not available
No answer provided
Not known
No answer provided
Not known
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
Not available
No answer provided
No answer provided
100% septic systems
Not available
13. Concerns regarding
wastewater from RO
POUs and its disposal?
Yes, will be a concern
Not available
None identified
No
None identified
Yes
No answer provided
No answer provided
No
No answer provided
Yes, brine disp regulated
No answer provided
Not available
No answer provided
None in place at PWSs
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
Not available
Yes, would be regulated &
be a problem for leachfields
No answer provided
None. Small amount of
WW,all on septic systems
Yes
14. Attitude & perceptions of
consumers in community where
systems have been installed?
Not available
Good
Excellent, not clear if attitude will
remain as positive once study is
over & water system takes over
No answer provided
Not available
Average, unknown
No answer provided
Unknown
Too early to tell
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
Excellent
Unknown
Good, average
No answer provided
Unknown
No answer provided
No answer provided
Unknown
No answer provided
No answer provided
Unknown
Unknown
Reprinted with permission. Copyright AwwaRF 2005.
5-4
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Exhibit 5.1 (continued)
State
Alaska
Arizona
California
Delaware
Florida
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas
Maine
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Nevada
New York
North Dakota
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
S. Carolina
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
15. Who is responsible for O&M of
POU/POE devices?
Not available
Utility or 3rd party contractor
Equipment vendor (for pilot study)
Utility
Not available
Utility, 3rd party contractor, equipment
vendor
Not available
Not available
City contract w/ vendor
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
Utility
No answer provided
Utility (resp.), 3rd party contr.
(manage)
No answer provided
Utility
POE-water supplier, no POUs allowed
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
No answer provided
50% utility, 50% 3rd party contractor
3rd party contractor; equipment vendor
16. What % of POU/POEs
comply with SDWA MCLs?
Not available
Not available
Not available
>90%
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
No answer
No answer
No answer
No answer
>90%
No answer
>90%
No answer
>90%(POE)
No answer
No answer
No answer
No answer
No answer
>90%
>90%
17. What % of POU/POEs meet
monitoring requirements?
Not available
Not available
Not available
>90%
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
No answer
No answer
No answer
No answer
>90%
No answer
>90%
No answer
>90%(POE)
No answer
No answer
No answer
No answer
No answer
No answer
75-90%
18. Planned or proposed activities for SDWA
compliance using POU/POE systems?
Compliance & PH protection for As,
radionuclides, nitrates
Currently monitoring 2 POU pilot projects
Only to advise small WSs of this potential option
for achieving compliance
Waiting on EPA guidance
None
None planned, awaiting further experience &
interest
Radionuclides using POE, may expand to other
MCLs as experience is gained
None, unless for emergencies
None at present
Under consideration for As
Developing guidance to del. DEP acceptance of
POU/POEs
May allow for contaminants reg. by Fed rule, but
not microbials
May allow POU/POEs in existing PWs on case
by case basis
Subject to reg. development
Will provide guidance on use of POEs by PWs
Will review apps to use POU & POEs on a case
by case basis
None at this time
No answer provided
No answer provided
None for now
None
Considering policy that allows devices if utility
owns & maintains
Policy being developed - only allows devices in
non-community, POU only for chronic contam,
POE acute & chronic
One system (>3300) investigating POE for
radionuclide compliance
19. Related local or county
regulations in state and
contacts?
Not available
No
No
Not available
Not available
No answer provided
No answer provided
None
Not aware of any
Not aware of any
None
No answer provided
Not available
No
State regs - WQ treatment
districts, private well guidance for
activated carbon units
None
Not known
None
No answer provided
None
None
No answer provided
Local plumbing codes?
POE only allowed for non-
community systems
Reprinted with permission. Copyright AwwaRF 2005.
5-5
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5.2 Pilot Testing
40 CFR Section 141.100(d) states that effective technology must be
properly applied under a plan approved by the State for POE. The State must require adequate
certification of performance, field testing, and if not included in the certification process, a
rigorous engineering design review of the POE devices.
40 CFR Sections 142.62(h)(3) and (4) have similar requirements as in 40 CFR Section
141.100(d) except that they apply to both POU and POE devices used under a variance or an
exemption for inorganics, organics, and radionuclides.
The system should conduct extensive field or pilot testing of all potential treatment units prior to
installation to ensure their effectiveness in reducing contaminant concentration(s) based on system-
specific conditions. In fact, if the system uses a POE device, some form of field testing is required under
40 CFR Section 141.100. If POU or POE devices are used under a variance or exemption, 40 CFR
Section 142.62(h) also requires field testing. The need for pilot testing is strongly supported by the
experience of other systems that have installed POU and POE treatment devices as part of a compliance
strategy. Several systems found that the treatment devices they had initially planned to install did not
operate properly (i.e., did not adequately reduce the concentration of the contaminant of concern in
finished water) due to the presence of co-contaminants present in raw water supplies. As a result of prior
testing, these systems installed appropriate units, avoiding unnecessary costs, and were able to achieve
better levels of contaminant removal.
The first step in pilot testing is to develop a test protocol with assistance from the State.
Equipment vendors may be a valuable additional resource in this process and should be consulted. It is
also possible that the equipment vendor may loan the device to the system during the pilot test. The pilot
test protocol should discuss the following:
1. Length of the pilot test. Pilot testing should be conducted for an adequate period of
time to enable analysis of treatment efficacy in light of seasonal variations in water
quality. However, if an extended testing period is not feasible, units should be tested for
a period of at least two months to ensure consistent removal of the contaminant(s) of
concern. For devices using adsorptive and ion exchange media, an important part of the
pilot test is to determine the run-length of media between replacement, which may not be
realized in a two-month pilot test. If seasonal variations are known to be minimal, an
accelerated pilot test may be conducted to ensure consistent removal of the
contaminant(s) of concern and establish the run-length of an adsorptive device. For POU
RO devices, a steady state of removal of the contaminant of concern should be
demonstrated for at least a month of operation. Regardless of seasonal variations,
systems should always be guided by state requirements for pilot testing.
2. Parameters to be monitored. In addition to the contaminant(s) of concern, other
parameters, such as heterotrophic bacteria, may need to be monitored during the pilot
test. In the case of RO, total dissolved solids (TDS) are typically monitored since
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elevated levels of TDS in the treated water indicate that the RO unit is losing treatment
capability.
3. Monitoring frequency. Based on discussions with the State, vendor, and other
individuals, the pilot test monitoring frequency should be established. The frequency
should be based on the expected water demand and the objectives of the pilot test. The
system should maintain accurate logs of all monitoring activities and results.
4. Waste streams generated and disposal. The system should document the waste
streams generated throughout the treatment process, such as spent media or RO reject
water. So that the State and other regulatory agencies can evaluate what waste disposal
methods are most appropriate, the pilot test should document the characteristics and the
amount of waste generated. Section 5.9 provides more information on disposal.
5. Interpretation of results. The system should seek assistance in interpreting the results
of all collected information. All data collected should be considered and presented to
justify to the State and the service community why a particular POU or POE device has
or has not been selected. The system should consider cost of the unit, monitoring,
replacement, maintenance, and waste disposal associated with each POU or POE device
when developing costs based on pilot test results. The system should also be convinced
that the POU or POE device will effectively treat the contaminant(s) of concern for all
given source water characteristics.
6. Preparation of report. The system should prepare a report that includes all collected
data to document the pilot test study.
Once a plan for pilot testing is in place, systems should begin conducting pilot testing on one or
several POU/POE technologies they are considering. One of the important goals of pilot testing should be
determining the need for pre- and post-treatments to ensure proper functioning of the POU/POE
technology and effective removal of the target contaminant. It may be determined during pilot testing
that several treatment technologies may need to be incorporated into a single POU or POE treatment
system to address certain water quality problems. For example, a particulate pre-filter will greatly extend
the life of RO membranes, while a post-filtration GAC filter will improve the aesthetics of treated water,
resulting in improved customer satisfaction.
The pilot test can also be used to determine long-term monitoring and maintenance schedules
based on effective unit capacities (i.e., total gallons treated below the MCL) and average and minimum
run lengths (see Section 5.10 for more information on monitoring and maintenance). Thorough pilot
testing and the correct selection of one or more treatment technologies will help protect public health and
prevent the need to install new central treatment or make costly retrofits.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.4, 7.3.4, 7.4.3, and 7.6.3
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5.3 Number of Taps to Treat
While POE units treat all water used in a household, POU treatment devices only treat the water
at a single tap. As a result, POU devices may not be appropriate for treating contaminants that represent
an acute threat to human health (e.g., nitrate - see box on p. 3-10) or for treating contaminants that may
have a negative impact on health as a result of inhalation or dermal contact (e.g., radon and VOCs). If
POU is selected, the State and system should consider how many taps within the household or facility
should be treated. For instance, in a school setting, it is important to treat all taps where children and
faculty receive water or clearly mark those taps that are treated and suitable for human consumption.
Additional considerations may be necessary for preschools or other establishments where individuals can
not read. Similarly, in a household setting, the State and system may elect to treat additional taps beyond
the separate drinking water tap near the regular kitchen tap. Additional taps that may be considered for
treatment are refrigerator water dispensers, ice makers, and bathroom sinks. If additional taps within
the household or facility are required to be treated, this will significantly impact costs and will in
most circumstances render the POU option uneconomical. At a minimum, the cost of water
treatment at additional taps should be factored into the selection of treatment options.
POU devices generally remove most contaminants which they are designed to treat to near zero
or MCLG levels. Thus, if some untreated waters are occasionally consumed, the overall average may be
below the allowable daily intake at the MCL level.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.3, 7.3.1, and 7.3.3
5.4 Participation
40 CFR Section 141.100(e) states that all consumers shall be protected
when using POE devices. Every building connected to the system must have a POE device
installed, maintained, and adequately monitored. The State must be assured that every building
is subject to treatment and monitoring, and that the rights and responsibilities of the PWS
customer convey with title upon sale of property.
40 CFR Section 142.62(h) states that the State must be assured that buildings connected to the
system have sufficient POU or POE devices that are properly installed, maintained, and
monitored such that all consumers will be protected under a variance or an exemption for
inorganics, organics, and radionuclides.
In instances where POE devices are installed for compliance purposes, every building connected
to the system must have a POE device installed, maintained, and adequately monitored (40 CFR Section
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141.100). In addition, the State must be assured that every building is subject to treatment and
monitoring. Therefore, a system using POE devices for compliance purposes must obtain 100 percent
participation of all buildings connected to the system.
Under a variance or an exemption, the State must be assured that buildings connected to the
system have sufficient POU or POE devices that are properly installed, maintained, and monitored such
that all consumers will be protected (40 CFR Section 142.62).
POU Participation
The protection of all water system customers is essential. Yet some customers may object to the
inspection and servicing of POU systems which are, necessarily, located within a building. If the
participation of all customers cannot be ensured at start-up, state approval should be contingent
on water system plans for complete participation of all customers within a specified time.
Residents who continue to oppose POU devices could also be given the option of installing POE
devices, though probably at a higher cost.
The system may need to pass an ordinance that requires customers to use POU and POE
treatment units, and that provides systems with the authority to shut off a customer's water if the
customer refuses to allow installation and maintenance of, tampers with, bypasses, or removes the
treatment unit. Appendix C contains sample ordinance language a system may want to pass in order to
secure participation. In San Ysidro, New Mexico, the village council passed an ordinance making water
use contingent on POU installation. For more information on San Ysidro, refer to Section 7.1.2.
However, this type of ordinance could be considered a drastic measure for some communities and
positive communication between customers and water systems may allow these situations to be avoided.
Therefore, it is important to establish and maintain good public relations and provide public education
before, during and, if successful, after implementing a POU or POE treatment strategy to ensure
continued participation from customers (see Section 6.1).
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.2, 7.3.1 and 7.3.4
5.5 Disinfection and HPC Monitoring
The media or membranes used in POU and POE treatment devices may be susceptible to
microbial colonization. Higher levels of bacteria have been found in the finished water produced by some
POU and POE treatment devices, particularly those that incorporate an activated carbon element, than in
the influent water.
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In one study POU GAC filters were tested for the presence of bacteria. The study group
consisted of households that had one of these POU filtration systems, while the control group received
filters equipped with blank cartridges (Calderon, 1987). Another EPA study examined exposure to
heterotrophic bacteria from POE GAC devices. In this study, one group of households was equipped with
POE GAC devices at the beginning of the study, while the households in the control group did not filter
their water (Bell, 1984). These studies demonstrated that POU and POE carbon filters were colonized by
heterotrophic bacteria. In both studies, the researchers concluded that neither ingestion of, nor dermal
contact with, water filtered by a POU or POE GAC unit constituted a risk factor for the study populations.
However, these studies were not designed to
examine the health effects heterotrophic
bacteria may have on sensitive sub-
populations such as immunocompromised
individuals, the elderly, or infants.
At a meeting convened by the World
Health Organization in 2002, an expert panel
concluded that bacterial growth occurs in
plumbed-in domestic water devices
(including water softeners, carbon filters etc.)
and plumbed in commercial devices such as
beverage vending machines. HPC values in
water samples typically increase in such
devices. Increases in HPC (due to growth) in
these devices therefore do not indicate the
existence of a health risk, so long as the entry
water meets acceptable water microbial
quality norms (e.g. WHO Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality). Appropriate
maintenance of these devices is required for
aesthetic reasons per manufacturers'
recommendations. This expert panel also
indicated that there are increasing numbers of
persons who are immunocompromised to various degrees and types living in communities, including
some patients discharged to home care. Normal drinking water is not always suitable for all such
individuals for all uses (e.g., wound irrigation). This relates to water safety in general and not to growth or
HPC organisms in particular. Advice should be provided by public health authorities to at-risk groups in
general and by practitioners responsible for individuals discharged to home care.
In view of these conclusions, it is appropriate to recognize that although bacterial growth occurs
in POU and POE water treatment devices, the increase of HPC in these devices does not indicate that a
health risk exists, so long as the water entering the device meets acceptable water quality standards.
Therefore, it is important to avoid using water of poor or unknown microbiological quality when
instituting a POU or POE treatment strategy. If a system must rely on source water that is suspected of
containing microbiological organisms, disinfection should be part of the water system central treatment
strategy. Also, consumers should be instructed to run water at full flow for at least 30 seconds before use
after a prolonged period of quiescence. Periodic backwashing of treatment devices, if possible, may also
be beneficial. The system may want to consider post-treatment disinfection to ensure customer safety.
40 CFR Section 141.100(d) states that the
microbiological safety of the water must be
maintained when using POE devices. If POE
activated carbon is used, the system must consider
the increase in heterotrophic bacteria concentrations
and it may be necessary to use frequent
backwashing, post-contactor disinfection, and HPC
monitoring.
40 CFR Sections 142.62(h)(3) and (5) have similar
requirements as in 40 CFR Section 141.100(d)
except that they apply to both POU and POE
devices used under a variance or an exemption for
inorganics, organics, and radionuclides.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.2, 7.1.4, 7.3.1, 7.3.2, 7.3.4, 7.4.1, 7.5.2, and 7.6.3
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5.6 Warning and Shut-off Devices
Each POU or POE treatment device installed as part of a compliance strategy must be equipped
with a warning device (e.g. alarm, light, etc.) that will alert users when their unit is no longer adequately
treating their water or has reached the end of its service life. Warning devices should be highly visible, so
locations such as under the sink or in a basement are not recommended for warning device locations.
Alternatively, units may be equipped with an automatic shut-off mechanism to allow systems to meet this
requirement. Several communities have
implemented POU or POE treatment
strategies using units equipped with water
meters and automatic shut-off devices to
prevent contaminant breakthrough by
disabling the units after a pre-specified
amount of water has been treated. Water
suppliers need to inform residents about
whom to contact and how to do so when an
alarm is triggered (see Chapter 6 for more
information on this topic).
SDWA states that POU
and POE units must
have mechanical
warnings to
automatically notify
customers of
operational problems.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.2 and 7.3.4
5.7 Equipment Certification
SDWA states that if ANSI has issued product standards for a
specific type of POU or POE treatment unit, then only those
units that have been independently certified according to these
standards may be used as part of a compliance strategy.
When selecting a POU or POE treatment device, water systems should ensure that the unit is
appropriately certified. If ANSI has issued product standards (now referred to as ANSI/NSF standards)
for a specific type of POU or POE treatment unit, then only those units that have been independently
certified according to these standards may be used as part of a compliance strategy. ANSI/NSF standards
cover six types of POU and POE devices:
Standard 42: Drinking Water Treatment Units — Aesthetic Effects;
Standard 44: Cation Exchange Water Softeners;
• Standard 53: Drinking Water Treatment Units — Health Effects;
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• Standard 55: Ultraviolet Microbiological Water Treatment Systems;
• Standard 58: Reverse Osmosis Drinking Water Treatment Systems; and,
Standard 62: Drinking Water Distillation Systems.
These standards currently do not address all regulated contaminants and are regularly updated to
include additional contaminants. For instance, arsenic was recently added to Standards 53 and 58. To
obtain current information on the standards, contact NSF International at www.nsf.org or call
877-867-3435. To obtain current lists of certified devices, contact any and all of the ANSI-accredited
certification organizations that maintain a current list of only those devices certified by each of their
organizations:
NSF International at www.nsf.org/Certified/DWTU or 877-867-3435
• Water Quality Association at www.wqa.org or 630-505-0160
• Underwriters Laboratories at www.ul.com or 877-854-3577
• CSA International at www.csa-international.org or 866-797-4272
If a system plans to install a treatment device covered by one of the above six standards, the
system must make sure that the product selected has been independently certified according to ANSI/NSF
standards by one of the ANSI-accredited certifiers.
If the existing ANSI/NSF standards do not address a particular treatment device or contaminant,
States should utilize manufacturers' substantiations of products' performances, results from pilot tests
conducted by other systems or applications, and on-site testing by the system considering the POU or
POE device. The State may also wish to (and in some cases, must) request that the system conduct a
rigorous engineering analysis of the device and document its performance (see Section 5.2).
5.8 Access
SDWA states that POU and POE units must be owned,
controlled, and maintained by the PWS or a contractor hired by
the PWS to ensure proper operation and maintenance of the
devices and compliance with MCLs. 40 CFR Section 141.100
and 142.62 both state that the system must adequately maintain
and monitor the POU and POE devices such that all consumers
are protected.
Federal requirements place the responsibility with the system, or a contractor hired by the system,
to have access to the POU or POE devices for installation, maintenance and monitoring. Depending on
the monitoring and maintenance schedule for the device, access could be required once a year, four times
a year, during emergencies, or some other frequency. Local regulations may pose a challenge to the
implementation of a POU or POE compliance strategy. For example, water system staff may not have the
legal authority to enter private dwellings. As a result, the water system may need to convince its local
government to pass an ordinance ensuring water system staff access to POU and POE treatment units to
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conduct maintenance and sampling activities. One system addressed this challenge in a different manner
by requiring all homeowners in the service community to sign agreements explicitly providing water
system staff with access to their homes for the purpose of conducting necessary maintenance and
sampling activities. Appendix C contains sample ordinance language and Appendix D contains a sample
access agreement that systems may find useful for obtaining access. Water systems should use these as a
guide, but also seek legal counsel at the local level.
Establishing and maintaining good public relations with customers and providing continuing
education may aide in a customer's willingness to work with systems to ensure proper access (see Section
6.1 for more information on public education).
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.2, 7.3.1, and 7.6.3
5.9 Disposal
Systems should identify residuals that will be generated by the POU or POE device. The State
and other appropriate entities, such as publicly owned treatment works (POTWs), should be consulted on
how to properly dispose of the generated residuals and what permits, if any, are needed. The handling
and disposal of residuals may result in substantial costs and may make the selected POU or POE option
not the most cost-effective option.
If a water system plans on disposing of the residuals in a landfill or
discharging the residuals to a surface water body, POTW, or underground
injection well, it must adhere to Federal requirements, such as in the Clean
Water Act or the Safe Drinking Water Act, and/or applicable state
regulations. However, residuals generated by the POU or POE devices
installed in residences are considered household waste and are exempt from
being regulated as hazardous waste under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA).
The residuals that can be generated by the POU or POE devices are:
Solid residuals, such as spent cartridges, media, resin, membranes, bulbs, and filters that
require disposal at the end of their useful life. Disposal may occur several times a year or
less frequently.
Liquid waste streams will be generated by POU RO systems and POE IX, GAC, and
adsorptive media systems if backwashed or regenerated. POU RO units produce a waste
brine which is characterized by high contaminant concentrations. Backwashing and
regeneration, required for proper operation of most POE IX, GAC, and adsorptive media
treatment devices, will also result in the generation of intermittent liquid waste.
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The quantity and characteristics of the residuals will vary based on the treatment technology used,
contaminant(s) being removed, source water characteristics, and other site-specific operational conditions.
In order to properly assess the quantity and quality of the residuals, pilot testing should be done.
Because the residuals generated by POU and POE units installed in residences are collected from
individual households, these wastes are exempt from Federal regulations as hazardous wastes under
RCRA. However, State regulations and each State's implementation of Federal regulations can vary.
Solid residuals produced by these treatment systems often can be disposed of like normal household
waste, delivered to a local landfill or regenerated. Liquid residuals may usually be discharged to POTWs
(upon approval from the POTW), on-site septic systems (may require a permit from the State or local
agency), or dry wells (may require a permit). In the case of liquid residuals, POTWs may issue their own
limits for the discharge of certain contaminants, such as copper and TDS. However, waste that contains
high concentrations of certain contaminants may require special handling and disposal.
POU and POE devices installed in commercial or business establishments may also be exempt
from RCRA if the quantity of waste generated is considered small (defined in 40 CFR Section 261.5 as
generating no more than 100 kilograms of hazardous waste in that month). For these types of
installations, the system should contact the appropriate State or local regulatory personnel to assess proper
classification and disposal of waste.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.2, 7.1.3, 7.3.1, 7.3.3, 7.3.4, and 7.6.3
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5.10 Monitoring and Maintenance
SDWA states that POU and POE units must be owned, controlled, and
maintained by the PWS or by a contractor hired by the PWS to ensure
proper operation and maintenance of the devices and compliance with
MCLs.
40 CFR Section 141.100 states that the PWS must develop and obtain State approval for a
monitoring plan before POE devices are installed for compliance. Under the plan approved by
the State, POE devices must provide health protection equivalent to central water treatment.
"Equivalent" means that the water will meet all NPDWRs and will be of acceptable quality
similar to water distributed by a well-operated central treatment plant. In addition to the VOCs,
monitoring must include physical measurements and observations such as total flow treated and
mechanical condition of the treatment equipment. All consumers shall be protected through
proper installation, maintenance, and monitoring. Every building connected to the system must
have a POE device installed, maintained, and adequately monitored.
40 CFR Section 142.62(h) states that before the POU or POE devices are installed under an
exemption or a variance for inorganics, organics, or radionuclides, the PWS must obtain the
approval of a monitoring plan which ensures that the devices provide health protection
equivalent to that provided by central water treatment. The State must be assured that buildings
connected to the system have sufficient POU or POE devices that are properly installed,
maintained, and monitored such that all consumers will be protected.
In addition to required entry point and distribution system monitoring, the system will need to
monitor the POU or POE devices. Monitoring of POU and POE devices should be conducted in a manner
to substantiate the device performance and compliance with MCLs. The system must have a monitoring
plan approved by the State for POU treatment strategies used under a variance or an exemption and for all
POE treatment strategies. The goal of the monitoring plan should be to ensure coverage that will quickly
identify units that are not providing an adequate level of protection to customers. Results of the pilot
study should be used to develop the monitoring schedule.
Systems should contact the State or other appropriate regulatory agency to develop an approved
compliance monitoring schedule. Also, States may have specific monitoring requirements depending on
the particular situation. For instance, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has specific
criteria for systems considering POE for radium. The system must monitor each device annually for
radium and each device must be inspected monthly.
Many monitoring scenarios are possible. For instance, the system may consider monitoring every
POU or POE device during the first year of operation and then modifying the monitoring frequency based
on device performance during this first year. If sample results from each household indicate all units are
properly functioning, a reduced monitoring frequency could be implemented. The monitoring frequency
could be reduced to once every three years such that one-third of all units would be sampled each year for
the contaminant(s) on a rotating basis. For acute contaminants (e.g., nitrate), the regulatory agency
should not allow reduced monitoring. Monitoring will affect costs, and the system should fully
understand monitoring frequency requirements when considering POU or POE devices.
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POU and POE monitoring may be augmented through the use of commercially available field
testing kits, electrical conductivity meters (only appropriate for evaluation of RO operation), and water
hardness testing (to evaluate the effectiveness of CX in removing radium and barium), which can be used
to quickly and cheaply spot-check water quality on-site during routine maintenance visits. The use of
field test kits or surrogates can reduce the cost of monitoring when compared to using certified
laboratories for all analyzed contaminants. The system should verify with the State if the use of
monitoring results obtained through methods other than certified laboratories is acceptable. For instance,
Wisconsin DNR allows the use of surrogates for POE radium devices. Also, many field test kits exist that
have different levels of detection and reporting accuracy. Note that test kits may not be available for all
regulated contaminants, such as radionuclides. Appendix E contains a monitoring form that systems can
use to track the monitoring of POU and POE devices.
POU and POE devices must be owned, controlled and maintained by the PWS. The PWS can
contract maintenance activities if the PWS finds it advantageous. The system should maintain a detailed
maintenance log for each individual POU or POE device. Maintenance can consist of:
Tracking flows. When POE devices are used, total flow treated must be tracked (40
CFR Section 141.100). The media run lengths (or in case of POU RO, its membrane life)
of POU or POE devices may be rated as total flow treated, and flow values may be the
factor used to replace a media cartridge or membrane. Not all POU and POE devices are
equipped with flow meters and may be an additional cost to the system.
Replacing parts. As part of the monitoring schedule, the State may require that the
system replace cartridges or media on a regular basis, such as semi-annually or other
frequency. A replacement schedule should be developed that ensures continued
production of safe drinking water.
Visual check of mechanical condition. The PWS or contractor should inspect all
components of the POU and POE device and replace or repair any parts as necessary in
addition to routine replacement. Signs of leaking equipment should be remedied and
noted on the maintenance log. Under a POE strategy, monitoring must include
observations of the mechanical condition of the treatment device (40 CFR Section
141.100).
Appendix F contains a template systems may use to track maintenance on POU or POE devices.
To ensure the safety of the customers, systems should build a substantial safety factor into the
maintenance schedule. ANSI/NSF drinking water treatment unit standards require a 20 percent margin of
safety for systems with performance indication devices and 100 percent capacity margins for systems
without performance indication devices. The ANSI/NSF POU/POE standards also require testing and
substantiation of the accuracy and reliability of products' performance indication devices. An aggressive
maintenance schedule will also help water system staff head off small problems (e.g., leaks), before they
become large ones (e.g., damaged floors or burst pipes) and will build up customer confidence. Exhibit
3.4 of this document lists O&M activities associated with POU and POE devices.
A proactive maintenance schedule that includes replacement of key components prior to their
scheduled replacement time may allow for a reduced monitoring schedule. Again, the replacement
frequency should be substantiated by the pilot study. The system will need to fully consider the trade-off
in costs associated with more frequent monitoring versus a higher replacement frequency. It may be more
economical to monitor frequently and reduce replacement.
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To minimize the burden associated with gaining access to monitor the devices in individual
residences, POU and POE compliance sampling should be scheduled along with the routine maintenance
of the devices. Systems can also coordinate this monitoring with previously required on-site sampling
such as monthly coliform sampling and annual sampling for copper and lead. Reducing the number of
house visits will reduce administrative costs and travel time, resulting in substantial cost savings as well
as reducing the disruption to the residents. However, it may not be possible to combine monitoring
activities with other activities.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.2, 7.1.3, 7.1.4, 7.2.2, 7.3.1, 7.3.3, 7.3.4, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 7.5.1,
7.6.1, 7.6.3, and 7.7
5.11 Reporting, Record keeping, and Compliance Determination
As the system develops a monitoring schedule approved by the State, consideration should be
given to reporting and record keeping requirements. The State should establish what information should
be submitted to the State for review and when. The State may decide that all monitoring results,
including which POU or POE devices were monitored, be submitted annually or some other frequency.
Also, the State should develop some guidelines as to what constitutes a violation, such as whether an
MCL exceedance at any POU or POE device would create a violation for the entire system. The system
should retain all monitoring results and closely track when the POU or POE devices are monitored.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.3.4 and 7.7
5.12 Operator Certification Issues
The level of or need for a certified operator should be discussed with State and local regulatory
agencies. State operator certification requirements vary State to State and systems should fully
understand the level of operator needed. Operators responsible for treatment facilities typically require a
higher level of certification. The system should understand the cost impacts associated with retaining a
properly certified operator. Adequate training of system personnel is essential to the success of a POU or
POE treatment strategy. As the use of POU and POE treatment devices becomes more prevalent, State
and local technical assistance providers have begun to offer more training programs specifically targeted
towards those individuals who install, maintain, and operate these devices. In addition, non-governmental
groups such as NSF International and WQA offer training programs in the use and operation of POU and
POE treatment units. WQA, for example, provides textbooks, training courses, and certification programs
to certify those qualified individuals that pass WQA's testing and continuing education requirements in
water quality, water chemistry, and POU/POE treatment technology fields. Equipment manufacturers
frequently offer training programs to vendors. It may be possible to negotiate with the manufacturer and
vendor to attend this training. Furthermore, many vendors offer training in the proper operation and
maintenance of their equipment as part of their sales packages.
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Alternatively, some systems managing POU or POE treatment programs have arranged for the
equipment vendor to install and maintain the devices, in which case they did not have to invest in
additional training. Other systems relied on the vendor to maintain the units for a period following their
initial installation while system personnel were being trained.
Some States may require water system operators and other system personnel to participate in
structured training programs or obtain additional certification. Regardless of State requirements, systems
will be better able to address potential problems as they arise if they regularly participate in training
programs designed by States or other organizations specifically for the operation, maintenance, and
administration of a POU and POE treatment strategy.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.1.2, 7.1.4, and 7.3.4
5.13 Local Plumbing and Electrical Codes
State or local laws may require treatment units to be installed by a certified installer, a licensed
plumber, licensed electrician, or other licensed professional. For instance, an electrician may be required
to supervise the installation of units that require large amounts of power (e.g., aeration units). The use of
licensed professionals may result in increased installation costs but result in long-term savings by
minimizing problems associated with improper installation. WQA trains and certifies installers, and
systems may want to contact WQA for information on certified installers in their area (www.wqa.org or
call 630-505-0169). The system should contact State and local regulators to understand the requirements
for using licensed professionals during the installation phase of the project. Again, the system should
fully understand the costs associated with using these licensed professionals and understand the long-term
implications associated with installation of the POU or POE devices.
Relevant Case Studies: 7.4.3 and 7.6.3
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5.14 References
Bell, F., D. Perry, J. Smith, and S. Lynch. 1984. Studies on Home Treatment Systems. Journal AWWA,
76:2. pp. 126-130.
Calderon, R. 1987. An Epidemiological Study on the Bacteria Colonizing Granular Activated Carbon
Point-of-Use Filters. 1987 Water Quality Association Annual Conference Proceedings. Dallas, TX.
Narasimhan. R. 2005. POU/POE Feasibility Study for Arsenic Treatment. AWWARF Project 2730.
Chapter 3. Order Number 91083F
World Health Organization. 2002. Heterotrophic Plate Count Measurement in Drinking Water Safety
Management. 2002 World Health Organization Conference Proceedings. Geneva, Switzerland.
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6. Site-Specific Considerations for POU and POE Devices
In addition to the cost considerations covered in Chapter 4 and the implementation considerations
discussed in Chapter 5, the system will have site-specific considerations that will impact the selection,
cost, and implementation of a POU or POE treatment strategy. These considerations include:
Public education;
Treatment device selection;
Installation;
Liability;
Logistics and administration;
These topics are discussed in more detail in the following sections, except for costs, which are
discussed in Chapter 4.
6.1 Public Education
The system should plan on investing resources in public education to obtain and maintain
customer participation and long-term customer satisfaction. Systems will want to hold one or several
public meetings with all customers prior to installing any POU or POE devices. In addition, the system
may want to regularly provide information and updates in bills, in separate mailers, and/or on flyers
posted in public locations (similar to those locations used for public notification, such as a post office or a
public library). Local radio, television and newspapers are also commonly used media, and web site
announcements may be appropriate in certain circumstances. The system should have someone available
to check the website and respond to questions and also have someone available to answer questions
received by phone.
The system should arrange a series of meetings to allow public participation. The system will
want to advertise the meetings well in advance and explain the purpose of the meetings. The first series
of meetings should focus on the problem and why treatment is needed. In the case of an MCL, customers
should already be informed through the public notification process. This first series of meetings
(probably a minimum of two) should accomplish the following:
Inform the customers of the current situation. The system should clearly explain the
contaminant of concern, current contaminant levels in the system, how the current
contaminant levels are near or exceed the MCL, and the health effects associated with the
current contaminant levels.
Explain what options are available to the customers. The system should have done
some level of engineering evaluation on the alternatives to provide costs and other factors
associated with the identified alternatives. Options that are probably available and should
be investigated by the system are connection to a nearby system, blending of current
sources, developing a new source, centralized treatment, and POU/POE devices. The
system should justify the selection of POU/POE devices to the customers.
Explain what POU/POE devices are. The system will want to clearly explain what
POU and POE devices are and how they differ from centralized treatment. It is important
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that customers understand that these devices will be inside their dwellings (in most
instances) but will be owned and maintained by the system. The access issue should be
discussed and the system can initiate access agreements or other approach for access. It
is also important that customers understand that only a portion of the water will be
treated. Other issues may arise, such as customers may want more than one tap treated. If
and when customers want such additional units, they should be informed of the high
impact of capital and operating costs. Systems should present all health issues associated
with the contaminant, including ingestion, dermal, and inhalation health issues.
Establish ownership of the POU or POE devices. In the instance where some
households already have POU/POE devices installed, the system should clarify how
ownership of these devices will be shifted from the homeowner to the system. The
system should identify those dwellings that have POU/POE devices already installed,
decide if the existing units provide the desired level of treatment, and then work with the
affected customers on how these existing units will transfer to system ownership or will
be replaced by the system.
Explain the purpose of the pilot study, if one is conducted. If the system elects to (or
is required to) conduct a pilot study, the customers should be informed of the pilot test
procedure. The pilot test may be done at the wellhead or at the existing central treatment
plant on an accelerated basis or in only a few households, and the system may pilot more
than one device in order to select the best treatment unit.
Systems should be as prepared as possible for the first series of meetings. Customers will
probably have many questions, and the system may experience resistance on the part of some customers.
Systems should consider having their consultant and the POU/POE vendor representative present to assist
with answering questions. The system may also want to have the actual POU/POE device at the meeting
to better demonstrate the technology.
The next meeting or series of meetings should focus on:
Obtaining 100 percent customer participation. In order to obtain 100 percent
participation, the system should make every attempt to answer questions and address
concerns of customers, either in public meetings or informal, one-on-one settings. The
system should have someone available to answer questions on the telephone or establish
a website where people can send questions. See also Section 5.4 on participation.
Developing a plan for access to units. The system should have an approach for
obtaining access to all units, such as through a local ordinance or a legal agreement
between each homeowner and the system that grants access (see Section 5.8). The
system should allow flexibility with scheduling access and accommodate all
homeowner's schedules, such as being available on evenings and weekends. The
homeowners should understand that someone might need to access the unit quarterly or
more frequently in some instances. A sample ordinance and a sample access agreement
are provided in Appendices C and D.
Informing customers of their responsibilities. Customers should clearly understand
how the unit operates, how to avoid damage to the unit, how the alarm mechanism works,
and whom to call with questions or in the event the alarm is triggered. Customers should
understand that they are not responsible for any maintenance on the devices and they
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should contact the system with any questions or concerns. Customers should also be
informed that they are not to disconnect or damage the unit in any way.
Informing the customer about the POU/POE device. Customers should clearly
understand how the units will be installed and located and how the device will provide
treatment. The system will want to explain the disposal of waste streams and other
residuals, such as spent cartridges. The system, or someone contracted with the system,
is responsible for all monitoring, maintenance, replacement, and disposal of units. The
schedules for monitoring, maintenance, and replacement should be presented.
Explaining the cost of the units. Customers will want to know how their water bill will
be affected by the POU/POE device. The system should provide all information. If
Federal, State, or local monies will be used, the system will want to present what funding
will be provided and how the customer rates will be impacted.
If a pilot test was done, presenting pilot test results. The system should present all
information obtained during the pilot test, how the treatment unit was selected (if more
than one device was pilot tested), and explain what level of treatment can be expected
from each unit.
After the units have been installed for one month, the system should hold another public meeting
to answer questions and concerns from customers. Again, the system may want to have a consultant or
vendor representative present along with the actual treatment device to answer any questions or concerns.
Community water systems may use the Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) as a means to
provide updates to customers on the POU or POE treatment strategy. Minutes from all public meetings
should be made available on request and posted on the website or other public location so all customers
can be informed.
If POU devices are used for nitrate removal, continued education should be considered to educate
and remind customers about the health risks associated with nitrate, particularly for infants. Systems may
want to consider including a public education flyer in mailings and posting information throughout the
service area. A sample public education flyer that contains information about POU devices used for
nitrate removal and health effects is contained in Appendix G. See also the box on p. 3-10.
6.2 Treatment Device Selection
Selecting a proper treatment device begins with identifying a potential POU or POE unit from the
technologies listed in Exhibits 3.1 and 3.2 that will remove a system's contaminant(s) of concern. As
discussed in Section 5.1, systems should contact the State if a contaminant or POU/POE device of interest
is not listed and to get assistance in the preliminary selection of a unit.
Exhibits 3.1 and 3.2 can also be used as preliminary screens to help identify potential treatment
technologies for contaminants. Note, however, that a system's decision should not be based on these
tables alone. It is essential to weigh the advantages, disadvantages, and costs of different treatment
strategies before selecting a treatment technology for consideration.
Site-specific factors that should be considered are:
Raw water characteristics such as pH, hardness, and co-occurring contaminants, that may
impact the removal efficiency of the device;
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Desired quality of treated water and whether the POU/POE device is capable of meeting
the MCL or better;
Operational requirements of the treatment technology (e.g., backwashing, pre-treatment,
potential for microbial colonization, disposal, and other operational issues);
Technical skill required of operator (refer to Section 5.12 on operator certification); and,
Pilot testing should be done to assist the system with selecting the proper device (see Section 5.2).
6.3 Installation
Unit installation can be a complicated and time-consuming process, particularly for POE devices.
Improper installation can lead to unit malfunction, a decrease in the unit's effective life, leaks, and
difficulties with maintenance and sampling. It is important to install the unit in a manner that will permit
servicing and monitoring quickly and easily. Sample taps installed before and after the treatment unit will
allow system staff to obtain samples quickly and easily and isolate individual units as necessary.
Remember, however, to consult with the manufacturer to ensure that the installation plan will not hamper
unit operation. Refer to Chapter 3 for diagrams of typical POU and POE installations.
Before the actual installation of the units, all customers should be notified in advance (about one
month) of what activities will occur. The system will need to arrange a time when each unit can be
installed and explain to the customers that it can take anywhere from one to four hours. Customers need
to understand where the unit will be located. For instance, for POU at the kitchen tap, the treatment unit
will be installed under the sink. The system will need to convey to all customers that the system is
responsible for all installation costs. In some instances, some extra carpentry or plumbing work may be
required to place units under the kitchen sink. In other settings, the POU unit may need to be located in a
crawl space due to physical limitations of the kitchen sink.
To alleviate space issues with POE units and to minimize the need for coordination with
homeowners, it may be preferable to install POE units outdoors whenever possible. However, in colder
regions, where temperatures drop below freezing even for part of the year, it will be necessary to install
the POE unit inside to prevent damage. This could pose a problem for some customers who may not have
adequate space in their homes or businesses for a POE device.
6.4 Liability
Under SDWA, the system is responsible for ensuring that the water provided by the system meets
SDWA requirements. In addition, the system is directly responsible for the operation and maintenance of
all POU and POE treatment devices installed as part of a compliance strategy. Therefore, the system may
be liable in the event of device malfunction or failure. Liabilities the system should consider and may
want to have covered are:
Providing less than 100-percent public health protection if only treating a kitchen tap
rather than the entire home;
Entering a private residence;
Failure of the device that results in water that exceeds an MCL; and,
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Property damage that occurs during installation or as a result of a malfunctioning unit.
Several options are available to the system to reduce its liability and risk. It is recommended that
the system negotiate with the vendor or installer so that the vendor or installer retains responsibility for all
units for a specified period after installation to allow for minor adjustments, leak repair, and a follow-up
inspection. The system may also be able to negotiate certain contract provisions with the vendor who
sells the treatment equipment or with a subcontractor that is hired to conduct sampling and/or
maintenance to insulate the system (at least in part) from the consequences of device failure.
The system may purchase additional liability insurance. Several systems that have installed POU
and POE treatment devices have acquired liability insurance to cover homeowner damages resulting from
malfunctioning units. Contract and insurance laws are extremely complex. Therefore, it is highly
recommended that legal assistance be obtained when deciding which option makes the most sense.
6.5 Logistics and Administration
The administrative tasks required to manage a successful POU or POE treatment strategy,
including customer outreach, scheduling, and record keeping, can be time-consuming. The costs
associated with these additional tasks should be considered in implementing a POU or POE treatment
strategy. Good public relations are also important for systems that implement a POU or POE treatment
strategy. Because these units are installed and maintained on customer property, this type of treatment
requires frequent interaction with homeowners.
Below are some suggestions on how to ensure that the POU/POE treatment program runs as
smoothly as other water system operations;
Schedule visits to homes near each other for the same day. When coupled with the
coordination of maintenance and sampling visits, this will minimize travel time and
maximize productivity.
Communicate with the customers. Sending a card like those used by dentist offices
that reminds customers of the date, time, and purpose of the visit will help reduce the
number of missed appointments. Confirmation calls are also very important. These
procedures will save money by minimizing extra trips and will build consumer
confidence.
Keep appointments and be flexible. To maintain the trust and respect of customers, it
is essential for systems to ensure that all appointments are kept, or to notify the
homeowner in a timely manner if they must be rescheduled. To avoid scheduling and
access problems, some systems have arranged for customers to provide system
employees with keys to their houses or have installed treatment units (particularly POE
units) in garages (if in a warm climate) or basements. Systems should also allow for
maintenance and sampling to occur in evenings or weekends to accommodate customers'
schedules.
Keep records. To confirm that the sampling and maintenance schedules are followed
and that the treatment units are performing as expected, it is helpful to keep track of all
sampling and maintenance visits, work performed, and lab analyses in a log book or
simple database. Appendix E and Appendix F contain forms that can be used to track
monitoring and maintenance activities.
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Management of vendor/third party contracts. If contracts for installation,
maintenance and/or replacement parts are established with vendors or another third party,
systems should ensure that these tasks are performed in a satisfactory manner as
stipulated by the contract.
Provide a customer complaint line. Even with regular maintenance and replacement of
certified, reliable units, there are likely to be unanticipated problems, particularly when
the devices are first installed. Since water availability is so important, repair staff should
be on call at all times. Quick response will ensure the customer's safety and comfort
while helping to prevent more costly repairs in the future.
To be prepared for equipment failure, water systems should stock replacement units and parts.
Ongoing parts availability should be considered when selecting an equipment supplier. To minimize
storage costs, some systems have negotiated deals with equipment vendors who promise to provide all
replacement parts on demand at or below retail cost.
As with all equipment purchases and service contracts, water systems should confirm that their
potential supplier is reliable and trustworthy. A good vendor should be easy to contact and should
provide technical assistance in the event a problem occurs.
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7. Case Studies
Information on 22 POU and POE projects was gathered from published studies and contacting
State, EPA, and system personnel. The case studies presented in this chapter are intended to provide
other systems with information on how to implement a POU or POE treatment strategy. Each case study
summary contained in this chapter includes information on the following topics, if available:
• The contaminant (s) of concern (and its concentration in the raw water);
• The applied treatment technology;
• Pilot test protocol;
• The number of households equipped with POE or POU treatment units and the number of
households served by the water system;
• The administrative strategy used by the water system;
• The monitoring plan used to ensure adequate protection of public health;
• The maintenance schedule selected by the water system;
• Details on the capacity and performance of the treatment units; and,
• The capital and O&M costs for each unit.
The case studies that follow are organized by the primary contaminant of concern. Again, these
case studies are presented to provide information to other systems and States that may be helpful when
developing a POU or POE treatment strategy. A water system should not select a device described in the
following case studies simply because the device was successfully used to treat the same contaminant
present in another water system. Systems should contact their State and local regulatory agencies to
determine what requirements or restrictions apply to the use of POU and POE devices (see Chapter 5 for
more information on State and local requirements).
7.1 Arsenic Treatment
7.1.1 Fairbanks, Alaska and Eugene, Oregon (POU AA, AX, RO for Arsenic Removal)
This study investigated the efficacy of AA, AX, and RO devices for arsenic removal. Two homes
in Eugene, Oregon and two homes in Fairbanks, Alaska were equipped with POU systems designed to
treat household drinking water. Each of these systems was composed of an AA tank, an AX tank, and an
RO system. A water meter was used to measure the true throughput of each unit. The households chosen
for the study were selected with the cooperation of State organizations and individual homeowners. All
relied on private well water that frequently exceeded the MCL for arsenic (0.05 mg/L). This case study
was summarized by Fox (1989).
Arsenic concentrations in the source water for the study households ranged from less than 0.005
mg/L to more than 1.1 mg/L during this study. Arsenate was believed to predominate at all four test
locations. It is important to note that iron and sulfate concentrations were low in the source water (see
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Exhibit 7.1) because these contaminants may interfere with the removal of arsenic. Iron compounds will
clog and foul AX resins and AA media, thereby reducing the removal capabilities of each unit or reducing
water throughput. Sulfate is preferentially selected over arsenic by AX resins and also interferes with
arsenic removal by AA. In a 1982 study, Clifford and Rosenblum showed that arsenic adsorption was
reduced by 50 percent in the presence of 15 milliequivalents (meq) of sulfate per liter in deionized water.
During this study, treated water was not consumed by homeowners.
Exhibit 7.1: Source Water Quality of Surveyed
Households in Fairbanks, AK and Eugene, OR
Contaminant
Arsenic (range)
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Chloride
Iron
Sulfate
Turbidity (NTU)
Alkalinity
pH
Influent Concentration for
Households in Fairbanks
Household One
(mg/L)
0.25-1.08
22
10.6
6.0
<10
<0.1
<15
0.48
108
8.0
Household Two
(mg/L)
0.22-1.16
8.9
9.3
4.4
<10
0.20
<15
0.32
56
7.4
Influent Concentration for
Households in Eugene
Household One
(mg/L)
< 0.005-0.28
18
5.3
40
<10
0.24
<15
0.43
151
8.3
Household Two
(mg/L)
0.005-0.32
19
5.5
62
<10
0.18
<15
0.24
206
8.3
The POU units were operated automatically by a system of solenoid valves and timers. The
timers were initially set to open the valves daily at the times when an average family might use water.
The system was designed so that each treatment unit would operate separately and no two valves would
be open at the same time. The timers actuated the valves nine times a day, permitting the treatment of one
gallon of water by both the AX and the AA tank, and 0.5 gallons of water by the RO unit each time the
valves were opened. After six months, the valves were opened 18 times a day to increase flow through
the units to speed up arsenic breakthrough.
Local and State employees performed all sampling of the units. Samples were collected biweekly
from the influent and effluent lines of each of the three treatment elements and were sent to EPA in
Cincinnati, Ohio, for analysis.
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7.1.1.1 AA
The AA tanks used in this study were 46 inches tall and 9 inches in diameter. Each AA tank was
filled with 1 cubic foot of activated alumina media. The AA media was designed to be pre-treated in the
tank. The pre-treatment process consisted of passing a sodium hydroxide solution through the tank,
rinsing the medium with clean water, and then treating the medium with dilute sulfuric acid to lower its
pH. At a flow rate of 1 gallon per minute (gpm), the surface loading rate of the tank was 2.7 gpm per
square foot, and the minimum empty bed contact time (EBCT) was 7.5 minutes. The actual contact time
was probably greater because the effluent valves were opened for only 1 minute by the timers, and the
water sat undisturbed in the tank (in contact with the AA) until the next valve-opening period.
The three AA units that failed to work as well as expected suffered from inadequate pretreatment.
The units that failed had not been pre-treated with dilute sulfuric acid. Therefore, the pH of the water in
the A A units was well above the ideal level for arsenic adsorption (pH 6). Thus, the tanks' capacity to
adsorb arsenic was much lower than anticipated. However, the six properly prepared AA units performed
extremely well, consistently maintaining arsenic levels well below the MCL until they were taken off
line. Three units successfully treated more than 10,000 gallons of water (10,784, 15,427, and 18,557
gallons) while the remaining three AA units each successfully treated more than 6,000 gallons. Based on
the results of this study, a capacity of about 1.0 mg of arsenic per gram of AA could probably be expected
in future applications of AA if source water concentrations of iron and sulfate are limited and the AA
undergoes all appropriate pretreatment. (Note: POU AA identified in the Arsenic Rule assumes no
pretreatment.)
7.1.1.2 AX
The AX tanks used in this study were the same size as the AA tanks. Each AX tank was filled
with 1 cubic foot of a strong base AX resin. The resin was regenerated in the tank into the chloride form.
At a flow of 1 gpm, the surface loading rate of the tank was 2.7 gpm per square foot, providing a
minimum EBCT of 7.5 minutes. The actual contact time was probably greater because the effluent valves
were only opened for 1 minute by the timers, and the water sat undisturbed in the tank (in contact with the
resin) until the next valve-opening period.
Two AX units exhibited erratic removal of arsenic. A third unit performed poorly due to
inadequate regeneration practices at the start of the project. However, the remaining four AX units
worked extremely well, successfully treating water containing as much as 1.16 mg/L of arsenic to
concentrations of less than 0.05 mg/L. Three of the units treated more than 10,000 gallons successfully
(11,858, 16,254, and 20,935 gallons) and were disconnected at the end of the project even though the
capability of the resin to adsorb arsenic had not been exhausted. Depositions of up to 0.86 mg of arsenic
per gram of resin were found in the AX tanks when they were opened at the end of the study.
7.1.1.3 RO
The RO units studied for this project were designed to produce between 3 and 5 gallons of
drinking water per day and to operate with source water pressures ranging from 20 to 100 pounds per
square inch (psi) with a reject-to-product water ratio of about 10:1. Each RO unit was equipped with a 5-
fjm cartridge pre-filter, a carbon post-filter, a cellulose-acetate RO membrane, and a small storage tank.
Two years into the study, a second type of RO system was installed at one location. This unit was
identical to the old unit, except that a booster pump was added to increase operating pressure to 195 psi.
The use of the high-pressure RO system improved the reject-to-product water ratio to 3:1 but also
increased electrical costs.
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The low-pressure RO systems initially removed 60 to 80 percent of influent arsenic. However,
due to the high arsenic concentrations of the source water at the study sites, the RO units rapidly
deteriorated and were not always successful in lowering the arsenic concentration below the MCL. On
average, the low-pressure RO units provided only a 50 percent removal rate for arsenic over the life of
their membranes. For the low-pressure RO system to serve as an effective treatment option given the raw
water characteristics observed during this study, the cellulose acetate membranes would need to be
replaced at least twice a year. The high-pressure RO unit successfully reduced arsenic levels below the
MCL for 330 days before it was taken off line at the conclusion of the study. All of the RO systems
significantly lowered the level of TDS in the source water.
One potential cause of concern for system administrators who select this treatment technology is
the limited production capability of some RO units (less than 3 gallons of treated water each day). The
large amount of water wasted by low-pressure RO units may be a source of concern in water-scarce
regions. On the other hand, since arsenic is not accumulated on the RO membrane, membrane disposal is
not a concern as it may be with media from POU AX and POU AA systems.
7.1.1.4 Cost Data and Study Conclusions
Costs for the various elements of the pilot systems installed in Alaska and Oregon were provided
by Fox and Sorg (1987). The capital costs reported in the case study were $350, $250, and $292 for the
AX unit, AA unit, and RO unit, respectively (1983 dollars).
The author of the study drew several conclusions about the ability of POE and POU devices to
treat contaminated water adequately:
• Any medium used in a POE or POU device should undergo adequate pre-treatment to
permit efficient and effective contaminant removal. (Note: POU AA identified in the
Arsenic Rule assumes no pretreatment.)
• Sampling should be done immediately after installation and periodically thereafter to
confirm adequate contaminant removal.
• A complete source water analysis is necessary to determine the proper type of POU or
POE devices to be used.
• POE devices should be used when skin adsorption or inhalation of a specific contaminant
is of concern.
7.1.2 San Ysidro, New Mexico (POU RO for the Removal of Arsenic, Fluoride, and Other IQCs)
Rogers (1988 and 1990) authored the original report detailing the San Ysidro experience from
which much of this summary was drawn. Details regarding this case study were also reported by Lykins,
Jr., et al. (1992) and Thomson and O'Grady (1998). A follow-up report was presented by Thomson, Fox,
and O'Grady (2000). Additional information was provided by Pasteros (2001).
The Village of San Ysidro is a rural community located approximately 45 miles north of
Albuquerque, New Mexico. The population over the last 20 years has remained around 200 people.
Village water is disinfected by a hypochlorination system at the source, a nearby infiltration gallery. The
village has a long history of water supply problems, including low water pressure, unpleasant aesthetics
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(poor taste, color, clarity, and odor), sporadic coliform violations, and arsenic and fluoride contamination.
The local ground water has a high mineral content because geothermal activity causes leaching from the
area's abundant mineral deposits. At the beginning of the study, the ground water exceeded the MCL for
arsenic (0.05 mg/L) and the secondary standards for fluoride, iron, manganese, chloride, and TDS (2.0
mg/L, 0.3 mg/L, 0.05 mg/L, 250 mg/L, and 500 mg/L, respectively). The contaminants of primary
concern to the village were arsenic and fluoride. Arsenic and fluoride concentrations averaged 0.17 mg/L
and 5.2 mg/L, respectively, in the village well. Of the arsenic found in village water, 35 percent was
found to be arsenite.
Four deep test wells were drilled by a local engineering firm to determine if a better water source
was available. However, the best of these wells had water merely equal in quality to that of the
infiltration gallery. A University of Houston study determined that central treatment of the entire water
supply was not feasible for several reasons. First, central treatment would leave the village with the
expensive problem of disposing of either arsenic-contaminated sludge from AA column regeneration or
the concentrated reject brine produced by a central RO system. Second, building a central treatment plant
would be prohibitively expensive. Third, a central treatment facility was deemed too complicated to be
operated efficiently by a community the size of San Ysidro (the village had never been able to attract and
retain well-trained operators).
A public meeting was held in December of 1985 to discuss the water quality problems and the
procedures that would be necessary before POU devices could be installed. By July of 1986, all of the
eligible water system customers had agreed to participate.
Since arsenic and fluoride are harmful only if ingested in excessive quantities for an extended
period of time, only water destined for human consumption (i.e., water used for drinking and cooking)
needed to be treated in San Ysidro. An analysis of unit removal cost, efficiency, and management
requirements led to the identification of POU RO treatment as the best solution to the village's water
supply problems. The village was given permission to use POU RO as a solution to the arsenic and
fluoride problems under a variance. Therefore, EPA, in conjunction with the village, began a study
designed to determine whether POU RO units could function satisfactorily in lieu of central treatment to
remove arsenic and fluoride from the community's drinking water supply.
A competitive bidding process was used to select a POU RO unit for the village. The selected
vendor provided installation and maintained all of the treatment units in the community for a monthly
service fee. Over the course of the service contract, the village maintenance specialist received field
training from the service contractor. The maintenance contract between the village and the vendor
remained in effect for 20 months, after which the village maintenance specialist took over all maintenance
and monitoring duties.
In order to ensure the effectiveness of the selected RO membrane and the acceptability of the
POU RO unit to the community, a POU RO unit was installed in the community center. In addition, each
customer was sent a notification letter and a public meeting was held. The public meeting forum was
used to explain the water quality problems and the agreement between the village and EPA to utilize POU
RO units to remedy the water quality problems.
To meet its responsibilities under Section 1412(b)(4)(E)(ii) of SDWA, San Ysidro passed an
ordinance making the use of village water contingent upon the installation of a POU device in the home.
The ordinance was deemed necessary because POU treatment should not be considered a viable
alternative to central treatment if the water system does not supply safe (i.e., treated) drinking water to all
of its customers.
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The number of units used by the community of San Ysidro ranged from 67 units at the beginning
of the project to 78 units at the end. The units were each equipped with a particulate pre-filter, a GAC
pre-filter, a GAC post-filter, a spiral-wound polyamide RO membrane, a 3-gallon storage tank, and an in-
line TDS monitor. Each unit was designed to produce between 5 and 8 gallons of product water per day.
Three units were equipped with totalizing (water) meters to measure household water use. All of the units
were equipped with alarms that were triggered when the TDS in the treated water exceeded 200 mg/L.
No units were equipped with automatic shut-off devices. One unit was installed per household at the
kitchen sink. All liquid wastes from the RO units were discharged to the household septic system through
a connection with the sink drain. After several samples tested positive for coliforms, an air gap was
added at the connection to each RO unit to prevent cross-contamination from the household wastewater.
Samples were collected for the next few months and tested for coliforms. None of these samples tested
positive for coliforms.
Within the first six months, six units that were not working properly were replaced. Another 35
units required service due to leaks, TDS monitor malfunction, or water flow problems. Customers were
expected to pay for any damage to their RO units that resulted from their own negligence.
The successful operation of a community-wide POU treatment strategy requires that the
responsibilities of water users and the water utility be clearly identified. The village council of
San Ysidro outlined six responsibilities for water users and three for the water utility (the village). All
water users were required to:
1. Allow access to their units (each water customer was required to sign a permission form
allowing a village designee to enter his or her home for installation and for periodic
testing and maintenance);
2. Protect their units from damage;
3. Assume liability for damage to their units;
4. Refrain from tampering with or disconnecting their units;
5. Allow periodic inspection of their units; and,
6. Report any problems with their units to the water utility in a timely fashion.
The village was required to provide unit maintenance, periodic monitoring, and liability insurance
to cover any damage caused to a resident's home by a treatment device. The Village of San Ysidro
secured a liability policy designed to cover water damage resulting from improper installation or device
malfunction.
The village clerk played a vital role in managing the installation, maintenance, and monitoring of
the units. As the contact person for water customers, the clerk made arrangements with customers for
unit installation and all necessary maintenance work. The clerk coordinated this effort with the
contractor's service manager during the 20-month service contract and with the village maintenance
specialist after the contract expired.
The village made special provisions for commercial establishments. Although the primary
responsibility for providing safe drinking water lies with the water utility operator, the village decided to
transfer this responsibility to the commercial water user through a new ordinance. This served two
purposes. First, the village was relieved of the burden of trying to coordinate the leasing, purchasing, and
7-6
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maintenance of RO units of various sizes. Second, the ordinance allowed commercial establishments
some flexibility in selecting the most economical way to provide safe drinking water to their customers.
Note that this transfer of responsibility and liability may not be legal in all localities; it also may not have
any effect on liability under federal law.
Data were collected during the San Ysidro study to evaluate the effectiveness of POU RO units in
removing arsenic, fluoride, and TDS from the water. Samples were collected from each unit on a
bimonthly basis and were analyzed for arsenic and fluoride. Every 4 to 6 months, samples were also
analyzed for chloride, iron, and manganese. In addition, samples were periodically collected from a
smaller group of 40 units and were analyzed for total coliform organisms. All samples were tested by a
certified laboratory. A schedule for sample collection was typically placed in the customer's water bill.
The RO units were very effective in removing arsenic and fluoride from the community's water,
reducing average influent concentrations of arsenic from 0.17 mg/L and fluoride from 5.2 mg/L to less
than 0.05 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L, respectively. The units also reduced chloride, iron, manganese, and TDS to
desired levels despite low system pressure (sometimes less than 20 psi). However, the removal
percentages were approximately 10 percent below those stated in the manufacturer's literature. This was
most likely due to the quantity and combination of contaminants in San Ysidro's water.
According to the maintenance plan, units were to be serviced once every three months. The
service procedure included inspection of the pre-filter assembly, replacement of the pre-filter, inspection
of the carbon post-filter with replacement as needed, inspection of the RO module housing assembly for
cracks or leaks, inspection of all hose connections for leaks, inspection of the reservoir tank for cracks or
leaks, and restarting the unit and again inspecting for leaks. However, some time after the village took
over the maintenance of the units, most units were still being serviced, though seldom on a three-month
frequency. Several reasons were given for the infrequent servicing of these units:
• The residents were not home when the operator arrived to perform regular service (many
residents commute to Albuquerque and are gone for most of the day);
• Some residents were reluctant to allow outsiders into their homes; and,
• Some residents did not want the POU units and avoided having them serviced. Many of
the residents, especially older residents, had been drinking the system water for a long
time and were not very concerned about treatment.
Few maintenance records were kept by the village maintenance specialist so it is not known how
often cartridges and membranes were replaced.
The following recommendations were drawn from early experiences in San Ysidro:
• Since combinations of contaminants may alter the removal efficiencies of POU devices, a
pilot test of potential treatment devices should be undertaken using the system's source
water before the device is selected for system-wide use.
• Public acceptance is more vital to the success of a POU treatment strategy than for a
central treatment strategy. For example, new water customers should be educated in the
procedures and requirements of the POU system. Existing customers should also be
periodically reminded of these responsibilities.
7-7
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• Routine maintenance and sampling operations are best carried out by local water utility
employees or members of the immediate community once they have received sufficient
training. In this way, travel expenses will be minimized, coordination with customers
will be streamlined, and better quality control procedures may be implemented.
• Monitoring costs may be minimized by using conductance (for RO units) as a means to
test for breakthrough of inorganic contaminants such as fluoride or arsenic.
• Pre-assembly of POU units may drastically reduce on-site installation time and associated
labor costs.
• It is important to ensure that the price residents are charged by the water system covers
the actual costs of providing necessary maintenance and monitoring.
In recent years, the San Ysidro water system has experienced compliance problems. Many of the
residents are elderly and have been drinking the same water for years. These residents were less
concerned about water treatment than by how much the water system is interfering with their lives and
were therefore not very motivated to keep the POU units working. The village had been trying to use
volunteers to perform maintenance, but had to return to using a full-time staff member to keep up with the
demand. EPA assigned staff to the water system to return the system to compliance. The RO units were
cleaned and repaired and EPA staff went to San Ysidro once per week to pick up samples until all units
were tested and returned to compliance. At least for the time being, San Ysidro will continue to use POU
devices to remove arsenic (Thomas 2005).
7.1.3 Hancock, New Hampshire (POE AA for Arsenic Removal)
Monadnock Area Cooperative School, a small non-profit school in Hancock, New Hampshire, is
comprised of two separate schools, a preschool and a primary school, located in the same building. A
licensed water operator was contracted to develop a plan to address the high levels of arsenic found in the
school's water (Messina, 2001). The operator submitted a compliance plan to the State of New
Hampshire for approval. Once approval was obtained, the operator worked with school maintenance
personnel to install a POE AA system in late 2000. The unit, consisting of a single AA tank and equipped
with GAC pre- and post-filters, has effectively reduced arsenic levels below detection since its
installation.
The bids initially provided by local retailers for this system were quite high (in excess of $5,000).
Given the financial constraints faced by the school, the school opted to purchase the unit directly from a
local manufacturer (based in Londonberry, New Hampshire) instead of a retailer and to hire the operator
to install the unit. Purchasing the unit in this manner enabled the school to obtain and install the unit (and
all the necessary valves and piping) for less than $1,000. Despite no previous experience in installing this
treatment device, the installation process went smoothly and took only three hours. Since the unit was
designed to treat only water dispensed at the kitchen tap of each school and a single drinking fountain, the
children in the school were told from which taps they may drink. It is unknown whether significant
alterations to the plumbing were necessary to supply treated water only to the drinking fountain and
kitchen taps.
The treatment device does not include an automatic shut-off valve or warning light; however,
high concentrations of contaminants can be detected through monitoring. Monitoring is conducted
according to State regulations which mandate quarterly sampling for bacteria and arsenic. Samples are
collected by the operator and then submitted to the State laboratory in Concord, New Hampshire, for
analysis. Costs for the school for these tests average between $10 and $20 every three months.
7-8
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The treatment system installed in the school has minimal maintenance requirements. A member
of the school's maintenance staff regularly monitors the system's pressure gauge to verify that the media
has not become clogged. If pressure decreases beyond levels recommended by the manufacturer, the pre-
filters for the treatment unit are replaced. The pre-filters are expected to last at least one year. The pre-
filters used in the unit are very inexpensive, costing only $5 to $10 each. Spent filters are disposed of in
the school's trash.
To date, Monadnock's AA unit has presented no problems and continues to successfully reduce
the arsenic levels in the school's drinking water. The operator who recommended and installed this
system emphasized that the system is not only very simple, economical, and effective, but also easily
maintained.
7.1.4 Lummi Island, Washington (POE AX for Arsenic and Cyanide Removal)
This case study is summarized from system documentation provided by Thielemann (2001) and
Kunesh (2003). Marine View Estates is a subdivision with a homeowners association on Lummi Island,
in Whatcom County, Washington. Ten homes within the subdivision are served by one centralized well
and classified as a community water system by EPA and the State of Washington. Another 10 homes
within the subdivision are served by individual wells.
A homeowner attempting to develop a lot on the island was unable to obtain financing due to
high arsenic levels in the water. The homeowner investigated centralized AX treatment, but the
Washington Department of Ecology would not approve a discharge permit from the treatment process to a
new drainfield due to concerns that the AX regeneration process might produce a hazardous waste stream.
Instead, the homeowner proposed and received approval for the installation of POE units at each home,
including the proposed home. The spent regenerant and backwash from each unit would be discharged to
the existing individual drainfields, which did not require a permit. The approval of the use of the POE
units was contingent on the following:
• The system must have a certified operator;
• Units must be checked monthly;
• Subsequent homeowners must be notified of the POE units; and,
• It must be demonstrated that the units could be checked in the field by a simple method.
The arsenic concentration in the source water is around 0.27 mg/L and is well above the current
MCL of 0.05 mg/L. Cyanide is also present at a concentration of 0.25 mg/L, just above the MCL of 0.20
mg/L. During the pilot testing, it was shown that arsenic levels could be reduced to less than 0.01 mg/L
and cyanide levels could be reduced to less than 0.02 mg/L with the POE AX treatment. Throughout the
treatment cycle the arsenic concentration remained below 0.02 mg/L.
The POE AX unit that was pilot tested and selected for this system consisted of a twin tank
system with Purolite A-300E strong base resin. The tanks are operated in parallel to provide a larger flow
rate and the backwash cycles are staggered so that water is available continuously. The tanks are
preceded by a sediment pre-filter. The system also contains a flow restriction to ensure that the flow rate
through the system does not exceed the design flow rate. The POE AX units are non-electric and contain
non-electric flowmeters to initiate backwash and regeneration.
7-9
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Pilot tests were conducted between 1995 and 2000. The initial pilot test was conducted to
determine the effectiveness of the POE AX technology to remove arsenic and cyanide from the source
water. Water was run through the unit at a rate of 1 to 2 gpm until 1,000 gallons had passed through the
unit. The pilot test was operated without preoxidation for the first 500 gallons and with preoxidation for
the last 500 gallons. The pilot test showed that preoxidation was not required for efficient removal of
arsenic and cyanide from the source water.
The second pilot study was conducted at one household for six months. The purpose of this pilot
test was to achieve the following:
• Evaluate system operating parameters, such as flow rate and run length;
• Verify that a simple field test, such as pH or alkalinity, can be used for routine evaluation
of the treatment system;
• Confirm that the treated water remains free from coliform bacteria;
• Verify that the drop in pH after resin regeneration is not a concern in successive cycles;
• Verify that preoxidation is not required for effective arsenic and cyanide removal; and
• Verify the effectiveness of backwash and regeneration.
During the second pilot study, samples were taken daily when possible and before each
regeneration cycle. Samples were analyzed for arsenic, cyanide, bacteria, pH, and alkalinity.
Approval of the use of POE AX for the Marine View Estates water system took about four years
from inception. This was largely due to the time required for pilot testing and a great deal of paperwork.
The homeowners were not resistant to the implementation of the plan. All residents were notified by a
memo that failure to install the proposed treatment could present an obstacle to the sale or transfer of their
property.
To obtain approval for the use of the POE AX devices, the homeowners association was required
to develop an O&M manual to be distributed to all homeowners. The homeowners are responsible for
installation, maintenance, and daily operation of the POE AX units. However, the homeowners
association was also required to retain the services of a certified operator to provide ongoing technical
assistance, routinely verify proper operation of the POE treatment units, and collect samples for
compliance.
Compliance with the arsenic MCL for the CWS is determined on a house-to-house basis.
Compliance with all other contaminants regulated at the entry point to the distribution system is based on
entry point monitoring.
Maintenance is performed on an as needed basis for both the sediment pre-filter and the resin.
The sediment pre-filter is checked every 6 months and is replaced if a change in system pressure occurs.
The media has not yet needed to be changed (longest media in use has been six years), but the media is
expected to last for about five years. The media will be replaced more frequently if it is no longer
effectively removing arsenic and cyanide throughout the complete treatment cycle. Since there are no
toxic pollutants held within the media, it is expected that the AX resin may be disposed of with the
household trash.
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The cost of the units is dependent on the contaminant (s) being removed. The average cost of the
units treating for arsenic only was about $3,400, but ranged from about $2,500-$8,000 (the more
expensive units also remove such contaminants as excessive sodium). This cost includes an initial and
follow-up annual sampling done by the vendor in the first year, as well as necessary additional sampling.
After the first year, it costs $4.50 per sample for the vendor to test the water for arsenic. All sampling
results are sent to the State. The CWS is monitored by a certified operator on the island, who is
responsible for sampling and routine maintenance. This certified operator is required to check the AX
units every three months to ensure that they are operating properly.
The POE AX units are still in use at Marine View Estates. The units are considered a permanent
compliance solution to the arsenic and cyanide problem in the water system. However, modifications to
the systems may be necessary to comply with the new MCL for arsenic of 0.010 mg/L. As noted
previously, the units are capable of achieving arsenic removal to below 0.010 mg/L, but by the end of the
treatment cycle may rise to about 0.02 mg/L.
The homeowners are considering changing to an iron oxide media system. The problem with this
system is that the media is expensive to replace (though it too can be thrown out with household trash)
and needs to be changed every three to four years. Currently, there is only one distributor of these types
of systems, so the cost is prohibitively high. If the cost of these units drops, the water system will likely
change over to these units.
7.1.5 Fallon Naval Air Station (POU RO for Arsenic Removal)
This case study is summarized from information provided by Mazanek (2003), Jones (2001), and
Manley (2001). The Naval Air Station in Fallon, Nevada (NAS Fallon), is made up of offices, living
quarters, and various other base facilities. NAS Fallon water comes from three, 500-foot deep wells
tapping an underground source of water called the Basalt Aquifer. The Basalt Aquifer also provides
water for the City of Fallon and the Fallon Paiute-Shoshone Tribe through their respective distribution
systems. The Basalt Aquifer has high, naturally occurring levels of arsenic, which are greater than the
MCL. After water comes out of the NAS Fallon wells, it is treated with a chlorine disinfectant to protect
consumers against microbial contaminants and pumped to the NAS Fallon water distribution system. At
this site, a temporary POU treatment measure was decided upon to lower the arsenic levels. The affected
population was provided information regarding the reason for treatment units and the danger of arsenic by
means of the annual CCR. Individuals new to the base are informed through the military indoctrination
process that familiarizes new employees and residents with the base and its operation.
POU RO devices, equipped with GAC pre- and post- filters and a sediment pre-filter, were
installed all over the base. There was no pilot test because this was intended to be a temporary treatment
solution. The units do not have water meters, automatic shutoff, or warning lights, but do have storage
tanks and re-pressurization chambers. The units were tested and certified by NSF International. The
units typically filter around 25 gallons per day (gpd).
The units were installed and are maintained under contract with the vendor. Installation required
about one hour per unit, including PVC piping between the unit and a separate stainless steel tap, which
was included in the purchase price of the unit. Maintenance and disinfection are performed every nine
months, sediment and GAC filters are replaced every nine months, and RO membranes are replaced every
27 months. The vendor disposes of all the residuals. Access to units is assured through Navy
mechanisms set up to enable house inspections. There is no contract set up for the vendor to insulate the
system should a unit fail. Base maintenance or the vendor handles complaints or questions within 24
hours.
7-11
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About 360 POU RO under-the-sink units were installed in base quarters in May 2001.
Additionally, approximately 75 water cooler style RO machines were installed in common areas such as
offices, gyms, and daycares, and there are 11 strategically located RO vending machines for on and off-
base residents to fill one- to five-gallon bottles. The RO units effectively remove 90 percent of arsenic
from the water, reducing the average influent concentration of 0.10 mg/L down to below detection limits.
The RO units are serviced quarterly and tested twice a year to make sure the water meets drinking water
standards. No major operational problems have been identified thus far, and the base residents seem
satisfied with the units' performance.
The costs associated with the under-the-sink RO devices are about $300 per unit for purchase and
installation and about $129 per unit per year for maintenance and replacement. The costs of maintenance
run high, partially due to the distance (65 miles) between the system location and the vendor, and partially
due to the costs for replacement parts ($9 per sediment filter, $12 per GAC filter, and $55 per RO
membrane).
NAS Fallon is collaborating with the City of Fallon to design and build a central water treatment
facility for treating arsenic. Once the central treatment is on-line, the POU devices will be abandoned.
7.1.6 EPA Demonstration Project in Grimes, CA (POU AA and Iron Media for Arsenic Removal)
The information in this case study is summarized from information provided by Bellen (2003 and
2004), EPA (2004), and Narasimhan (2005). An EPA demonstration project was completed to identify,
measure, and record the conditions necessary for successful implementation of a centrally managed POU
treatment strategy for compliance with the new arsenic standard of 0.010 mg/L. The focus of this study
was on POU AA and POU iron media for arsenic removal. However, because POU iron oxide media was
not commercially available at this time, only POU AA devices were installed in the community. Iron
oxide media was pilot-tested along side AA. Based on that pilot, it could have lasted twice as long as the
AA device.
The criteria for site selection included community size (25-100 service connections), an arsenic
level between 20 and 50 ppb, compliance with MCLs for all other contaminants, water quality, and local
and/or State support. Grimes, California, with a population of about 300, was selected as the site for the
study. POU devices were installed in 122 locations, of which 105 were residences and 17 were
community buildings or businesses. One of the residences in the study includes a daycare. Eleven
residences or businesses declined to participate.
The pH of the water is 8.0-8.4, and the arsenic is present in the system as arsenic V due to
chlorination. There are slightly elevated levels of silica in the water as well.
Each unit had an automatic shutoff device. The POU AA units were equipped with two AA
media cartridges and a GAC post-filter. The AA media cartridges were expected to last for 500 gallons
before needing to be replaced. After one year, 90 percent of the POU AA cartridges did not need
replacement. The POU iron media units used in the pilot were equipped with one iron media cartridge,
one pre-sediment filter and a carbon post-filter. Installation of each AA device took about one hour due
to the age and diversity of the plumbing in the community. In a community of more modern homes,
installation would probably have required only 15 minutes per device. Cartridge replacement for both
devices took about 15 minutes. The POU devices, installation, and maintenance were donated to the
community by Kinetico for the study. Access to the homes for installation and maintenance of the POU
devices was not difficult to achieve, but coordination of schedules to ensure that someone was home was
sometimes difficult. One other problem is that some residents may not have actually been using the POU
systems after they were installed.
7-12
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Every POU device was sampled for arsenic after installation, with composites of samples from
five units analyzed to save on analytical costs. Then, a portion of the POU devices was sampled quarterly
with each device sampled at least once during the study period. Two samples exceeded the new arsenic
MCL of 10 ppb during the study. Each device was re-sampled and the cartridge was replaced if the result
was confirmed. Microbiological samples were also collected during the study. The geometric mean for
HPC was 320 cfu/mL. None of the samples tested positive for fecal coliforms. If any of the samples had
tested positive for fecal coliforms, the media cartridges would have been replaced and the system would
have been sanitized. The units were rated at 500 gallons capacity. The iron media cartridges actually
treated 800 to 1,100 gallons before breakthrough; the AA media cartridges lasted longer, treating as much
as 1,600 gallons before needing replacement.
At the end of the study, the overall attitude of the community toward the use of the POU devices
was positive.
The POU devices cost about $300 each retail; however, Kinetico stated that it would consider
providing POU units at cost. Management and reporting could cost $125 to $200 per year per unit,
resulting in a household cost of $17 to $25 per month (using a 3 percent interest rate over 10 years).
Depending on the frequency of sampling and filter cartridge change-out, this approach could cost less
than half the estimated cost of central treatment. For additional information, contact the National
Sanitation Foundation, which has conducted research on this system.
7.1.7 American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AwwaRF) Project 2730
(Multiple POU/POE Technologies for Arsenic Removal)
An AwwaRF project evaluated the feasibility of using POU and POE treatment systems for small
system compliance with the new arsenic MCL of 0.010 mg/L (Narasimhan 2005). Technologies
examined in this study include POU RO, POU AA, POU manganese AA, POE GFH, and POE iron AA.
These technologies were evaluated at various sites in Arizona, Nevada and Texas. These devices were
operated in both continuous and intermittent conditions. Contaminants being monitored include arsenic,
TDS, silica, hardness, and HPCs.
POU and POE devices were field tested at the water systems' facilities, rather than at residents'
homes, in tests designed to simulate one year of residential use. The field testing program had two phases.
During phase A, which lasted two weeks, POU devices were conditioned by operating 40 minutes on
followed by 40 minutes off, 16 hours per day. POE devices were run 16 hours on and 8 hours off. During
the 10 weeks of Phase B, POE devices were operated continuously. POU devices were operated
according to the schedule shown below in Exhibit 7.2.
During both phases, samples were taken weekly from raw water for arsenic and other water
quality parameters. Treated effluent was sampled for arsenic and certain parameters three days per week.
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Exhibit 7.2: Operational Schedule for POU Devices During Phase B
Period
1 (Weeks 1-2)
2 (Week 3)
3 (Weeks 4-10)
Operating Times
6:00 am
8:30 am
11:30 am
5:30 pm
6:30 pm
9:30 pm
no flow (simulated vacation)
6:00 am
8:30 am
11:30 am
5:30 pm
6:30 pm
Duration (minutes)
2
5
5
2
5
3
2
5
5
2
5
All the devices tested were shown to be capable of removing arsenic to levels below the new
MCL, except that the POU RO device in Unity, Maine, was not effective at removing arsenic III. Arsenic
levels in raw water at Unity were high (0.098 mg/L). The authors suggested that the device might be
effective if pre-oxidation was used to convert arsenic III to arsenic V before treatment. The results of all
field testing are summarized in Exhibit 7.3 below.
Exhibit 7.3: POU and POE Performance Summary
Location
Metro Water,
Tucson, AZ
Sun City
West, AZ
Technology
POURO
POUAA
POE Fe-AA
POE GFH
POURO
POUAA
Effluent
Si, as
SiO2
(mg/L)
4.8-7.7
0.2-15.0
24-39
34-39
0.9-2.3
<0.1-14.9
Effluent
pH
6.7-8.8
7.4-8.6
7.0-7.7
7.2-7.7
7.1-8.7
7.7-8.4
Effluent
Arsenic
(mg/L)
<0.002
<0.002
<0.001-
0.010
<0.001-
0.006
<0.002
<0.001-
0.025
Gallons Treated
before 10 ppb
Breakthrough
>780
2,660
356,400
343,400
>1,300
1,780
Sufficient for 1
Year Operation in
5-Person Home?
(1,000 gal)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
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Exhibit 7.3 (continued): POL) and POE Performance Summary
Location
Sun City
West, AZ
(continued)
Stagecoach,
NV
Unity, ME
Carson City,
NV
Houston, TX
Technology
POU Mn-AA
POE Fe-AA
POE GFH
POE Fe-AA
POE GFH
POURO
POU Mn-AA
POU GFH
POU Mn-AA
POE GFH
POE Fe-AA
Effluent
Si, as
SiO2
(mg/L)
<0.1-14.2
1.3-13.6
0.1-15.4
1.2-26.0
4.1-29.0
<1.0
7.0-8.5
1.3-23
1-21
not
available
not
available
Effluent
pH
7.9-8.5
7.2-8.5
7.2-8.5
8.0-8.3
8.0-8.3
8.2
8.0-8.1
7.7-8.3
8.0-9.0
6.2-7.8
5.2-7.0
Effluent
Arsenic
(mg/L)
<0.001-
0.026
<0.001-
0.022
<0.001-
0.014
<0.001-
0.014
<0.001-
0.009
0.053-
0.100
<0.001-
0.110
<0.002-
0.012
<0.002-
0.016
<0.001-
0.008
<0.001-
0.014
Gallons Treated
before 10 ppb
Breakthrough
1,780
63,400
368,600
34,600
110,000
0
640
15,200
7,700
>328,900
201,450
Sufficient for 1
Year Operation in
5-Person Home?
(1,000 gal)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes1
Yes
Yes2
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
7.2 Copper Treatment
7.2.1 Florence, Montana (POU CX for Copper Removal)
POU CX units were installed at a school and a trailer park in Florence, Montana, to study the
efficiency of these units in reducing copper levels at these sites as part of a study (Abdo, et al, 2000).
One POU CX unit was installed at a drinking fountain at the school and another unit was installed under a
sink in a residence in the trailer park.
*May be applicable with periodic backwashing of the Fe-AA media.
r\
May be applicable with pre-oxidation, prior to treatment.
7-15
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Florence-Carlton School is a nontransient, noncommunity water system that serves approximately
950 students and 100 staff members during the school year. Water for the school is obtained from two
wells sunk in alluvial fan deposits and is stored in a 500-gallon tank prior to distribution. The source
water is characterized by low levels of copper. However, the source water also has low TDS (<150
mg/L) and is corrosive to the school's water distribution system, causing relatively high levels of copper
in school drinking fountains.
The Bitterroot-Pines Trailer Court is a CWS that serves 16 trailers and two homes. This system
relies on water pumped from the same aquifer as the school. Copper levels in the source water are below
detection limits, and TDS levels are even lower than those found at the school (<100 mg/L). The source
water is also corrosive to the plumbing materials used in the trailer park residences.
Weekly samples were collected at locations directly before and after the POU CX units. These
samples were analyzed for pH, sodium, alkalinity, bicarbonate, specific conductance, copper, lead and
heterotrophic bacteria. The total flow through each of the devices was also recorded weekly.
Breakthrough of copper was observed after about five months (approximately 125 gallons of water
treated) at the school and after about two months (approximately 170 gallons of water treated) at the
trailer park. Prior to breakthrough, the unit reduced influent copper levels by 8 to 84 percent at the school
and 58 to 98 percent at the trailer park. It is believed that the broad range of removal rates (especially
those observed at the school) is related more to the variability of influent copper concentrations than to
the effectiveness of the treatment unit. However, it is important to note that when breakthrough did
occur, chromatographic peaking was observed (i.e., the treated water had higher levels of copper than the
influent). This observation indicates that copper was being displaced from the resin by another
contaminant (not identified in this study) in the water for which the CX resin had a higher affinity. The
use of a special-purpose copper-specific resin may increase run length.
7.2.2 Location 2, Montana3 (POU RO for Copper and Lead Removal)
Four-stage POU RO units were installed in a 16-unit trailer park in Montana in the spring of 2000
to reduce high levels of lead and copper (0.005 mg/L and 3.25 mg/L, respectively). The units consist of a
particulate pre-filter, a GAC pre-filter, an RO membrane, a 3-gallon storage tank, and a GAC post-filter.
A separate tap was also included with each RO unit. The cost of each system was $970 installed ($15,520
for the entire trailer park). The trailer park has entered into an ongoing maintenance agreement with the
vendor for $150 per year. Under this agreement, the vendor will check each RO unit twice per year and
handles disposal of the spent cartridges and membranes. However, the cost of replacement parts is not
included in the $150 fee and is borne by the trailer park.
To date, the units have worked well, reducing the copper levels to 0.22 mg/L (93 percent
reduction) and reducing lead levels to 0.003 mg/L (40 percent reduction).
7.3 Fluoride Treatment
7.3.1 Suffolk. Virginia (POU RO for Fluoride Removal)
The King's Point subdivision in Suffolk, Virginia was chosen by EPA and the State of Virginia as
a demonstration site to evaluate the feasibility of POU RO treatment for fluoride. The study later became
a part of the compliance plan for King's Point. This study was summarized from Lykins Jr., et al. (1995)
and Werner (2001, 2002, and 2003).
3 Name of trailer park and location withheld at request of system for confidentiality.
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King's Point subdivision has its own water system served by two well sources. At the beginning
of the study, the water from the two well sources was not disinfected or otherwise treated. The water
available to King's Point contained fluoride in the range of 5.0 to 6.1 mg/L, which exceeds the primary
MCL of 4.0 mg/L. When the site was chosen for inclusion in the study, the King's Point water system
served 40 connections (39 residential, one commercial); by the end of the project period it served about
57 connections (56 residential, one commercial).
Due to the high concentration of fluoride in the drinking water system, Suffolk received two
notices of violation, one from the Virginia Department of Health in 1989 and one from EPA in 1991.
After examining its options, the city chose POU treatment as the most attractive option based on cost,
timeliness, and O&M requirements. In 1992, the city and State agreed to the POU demonstration project
as part of the city's compliance plan.
The project team included EPA, the Virginia Department of Health, the City of Suffolk, and three
manufacturers of consumer drinking water products. During the study period, the unit suppliers were
responsible for all costs. The POU units used in the study consisted of a sediment pre-filter, a high-flow
thin-film (HFTF) membrane, a storage tank, and GAC post-filter. Initially, flowmeters were not installed
on the POU RO units. The units were also not equipped with alarms or shut-off devices. The units were
installed under the kitchen sink at all homes and were also connected to refrigerators that were equipped
with ice-makers. The units were installed in all homes in April 1992. Three manufacturers supplied units
and services for the study, with each manufacturer supplying one-third of the RO units used in the study.
No pilot testing was done before installing the RO units since the project was intended as a demonstration
study.
All homeowners in the King's Point subdivision were required by the City of Suffolk and the
Virginia Department of Health to participate in the study before the State and EPA would accept the POU
alternative. The EPA regional office required 100 percent participation in this study, lest they continue
with the enforcement proceedings regarding the fluoride violation, since POU treatment was not
acceptable as the best available technology (BAT). The homeowners were also required to sign a home
access agreement that relieved the city of liability for damages caused by the treatment units. There were
no significant problems in achieving 100 percent homeowner participation in the study.
The subdivision was divided into three regions, each served by a different manufacturer of POU
RO units. The initial monitoring plan called for one resident from each region to volunteer their home as
a distribution sampling site, where chemical and microbiological samples would be collected monthly by
a city official. The analyses were performed and recorded by the Suffolk Department of Public Utilities.
The analyses included conductivity, fluoride, HPC, pH, sodium, TDS, and turbidity. Coliform analysis
and a semiannual complete inorganic scan were later included. A representative of the manufacturer was
called if a unit required routine service.
Shortly after initiation of the project, high HPC levels were detected in the water treated by the
RO units. To remediate this problem, central chlorination of the well water was implemented. In
addition, the chlorine sensitive HFTF membranes were replaced with cellulose triacetate (CTA)
membranes, the sediment pre-filter and GAC post-filters were replaced with non-carbon turbidity filters
or no filter at all, and all of the RO units were disinfected. The GAC post-filters were believed to be a
significant factor causing the high HPC levels. In response, an additional monitoring and sampling site in
each manufacturer's service region was added. In the event of high HPC or fluoride levels, a
manufacturer's service representative scheduled necessary maintenance with the homeowner. Data were
collected from the sampling sites for nearly two years.
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After implementing the disinfection strategy, the HPC levels appeared to be rising again. To
reduce these levels, a weekly flushing program was implemented at all dead end mains to ensure that a
1.5 mg/L free chlorine residual was maintained at the ends of the distribution system. In addition,
educational flyers were mailed to each household instructing the customers that frequent use of the RO
devices improves the water quality delivered. The flyers also included information on the high quality of
the water produced by the RO units.
A new plan was developed in 1994 to monitor all of the RO units and to demonstrate typical
maintenance. The manufacturers were responsible for scheduling and collecting samples from residences
in their respective regions quarterly on a monthly rotating basis among manufacturers. The sampling
within each month was staggered throughout the month rather than conducting all sampling on the same
day. Sampling was usually conducted by paying a visit to target homes after 5 p.m. or on the weekends.
Approximately 10 percent of all appointments were not kept. During each visit the homeowner was
asked if the treatment unit was operating and if they used the water from the treatment unit for all of their
cooking and drinking needs. In addition, the homeowner was informed of good operating practices, such
as frequent use and flushing, that would improve the quality of the water from the treatment unit. In a
routine service call, pre- and post-device free chlorine, total chlorine, and conductivity measurements
were recorded. Observations indicated that the conductivity reduction from the influent to the treated
water was generally lower than the fluoride rejection rate. Therefore, conductivity could be used as a
surrogate for monitoring the efficacy of the unit in removing fluoride. Membranes were replaced when
the conductivity reduction fell below 70 percent of the influent.
In the event that mechanical problems occurred with the RO units, the customers could call a
manufacturer's representative. It was mandated that such problems were to be addressed within 24 hours
of the service call. Any other problems or complaints were addressed to representatives of the city.
Liquid residuals from the RO treatment process were sent to the kitchen sink drain and ultimately
were disposed of with the household wastewater into septic systems. The RO unit manufacturers were
responsible for membrane and cartridge replacement, and ultimately for the disposal of spent membranes
and cartridges.
Fluoride levels in tap water were maintained below 2.0 mg/L in all households in the subdivision.
Monitoring results for a one-month period showed fluoride concentrations at the tap ranging from roughly
0.1 mg/L to 0.6 mg/L. Variations in fluoride concentrations from month-to-month or residence-to-
residence were explained by membrane degradation. Exhibit 7.4 shows the data for treated water
collected from one residence and the raw feed during a quarterly sample collection.
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Exhibit 7.4: Performance Data for a Typical POL) RO Unit in Suffolk, VA
Contaminant
Total Coliform (coliform organisms/100 mL)
Heterotrophic Plate Count (cfu/mL)
Fluoride (mg/L)
Sodium (mg/L)
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)
Turbidity (NTU)
Conductivity (/mho/cm)
Influent
(1/12/95)
<1
12
5.62
207
474
0.18
768
Effluent
(1/9/95)
<1
5
0.352
18.0
36
0.08
62.5
If units were not meeting the MCL or found to be otherwise in non-compliance, they were
targeted and resolved on an individual basis.
A customer survey was conducted at the beginning of the study, after disinfection was
implemented, and again at the end of the study. Customers were asked questions about how they would
rate the water before and after the POU RO units were installed, water usage, maintenance visits, and
their preferred option for dealing with the high fluoride levels in the system. In the final survey, 75
percent of the respondents indicated that they used the RO water for all of their drinking and cooking.
Overall, the customers were satisfied with the service and quality of the RO water. Some homeowners
initially resisted the installation of the RO units because it required that a hole be drilled in the sink to
insert a tap for the RO unit. However, this problem was circumvented when the city agreed to replace the
sinks when the RO units were removed. Five of the homeowners indicated that they resented the
intrusion into their homes that was necessary for installation and service of the RO units.
In March 1995, the demonstration project was completed, and the City of Suffolk chose to lease
the POU RO units so that the distributors would maintain responsibility for routine service and O&M
activities. The approximate costs for water treatment ran $400/year/unit to rent the units and
$400/year/unit for labor, maintenance, sampling, and analyses. Despite the overall success of the project,
the King's Point subdivision was ultimately connected to the Suffolk, Virginia, city water system in
February of 1998. The decision to connect to the city water system was largely due to rapid growth in the
King's Point subdivision, which made POU treatment increasingly less economical.
7.3.2 Emington, Illinois (POU RO for Fluoride and TDS Removal)
This case study is summarized from Bellen, et al. (1985) and Lykins Jr., et al. (1992). In
Emington, Illinois, 47 low-pressure RO units were installed by equipment dealers and monitored for eight
months. The primary target contaminants for removal were fluoride and TDS. The RO systems consisted
of a 5-fjm particulate pre-filter, a GAC pre-filter, a pressurized 2-gallon tank, a GAC post-filter, and a
thin-film RO membrane. Treated water was stored in the tank and passed through the GAC post-filter
before being dispensed.
The POU units removed an average of 86 percent of the fluoride from source water containing
4.5 mg/L. TDS rejection averaged 79 percent from source water concentrations of 2,620 mg/L. A wide
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variation in rejection rates was observed. Most of the variation was attributed to a pressure drop across
the pre-filter assembly. RO membranes (especially cellulose acetate membranes) are more effective for
contaminant removal in high water pressure environments. Exhibit 7.5 tabulates the performance data for
the Emington POU project.
While the POU RO units operated satisfactorily, a significant drawback was their low water
output—approximately 3 gpd. To supplement their needs, many homeowners purchased up to 30 gallons
of bottled water per month at a cost of $ 1 per gallon.
The HPC of treated water was found to be an order of magnitude higher than that of untreated
water. Controlled sampling from various stages of the RO unit established that most bacterial growth
occurred in the GAC polishing unit (i.e., post-filter). Coliforms were found in four pre-device and 11
post-device samples (16 percent of all samples).
Exhibit 7.5: Performance Data for POU RO Devices in Emington, IL (1985$)
Number of Participating Sites
Service Area Type
Mean Treated Water Use (gpd)
Mean Flow Rates (gpd)
Product Water
Reject Water
Fluoride (mean mg/L)
Influent
Effluent
Total Dissolved Solids (mean mg/L)
Influent
Effluent
47
Central system with single
family homes
0.8
2.9
22.5
4.5
0.6
2,530
520
7.3.3 New Ipswich, New Hampshire (POE RO, AA, UV for Fluoride Removal)
Boynton Middle School, located in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, serves approximately 600
students and staff. In early 1997, the school hired a consulting firm to implement a drinking water
treatment system to reduce high fluoride levels in the school's water (Guercia, 2001). Prior to the
installation of a new treatment system, the maximum fluoride concentration in the school's water was
greater than 5.5 mg/L. To achieve a goal of 90 percent reduction in influent fluoride, the consultant
recommended that the school install a single treatment system with a parallel plumbing system that would
treat water traveling to six water fountains and two sinks in the kitchen. This option was predicted to be
less costly and easier to maintain than installing multiple individual units at each fountain and sink.
Multiple and redundant treatment components were incorporated into the treatment system to
ensure the efficient removal of the contaminant of concern. Water first travels through a 5 x 20 inch 5-
fjm sediment pre-filter cartridge, followed by a 5 x 20 inch l-/m sediment cartridge. The water is then
forced through a 900 gpd RO unit. Next, the water passes through a contact vessel containing one cubic
foot of AA and two cubic feet of crushed limestone in order to restore the pH to its original level. The
water then enters a 500-gallon atmospheric storage tank before it is repressurized and sent through a UV
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element. Finally, the water travels through a GAC post-filter containing two cubic feet of media prior to
distribution.
After receiving State approval, the system was installed in the summer of 1997. In addition to the
system itself, the consultant also recommended that the school incorporate a drinking water quality
section into its science program to educate the students on the importance of safe drinking water and to
inform them of the particular water fountains and sinks in the school from which they should drink. The
system cost $17,230 installed. The development and submission of all documentation required for State
approval of the system was included in this price.
The consultant continues to serve as the operator of the Boynton system and is responsible for the
unit's maintenance and monitoring. Every six months, the consultant visits Boynton to perform
preventative maintenance on the system. This maintenance includes: ensuring that the machinery is
operating efficiently, replacing cartridges, testing for TDS before and after the treatment unit, adding
crushed limestone as needed, changing the AA and carbon media as needed, testing for fluoride before
and after the RO unit once per year, and changing the UV lamp once per year. The preventative
maintenance takes approximately three to four hours to complete and is covered under the school's
contract with the consultant. Rather than charging the school for each individual service call, the
consultant bills the school at the beginning of each year for all services expected to be provided over the
course of the year. The school has the choice of pre-paying (and receiving a 10 percent discount) or
making monthly payments on the annual fee. Based on the average number of service calls made each
year, the school is charged approximately $500 for each maintenance visit.
The consultant is also required by the State to sample for fluoride on a quarterly basis. Since it is
often not possible for school maintenance personnel to monitor the system even on a weekly basis, the
treatment system was designed with enough redundancy to reduce the potential for a problem to arise
between scheduled maintenance and monitoring visits. It should be noted, however, that the system lacks
an alarm or automatic shut-off. The school has contacted the consultant on several occasions in response
to visual signs of problems, such as an overflowing or empty storage tank.
The consultant recommends that the RO membrane for this system be replaced every 3 to 5 years;
both of the sediment filter cartridges be replaced every 4 to 6 months; the AA media be replaced after 2 to
3 years; limestone be added every 6 to 12 months; and the GAC media be replaced after 4 to Syears.
For every one gallon of water that the RO generates, one gallon of water is wasted (50 percent
recovery). The wastewater, which contains approximately twice the mineral content of the untreated well
water, goes directly to the school's septic system. The spent cartridges are disposed of in the garbage at
no cost, and the AA is incinerated at a nearby facility at a cost of $65 per cubic foot. Note, however, that
the spent AA could be disposed of in a standard landfill since it is not classified as a hazardous material.
Thus far, the Boynton system has been extremely effective at treating the school's drinking water
and reducing the fluoride levels. The school has encountered very few problems with the system.
However, an unidentified black material has recently begun to accumulate on the cartridge filters.
Because this material obstructs the flow of water, the consultant has had to make one or two additional
visits to Boynton in order to replace the clogged filters. In general, additional maintenance visits are
uncommon (about one unscheduled service call every other year).
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7.3.4 Opal, Wyoming (POU RO for Fluoride and Sulfate Removal)
This case study was based on information from Jack Theis of EPA Region 8 (2002, 2003). The
town of Opal, Wyoming, is a small, rural community of about 40 homes and roughly 98 people. The
community is served by a centralized well that is chlorinated and has individual septic tanks and
drainfields serving each home. The system is regulated by EPA Region 8.
The town's well water was in violation of EPA drinking water standards, containing an average
fluoride concentration just over the MCL of 4 mg/L and elevated levels of sulfate which adversely
affected the taste and odor of the water. EPA Region 8 determined that POU RO treatment was the most
economically feasible approach for this community. After several sparsely attended town meetings, the
town passed an ordinance to guarantee 100 percent participation in the POU project. EPA Region 8
decided to first conduct a six-month pilot study prior to full-scale installation, during which they paid the
installation and monitoring costs for six NSF-certified POU RO units. Two different out-of-state home
water treatment unit vendors were contracted to handle installation, on-site maintenance and monitoring
of the POU RO units. From inception to installation, the process took about 16 months.
Each household that participated in the pilot study had an under-the-sink unit installed at the
kitchen sink tap. Each unit contained GAC cartridges before and after the RO membrane. The first GAC
cartridge was to remove chlorine that could damage the RO unit, while the second, after the RO
membrane, was for taste and odor. The units themselves were equipped with both storage tanks and re-
pressurization mechanisms, but not flowmeters. The units had warning lights to indicate unit (membrane)
failure, based on a conductivity test. In addition, a bad taste or odor, caused by sulfur passing through the
device, would indicate failure. The units were not equipped with an automatic shut-off device.
During the pilot test, fluoride, sulfate, and HPC bacteria were monitored monthly at each unit.
High HPC counts were observed during the pilot study, but were not determined to be harmful. HPC
levels were around 20,000 to 30,000 cfu/ml and were reduced to around 5,000 cfu/ml after flushing the
unit. The residents were highly satisfied with the removal of the water's unpleasant tastes and odors.
During the pilot testing, only a few leaks and other problems occurred in the units that required a visit by
the vendor.
The town obtained special consent from the State to use the lowest level of state-certified water
system operator in the servicing, operation, and maintenance of these units, since they are extremely
simple to operate. Complaints about the units went through the system operator or the mayor of the town.
Access to the units was fairly simple to arrange; scheduling maintenance appointments was also fairly
simple, since the residents were generally cooperative and interested in the project. However, the
residents in the pilot study were hand-picked, and other residents may not be as cooperative. The biggest
problem was getting the vendor to arrive and make the repairs in a timely manner. By the end of the six-
month pilot test, all of the units were working satisfactorily and treating fluoride to less than 0.1 mg/L.
An administrative order outlining the units' maintenance requirements when the whole town goes
on-line has been sent out to relevant and interested parties, but thus far the sampling protocol/schedule is
still under development, and the final protocol must be approved by legal staff. The recommendations are
as follows:
• One unit per month will be sampled for heterotrophic bacteria. A different unit must be
sampled each month. Heterotrophic bacteria will be sampled at the regular kitchen tap
and the tap served by the POU device for comparison.
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• One unit will be sampled for fluoride each quarter. This can be the same unit that is
sampled for heterotrophic bacteria.
• SOCs and inorganic chemicals (lOCs) will still be sampled at the entry point to the
distribution system to determine how the water quality is changing.
• Lead and copper will be sampled, but a new protocol/approach must be developed.
• This sampling schedule will be dictated by treated water quality and a conservative
maintenance/replacement schedule.
In disposing of the residuals, the town is considering either contracting this service out, or
maintaining responsibility itself. Since the principal contaminants are fluoride and sulfate, the present
plan is to dispose of solid residuals (such as used cartridges and membranes) in the household trash.
Liquid residuals from the RO treatment process were sent to the kitchen sink drain during the pilot study
and ultimately were disposed of with the household wastewater into septic systems. Both GAC cartridges
and RO membranes are scheduled to be changed annually upon inspection.
Compliance will be determined based on all units treating to below the fluoride MCL. The whole
system is to be considered in violation upon the failure of any one of the units to treat to below this MCL.
The system is also required to maintain records of each unit and make these records available during
sanitary surveys.
There was some reluctance on both the State's and the citizens' part at first, mostly focused
around the cost of operating the system. The purchase price was around $700-800 per RO unit, and the
maintenance fees are anticipated to run about $16 per month per household. However, due to the
improved taste of the water treated by the RO units, a POU system has become the favored and accepted
option for water treatment in this area. This POU treatment strategy requires considerable involvement
from the regulatory agency and the success of this project will lie in the maintenance and sampling
program, but overall, the POU RO water treatment seems to have high potential as a solution to Opal's
water problems.
7.4 Nitrate Treatment
7.4.1 Suffolk County. New York (POE/POU GAC. IX. RO. and Distillation for Nitrate Removal)
A 1983 study evaluated various water supply options for the towns of Riverhead and Southhold,
both located in the predominantly rural North Fork of Suffolk County. This case study was summarized
from Lykins Jr., et al. (1992). Due to the size and demographics of the communities, it was determined
that the development of public water supplies throughout the high nitrate areas would be prohibitively
expensive. Individual POU/POE units were recommended for these contaminated areas.
POE devices and countertop and line bypass POU units were examined in this study. Several
treatment technologies were tested, including GAC, IX, RO, and distillation. All units demonstrated the
ability to remove the contaminants of concern to the necessary levels, and consumers were satisfied with
the performance of the units. Exhibit 7.6 summarizes the water quality problems, the types of POU/POE
devices used to treat the nitrate, chloride, and/or VOCs, and the performance of each unit.
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Exhibit 7.6: Performance Data for POL) and POE Devices in Suffolk County, NY
Unit
Number
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
10
12
15
17
18
Water Quality
Problem
Nitrate
Nitrate
Nitrate, chloride
Nitrate
Nitrate, VOC
Nitrate
Nitrate
Nitrate
Nitrate
Nitrate
Nitrate
Nitrate
Type of Device
Countertop (GAC+IX)
Countertop (GAC+IX)
Line bypass (RO+GAC)
Line bypass (RO+GAC)
Countertop (Distiller)
Line bypass (RO+GAC)
Line bypass (RO+GAC)
Line bypass (RO+GAC)
Batch (distiller)
Line bypass (RO+GAC)
Line bypass (RO+GAC)
POE (IX)
Average Nitrate
Influent
(mg/L)
9.2
7.7
10.8
9.9
12.2
11.1
7.7
11.2
9.3
8.6
11.5
12.1
Effluent
(mg/L)
3.3
2.4
4.6
4.3
<0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.8
0.3
0.6
Average Organics
Influent
(tfg/L)
NA
NA
NA
NA
12
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Effluent
C«g/L)
NA
NA
NA
NA
<2
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Despite the success of the units, the sampling results during the study revealed several problems
that could be traced to improper installation or inadequate maintenance. Several units developed
plumbing leaks that required repair. Organic contaminants leached into treated water from three units due
to solvents used during the manufacturing or assembly of the units. High levels of copper were found in
the effluents from two units that used copper discharge lines. Once these units were replaced, all units
functioned satisfactorily for the duration of the study.
Bacteria were present in samples from all of the treatment units that included a GAC filter.
However, no evidence of pathogenic bacterial growth was found, even in samples that exhibited elevated
HPCs.
The effluents from three units tested positive for coliform bacteria after installation, though
follow-up samples were satisfactory. Two of the contaminated units were countertop models, which are
more susceptible to cross-contamination by homeowner activity. Additional disinfection procedures
should be followed before and after installation of these models if they are selected by the water system
for use in a compliance strategy.
The RO units exhibited varying removal efficiencies. This was probably due to the lower
efficiencies of the cellulose acetate membranes used in some units relative to the thin film composite
membranes used in others.
A detailed description of the monitoring plan, the capacity of the POU units, a full discussion of
the division of responsibilities, and the cost per gallon of water treated were not provided in the literature
reviewed. However, the study did emphasize the need for conservative design of POU/POE treatment
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devices to preclude premature contaminant breakthrough due to interactions between multiple
contaminants (and from contaminants as yet undiscovered in the area).
7.4.2 Hamburg, Wisconsin (POE AX for Nitrate Removal)
Prior to the installation of a POE AX treatment system, Maple Grove Elementary School, a small
rural school located in Hamburg, Wisconsin, experienced several problems with its drinking water
(Maher, 2001). First, the corrosive nature of the system's source water led to high levels of lead and
copper scavenging from the school's pipes. Second, because the school is located in an area with sandy,
gravel-like soil that was once heavily farmed, high nitrate levels were also present in the water. To
address these water quality issues, Maple Grove installed a treatment system in 1996. The system is
comprised of an AX element for nitrate reduction, and a polyphosphate feed as a corrosion inhibitor.
Although the school still encounters some difficulties with corrosion control, the AX element has been
extremely successful at reducing the nitrate levels present in the water, maintaining levels well below the
MCL since the system's installation.
Maple Grove purchased its treatment system from a local vendor. The vendor was also
responsible for installing the system. The installation process took approximately seven hours to
complete. The treatment system includes two resin beds with automatic regeneration, two feed pumps,
and two solution tanks (one feeding chlorine and one feeding orthophosphate). Currently, the system
serves approximately 200 students and staff members.
The unit lacks both an alarm and an automatic shut-off system; however, the vendor has supplied
the school staff with test kits for sampling purposes. Under the regulations established by the Wisconsin
DNR, the vendor must establish a service contract with its customers to ensure proper system operation to
retain its license. As a result, all of the vendor's service contracts include a provision that provides for
monthly visits to perform testing and to confirm ongoing effective system operation. Although these
monthly visits are included under the service contract between Maple Grove and the vendor at no extra
charge, Maple Grove is charged for any additional maintenance visits that may be required. Since the
system has been installed, the school has required about three additional visits per year at a cost of $42 for
the first half-hour and $42 for each additional hour.
A timer triggers regeneration of the AX units once per week during the night. To ensure ongoing
water availability, the two resin beds are operated in parallel. A saturated brine solution (60 percent) is
used for regeneration.
The AX resin is expected to last for 10 to 16 years. Since the system was only recently installed,
the school has not yet had to deal with media disposal issues. At other installations, the vendor re-bedded
the system on site and the property owner disposed of any remaining spent media in a standard landfill.
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7.4.3 Fort Lupton, Colorado (POU RO for Nitrate and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Removal)
To comply with an enforcement order for nitrate issued by the Colorado Water Quality Control
Division (WQCD), the Wattenburg Improvement Association (WIA) elected to install POU RO units in
each residence in Wattenburg, a town of approximately 100 households (Alberts and Peterson, 2000).
Prior to selecting the specific device to install, the WIA hired a contractor to evaluate the capabilities of
RO units manufactured by three different firms. Each device was equipped with a booster pump to
increase line pressure from 30 to 60 psi.
Pilot testing was conducted in the homes of three volunteers from the Board of Directors of the
WIA. One device was installed underneath the kitchen sink in the house of each volunteer in June of
2000 and was operated for approximately three months. Over the course of the evaluation period, the
volunteers were asked to answer questions regarding the convenience and performance of the units.
Homeowners were pleased with the taste of finished water and the quantity of water available from the
treated tap. They were also satisfied with the convenience of the units. However, the volunteers reported
being less satisfied with the installation and maintenance of the filters. Specifically, they were concerned
that maintenance would be difficult if POU RO units were installed in each household in the community.
The homeowners did, however, recommend hiring knowledgeable professional maintenance personnel to
perform all necessary maintenance activities.
Following the pilot test, a vendor was selected to provide treatment units to the community. The
unit selected by the WIA consistently removed 91 percent of nitrate and more than 90 percent of TSS.
Despite the concerns of the Board of Directors regarding the difficulties associated with installing and
maintaining the units and their liability should the units stop working correctly, the WIA began to install
POU RO units in each of the houses in Wattenburg. The community planned to hold a town meeting
during the installation of the units to explain the reason for installing the treatment units (including the
health effects associated with the consumption of excess nitrate), the operation of the units, the
effectiveness of the units, and the manner in which the purchase of the units would be completed. In
addition, all residents would be provided with an owner's manual for the treatment unit as well as
informational materials printed in both English and Spanish that explained:
• Nitrate contamination of drinking water;
The role of the Colorado WQCD and the WIA; and,
• The funding process.
Due to the Board of Directors' concerns about liability for damages in the event of unit leakage,
they supported the use of a licensed plumber and licensed electrician to oversee each installation. In
addition, they requested the development of a specifications manual to detail the requirements for each
installation. Further, the Board of Directors recommended the use of an independent inspector to verify
the quality of each installation. At the time of installation, the installer was to reiterate to each resident
the points covered in the public meeting (e.g., unit operation, need for treatment, etc.).
The responsibility for conducting routine maintenance was to be borne by the WIA since the
Board of Directors did not feel that residents, particularly renters, should be required to know how and
when to perform this maintenance. The WIA is also responsible for keeping records of all maintenance
on the units.
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7.5 Radon Treatment
7.5.1 Various States (POE GAC for Radon Removal)
This case study is summarized from a report by Lowry, et al. (1989). To determine the
effectiveness of POE GAC units in removing radon from drinking water, 121 POE GAC units in 12 states
were monitored to varying degrees over seven years. Each house was equipped with a separate POE
GAC system consisting of fiberglass vessels filled with either 1.0, 1.7, or 3.0 cubic feet of GAC,
supported on a bed of gravel. The units were installed downstream of the existing pressure tank and
operated in the downflow mode. Sixty percent of the installations were done by the homeowner without
outside assistance.
Most units underwent initial sampling and analysis three weeks after installation to confirm the
success of the installation. Sampling and analyses were conducted every six months thereafter for a
period of two years. Samples were collected by homeowners and mailed to the Radon Research
Laboratory at the University of Maine for liquid scintillation analysis. Some units were selected for long-
term or monthly monitoring. The monitoring protocol used either direct syringe scintillation vials or
glass septum capped vials (VOC type).
The GAC units in this study treated water supplies with a wide variety of radon levels, ranging
from 2,576 picoCurie per liter (pCi/L) to more than 1,000,000 pCi/L. Average household water use was
estimated at 157 gpd for purposes of determining performance. Performance data for the POE GAC
devices observed in this study are presented in Exhibit 7.7.
Exhibit 7.7: Performance Data for POE GAC Devices
GAC
Device
GAC 10
GAC 17
GAC 30
Flow
(gpd)
157
157
157
Average
EBCT
(hrs)
1.14
1.94
3.43
Expected
Removal Rate
96.7%
99.7%
> 99.99%
Observed
Removal Rate
90.7%
92.5%
98.6%
In most cases, O&M costs were negligible. In a very few instances, GAC beds had to be replaced
at a cost of $130 per cubic foot of GAC. Gamma emissions from POE GAC units used to treat for radon
may lead to negative health effects for both members of the household and maintenance personnel.
Exposure to gamma radiation depends upon the level of radon in the raw water and the location and
shielding of the GAC unit. Therefore, the need for shielding or other protective measures should be
evaluated for each specific site. If necessary, shielding may be provided either by a metal cover
surrounding the treatment unit or by placing the GAC treatment vessel inside a larger vessel filled with
water. Cost data for the POE GAC devices observed in this study are presented in Exhibit 7.8.
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Exhibit 7.8: Cost Data for POE GAC Devices
GAC Device
GAC 10
GAC 17
GAC 30
Cost of
GAC Unit
$600
$750
$950
Cost of
Sediment
Filter
$50
$50
$50
Cost of
Water
Shield
$25
$90
$125
Installation
Cost
$100
$100
$100
Total Cost
$775
$990
$1,225
Note: Shipping costs (averaging $30 per unit) were paid by the installer.
7.5.2 Perry, New Hampshire (POE GAC and Aeration for Radon Removal)
POE GAC and POE aeration for radon removal were evaluated by Kinner, et al. (1993). The
effectiveness of two GAC units and two aeration units (one diffused bubble aeration (DBA), one bubble-
plate aeration) were studied over the course of one year of continuous operation.
Each of the two GAC units consisted of a fiberglass contact vessel preceded by a sediment filter.
The contact vessels were filled to 70 percent of their capacity with GAC (1.6 cubic feet of GAC per unit),
providing an EBCT of 6 minutes at a flow rate of 2.0 gpm. One of the POE GAC units incorporated a
separate CX element to remove iron and manganese in addition to the sediment filter and GAC element.
The CX bed contained 1.4 cubic feet of strong-acid CX resin. The CX resin was regenerated every two
weeks over the course of the study using a standard sodium chloride solution.
The DBA unit was comprised of a single vessel with three compartments in series, each
containing an internal diffuser. The bubble-plate aeration system was also housed in a single vessel,
however, this system contained a single spiral diffuser. For both units, finished water was stored in a 20-
gallon hydropneumatic tank. A 38 cubic foot per minute (cfm) blower powered the DBA system while
the bubble-plate aeration system was powered by a 315-cfm blower. Off-gases from both systems were
vented via separate PVC vent pipes.
Radon levels of 22,837 to 54,765 pCi/L (average 35,620 ± 6,727 pCi/L) were reduced by more
than 97.5 percent to less than 900 pCi/L for the first four months of the study by both of the POE GAC
systems. For the remaining eight months of the study, radon levels in finished water rose to 3,000 to
6,000 pCi/L. This POE GAC configuration would not comply with the radon MCL (300 pCi/L) or
alternative radon MCL (4,000 pCi/L) per the proposed Radon Rule. While the authors of this study were
not able to determine the reason for the reduction they observed in system performance, they postulated
that the presence of a contaminant that was also removed by the GAC reduced its capacity for radon. It
should also be noted that the GAC system that incorporated the CX element remained somewhat more
effective than the GAC unit that did not include this element (removal rates of 85 percent verses 79
percent), and also removed 99 percent of influent radium. Iron residues found in the top layers of GAC in
the latter unit may have fouled the media or contributed to channelization which reduces effective contact
time.
Both GAC units were colonized by bacteria. As a result, the use of such devices for compliance
with the SDWA may require the use of some form of post-treatment disinfection to ensure the
microbiological safety of the finished water, particularly for immuno-compromised individuals.
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The POE DBA system reduced influent radon levels to less than 200 pCi/L (> 99 percent)
throughout the course of the study. The small size of the bubbles forced through the water in this unit
contributed to the high radon removal rates, as did the high air-to-water ratio (119:1 assuming a water
flow rate of 2.3 gpm). The POE bubble-plate system also typically reduced radon by more than 99
percent. However, when the air intake for the blower for this system was clogged, restricting airflow
through the system, radon removal rates dropped significantly. This potential problem could have been
avoided if the system had been equipped with an automatic alarm or shut-off valve or through more
frequent inspection of the unit. Based on monitoring conducted outside of the building in which these
units were installed, it is expected that the exhaust from aeration units will be rapidly diluted to
background levels. If influent radon levels are exceptionally high, it may be necessary to further dilute
the exhaust (through the use of a more powerful blower) or to treat the exhaust prior to release.
The costs in Exhibit 7.9 are based on actual expenditures incurred during this project. However,
engineering/subcontractor and contingency fees were built into the capital costs for these estimates based
on records from actual POE installations at well sites in New Hampshire. These cost estimates are
reflective of the market in the New England region. These estimates do not include the costs associated
with radon monitoring ($15 to $50 per sample - in 1990 dollars). Both estimates for the GAC units do,
however, assume the worst-case scenario for waste disposal (handling and disposal of spent media as low-
level radioactive waste at a cost of $28.09 per cubic foot - in 1990 dollars). The cost evaluation of the
aeration systems was based on the assumption that additional treatment for the off-gases produced by the
units would not be required.
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Exhibit 7.9: Cost Estimates for POE GAC and Aeration Systems (1990$)
Item
Capital Costs
Equipment
Installation
Total Capital Costs
Amortized Capital Costs
(9% for Syr s)
Annual O&M Costs
Power ($0.10157/kW-hr)
Maintenance
Labor
Administration
Disposal Costs
Total O&M Costs
Total Annual Costs
Production Cost
(270 gpd design flow)
GAC
(w/o pretreatment)
$785
$275
$1,060
$273
-NA-
$160
$45
$49
$56
$310
$583
$5.34/Kgal
($5.91/Kgal)
GAC
(w/pretreatment)
$1,500
$345
$1,845
$475
-NA-
$185
$50
$56
$113
$404
$879
$7.77/Kgal
($8.92/Kgal)
Diffused Bubble
Aeration
$2,215
$880
$3,095
$796
$80
$345
$545
$195
-NA-
$1,165
$1,961
$19.90/Kgal
Bubble-Plate
Aeration
$3,295
$880
$4,175
$1,074
$54
$368
$583
$209
-NA-
$1,214
$2,288
$23.22/Kgal
7.6 Trichloroethylene (TCE) Treatment
7.6.1 Byron, Illinois (POU/POE GAC for TCE Removal)
This case study is summarized from a paper presented by Bianchin at the 1987 Conference on
Point-of-Use Treatment of Drinking Water (Bianchin, 1987). The Byron Johnson Salvage Yard is a 20-
acre facility located in a rural area of northern Illinois. In the 1960s, the salvage yard was operated as a
junk yard. From 1970 to 1972, the Illinois EPA conducted periodic inspections to identify operating
deficiencies. In 1972, the Illinois EPA ordered the yard closed, and in 1974 the salvage yard ceased
operation. In December 1982, the site was placed on the Superfund National Priority List. Illinois EPA
began a remedial investigation/feasibility study, focusing on contamination directly on or below the site.
The study revealed that both major aquifers in the area were contaminated by VOCs. In addition, cyanide
and some inorganic compounds were found in the ground water beneath the salvage yard.
From 1983 through 1985, contamination levels in nearby (down-gradient) wells were monitored
by EPA, Illinois EPA, and the Illinois Department of Public Health. Private wells were found with TCE
levels of up to 710 //g/L. In July 1984, EPA temporarily placed residents in areas adjacent to the salvage
yard, whose water was characterized by TCE concentrations greater than 200 //g/L, on bottled water. In
May 1986, EPA installed POU GAC treatment devices as an interim measure for residents using bottled
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water. In July 1986, EPA initiated a monthly sampling program of these units to monitor the
effectiveness of the POU devices.
In October 1985, EPA undertook a phased feasibility study to investigate the health threat posed
to another nearby development from exposure to the contaminated water supply. Rock River Terrace
Subdivision is located 1.5 miles down gradient of the salvage yard along the Rock River. Wells in the
subdivision were contaminated with TCE levels up to 48 //g/L. Three treatment alternatives were
analyzed for their potential to solve the subdivision's contamination problem. First, all residences could
be connected to the Byron Municipal Treatment Facility. This alternative would cost approximately
$900,000 (in 1986 dollars) and would take one to two years to implement. Second, all affected homes
could be supplied with bottled water. This alternative was estimated to cost $91,150 per year and could
be implemented almost immediately. However, since the water entering local households is not treated,
and since bottled water would only be used for drinking or cooking, this alternative would provide no
protection from inhalation of or direct contact with contaminated water. Third, each household could be
equipped with a POU treatment unit. This alternative would cost $26,000 and installation would take
about three months. However, as with the bottled water option, since all taps would not be treated,
residents would not be completely protected from health problems resulting from inhalation or direct
contact with contaminated water. Fourth, each household could be equipped with a POE treatment unit.
This alternative would cost $115,000 and, like the third option, would require about 3 months to install.
The fourth alternative would provide treated water at all taps within the household.
The fourth alternative was selected as the strategy most protective of public health and most
economically feasible. Beginning in September 1986, EPA installed POE GAC systems in the basements
of residences or in insulated, outdoor sheds throughout the subdivision. Each system consisted of a 5-//m
pre-filter and two GAC tanks in series. Each GAC tank was 54 inches tall and contained 110 pounds of
GAC. The system was designed for a flow of 7.5 gpm. Since carbon replacement rates depend on many
factors including the level of contamination, water temperature, pH, water usage, and the presence of
other constituents, periodic monitoring was conducted to ensure that contaminants were being effectively
removed. Samples were collected on a monthly basis, before and after the carbon tanks, and sent to a
local lab for analysis. The carbon was scheduled for replacement upon breakthrough. However, a year
after installation, breakthrough still had not occurred.
7.6.2 Elkhart. Indiana (POE GAC. Aeration for TCE and Carbon Tetrachloride (CC14)
Removal)
This case study is summarized from Lykins Jr., et al. (1992) and Bianchin (1987). In June 1986,
severe contamination by TCE (800 //g/L) and CC14 (488 //g/L) was detected in a well in Elkhart, Indiana.
EPA instituted a sampling program covering 88 wells. Significant levels of TCE (5,000 //g/L) and CC14
(7,500 /*g/L) contamination were detected in this effort (Bianchin 1987). EPA immediately provided
bottled water to all affected residents and advised those with the most contaminated wells not to use their
water for any reason. Due to the time required to extend the city's water mains, EPA decided to install 54
POE GAC and 22 POU GAC units at private residences. The Indiana Department of Environmental
Management agreed to sample the affected homes periodically to ensure the continued efficiency of the
treatment units.
The POE GAC units were 13 inches in diameter and permitted the use of up to 3.8 cubic feet of
carbon (50 inches of carbon depth). Each POE unit contained 110 pounds of 20 x 50 mesh size GAC.
Carbon replacement costs were approximately $510 per tank, while the sediment pre-filters cost $40 each
to replace (in 1989 dollars).
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Two residences were equipped with treatment systems consisting of a PTA element connected to
two GAC tanks in series. These units were located in the basement and were vented outside. The air
strippers had a 40:1 air-to-water ratio and operated at a rate of 5 gpm. The air strippers were packed with
1-inch diameter polypropylene cylinders. Although no microbiological problems have been encountered,
a UV light may be installed in the POE system for post-GAC disinfection. The installed cost of the entire
unit (one air stripper and two GAC tanks) was about $4,000 (in 1989 dollars). The installer
recommended flushing the system any time that water stood unused for more than a day. Special
monitoring was undertaken to test the effectiveness of these POE systems. The results of this monitoring
showed that the units effectively reduced the levels of CC14 and TCE in the water.
GAC isotherm calculations, sometimes used to estimate breakthrough for GAC media, proved
unreliable in accurately predicting breakthrough in the POE GAC units in Elkhart. The time to
breakthrough was significantly over- or under-estimated. The number of gallons successfully treated
before breakthrough ranged from 25,000 to over 300,000 gallons. Competitive effects, possibly from
CC14 or TCE, were evident in one dual GAC unit in Elkhart that was monitored for a special EPA study.
In this case, isotherm data predicted breakthrough for chloroform at approximately 225,000 gallons, but
chloroform (CHC13) was estimated to have actually broken through after about 130,000 gallons were
treated by the unit. Over the course of the study, methylene chloride concentrations of 115 /^g/L were
consistently lowered below detection levels. Exhibit 7.10 summarizes data from homes in Elkhart that
experienced breakthrough and provides an illustration of GAC capabilities.
Exhibit 7.10: Performance Data for POE GAC Devices in Elkhart, IN
Site
1
2
3
4
5
Average influent concentrations
(^g/L)
TCE
170
60
418
331
1,686
CC14
291
2,864
2,188
135
348
CHC13
15
ND
ND
10
50
Gallons
treated
30,500
120,000
150,000
135,000
140,000
Months
25
22
24
16
18
Possible Cause for CCL4
Breakthrough
Competitive effects;
bacterial colonization
High influent levels
High influent levels
Competitive effects;
TCE concentration
TCE concentration
7.6.3 Hudson, Wisconsin (POE GAC for TCE and 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (TCA) Removal)
This case study is summarized from system information provided by Anklam (2001). In the
1960s and 1970s, TCE, TCA, as well as low levels of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) and 1,1-dichloroethylene
seeped into well water in the town of Hudson, Wisconsin. In the 1980s, it was discovered that the ground
water source for a populated subdivision in the western part of the town was also contaminated. The
State of Wisconsin conducted an investigation and identified an industrial facility as the source of the
contamination. As a result, the State required the industrial facility to either provide treatment or provide
an alternate water source for the subdivision. The industrial facility chose to provide POE GAC units to
the affected homes. Prior to the installation of the POE GAC units, the water for this subdivision was not
subject to any kind of treatment.
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The industrial facility is the responsible party for oversight and maintenance of the water systems.
A private consulting firm is under contract with the industrial facility to provide administrative oversight
and sampling for the system. A home water treatment unit vendor is contracted to handle on-site
maintenance of the POE units and carbon replacement.
Two pilot tests were conducted prior to full-scale installation of the POE GAC units in Hudson.
The POE GAC unit was installed at six residences with State approval. The POE unit consists of two,
1.25 cubic foot tanks in series, filled with FCS-AC11 coconut-shell granular activated carbon. The
effluent was sampled monthly for TCE, TCA, and other organics over a two-year period. A larger unit,
comprised of two, 3.61 cubic foot tanks, was pilot-tested separately at a local business. This unit was
operated continuously and sampled regularly until breakthrough was detected. In 1995, at the beginning
of the study, the average concentration of TCA and TCE in the source water was 51.2 |o,g/L and 33.3
Hg/L, respectively. The POE GAC units consistently maintained TCA and TCE concentrations well
below the MCLs of 0.2 mg/L and 5 ng/L, respectively.
The pilot tests demonstrated that the POE GAC units effectively remove TCE, TCA, and other
trace organics present in the raw water to below detectable levels. After obtaining state approval for a
full-scale POE compliance strategy in 1995, the industrial facility conducted a residential sampling
program to verify water quality. After determining which residences qualified for POE treatment, the
industrial facility began offering GAC units to the residents of Hudson to treat their contaminated ground
water at no charge. Currently, about 155 households and ten businesses have POE GAC units installed.
In order to obtain a POE unit, residents are required to sign an access agreement with the
industrial facility that, among other provisions, requires the residents to schedule appointments with the
contractor and subcontractor for periodic maintenance, water sampling, and carbon replacement. If the
resident refuses access, the industrial facility will then provide bottled water as an alternative, although
the Wisconsin DNR does not recognize bottled water as a "permanent water supply." Residents that
refuse to have a POE GAC unit installed must also sign a consent form indicating that they understand
that the water is contaminated and choose not to treat the water. Only one household chose bottled water
over POE GAC filtration. If residents have questions concerning the contaminated water supply, they are
referred to the Wisconsin Department of Health for additional information about potential health effects.
Both the influent water characteristics and water usage at a specific site are considered when
deciding what size POE GAC unit to install. For low concentrations of TCE and TCA (11-12 ug/L and
15-16 ug/L, respectively) at normal-sized households (six or fewer people), the smaller unit is installed.
In cases where the contaminant levels are higher (>12 ug/L for TCE and >16 ug/L for TCA) or water
usage is greater (e.g., nearby businesses), the larger unit is installed. In order to complete the
installations, the vendor was required to have Wisconsin Restricted Appliances Journeyman Plumber
certification or greater. A cartridge-type pre-filter for iron and/or sediment removal is installed on some
units, depending on the characteristics of the influent water quality. Sediment filters are required more
frequently than iron filters, due to the town's raw water characteristics. The subcontractor will change the
filter cartridges during the annual carbon change-out, or on an as-needed basis.
As a permanent solution to the water supply contamination problem, ground water remediation
was initiated. Since that time, the TCE and TCA concentrations in Hudson's wells have steadily
decreased to about 3-4 ng/L. As a result, a less rigorous residential sampling schedule was implemented.
Initially the POE effluent was tested for TCE and TCA on a quarterly schedule, but with State approval
the sampling frequency was reduced to semi-annual testing and eventually, to annual testing as the
concentrations decreased. Concentrations of TCA and TCE in the treated water are currently below the
detection limits of 0.2 |o,g/L and 0.4 ng/L, respectively. Tests are also performed for total coliform
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bacteria at points before and after the filter unit, to determine if bacterial growth is occurring in the GAC
media. All samples are processed by a certified laboratory.
One unconfirmed instance of TCE breakthrough was detected at a household POE unit in the
initial years of operation, but no additional breakthroughs have been detected since then. Rather than re-
sampling and confirming the single instance of breakthrough, the media was changed out.
The carbon is replaced in all of the POE GAC units on an annual or biennial cycle, depending on
water usage. During change-outs the carbon in both tanks is replaced simultaneously to avoid potential
bacterial growth in the filter media. The spent carbon from the households is taken to a holding facility
and then trucked to a regeneration facility, where it is re-activated for other purposes. Regenerated
carbon is not used in Hudson's POE GAC units.
The vendor bills maintenance and carbon replacement appointments at two different rates. A
lower rate is charged if the call can be completed during the day, and a higher rate (by at least 10 percent)
is charged if the call must be completed in the evening or on a Saturday. Scheduling appointments to gain
access to the POE units can be difficult at times, but generally runs smoothly.
Some minor technical issues have been encountered with the operation of the POE GAC units.
Some customers complain about pressure drops in their taps, and during the summer condensation may
cause water to collect beneath the GAC tanks. In addition, residents with swimming pools are reluctant to
fill them with the POE treated water, and some have tried installing bypasses before the treatment unit to
fill the pool with untreated water. However, these bypasses are highly discouraged because of liability
issues.
7.7 Radium Treatment: Illinois EPA Study (POE CX)
This case study is summarized from a presentation given by Selburg at the NSF International and
the Center for Public Health Education Conference on Public Water System Compliance Using Point-of-
Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment Technologies (Selburg, 2003). In this project, which is currently in the
planning stages, POE CX will be evaluated as a compliance option for radium removal for small systems.
The objectives of this project are:
• To determine how many samples and homes with softeners are needed to demonstrate
hardness as a surrogate indicator for radium concentration;
• To determine how many homes are needed to demonstrate the effectiveness of softeners
for radium removal; and
• To determine how many radiological samples are needed to verify that the public health
protection provided by POE CX treatment for radium is equivalent to that provided by
central treatment.
Several criteria have been set in order for this study to proceed. First, 100 percent participation
by homeowners in the community is required. Second, in accordance with SDWA, the water system must
be totally responsible for all aspects of the operation. In addition, only POE units will be allowed in the
study.
One CWS will be selected for the pilot study, though other interested systems will be allowed to
participate in the project after the first quarter of the pilot study has been completed. Before the pilot
study begins, the selected water system must work with regulatory authorities and a consultant to develop
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technical provisions for the pilot study and timeliness and dates for a compliance agreement. The
selected water system must also submit plan documents, the compliance agreement, an operating plan, a
contractor agreement, and any other related documents to the Illinois EPA for review. The Illinois EPA
will then draft a permit and review all documentation with EPA Region 5. After the permit has been
issued, the pilot study may begin.
In the first phase of the pilot test, one POE CX unit will be installed in a residence and samples
will be collected once per month for two months. Each sample will be analyzed for hardness, gross alpha,
and combined radium. If the results from both months are satisfactory, the second phase of the pilot study
will begin with the installation of additional POE CX units in 11 other homes served by the water system.
Hardness will be monitored at least quarterly in all 12 homes during the second phase of the pilot test to
verify hardness as a surrogate indicator for radium. Four homes will also be selected for collection of
four quarterly radium samples for compositing. The four-quarter composite and the samples that are
collected at the end of the second quarter will be analyzed for gross alpha and combined radium. If the
results of this sampling are satisfactory, the operational practices will also be considered satisfactory.
During the second and third years of operation, quarterly hardness monitoring will be continued
in all 12 of the pilot homes. Two of these homes will also be selected for collection of four quarterly
samples for compositing. These composite samples will be analyzed for gross alpha and combined
radium. At the end of the three-year study, a follow-up report will be prepared by the Illinois EPA to
discuss the findings and evaluate the use of hardness as an indicator for radium.
Based on the hardness and radium data from pilot testing, a hardness indicator level correlating to
combined radium exceeding 5 pCi/L will be selected for each participating CWS. This hardness indicator
level will be incorporated as a permit condition for the system. When full-scale operations have begun,
POE units must be serviced if the hardness exceeds the trigger level. After a unit is serviced, a sample
will be collected and analyzed for hardness, gross alpha, and combined radium. No further radionuclide
monitoring will be required if the gross alpha and combined radium are less than the MCLs. However, if
the gross alpha or combined radium exceeds the MCL, quarterly monitoring will be required for the unit
with continued servicing. If the unit continues to exceed the MCL after one year of quarterly monitoring,
the CWS will be considered out of compliance. In addition, if the gross alpha or combined radium
samples from any unit exceed a level four times greater than the MCL at any time, the CWS will be
considered out of compliance. In either situation, the system must issue public notification and take
whatever actions the State deems necessary. If the hardness trigger level is exceeded more than once at
the same CWS, the problem will be evaluated by the Illinois EPA and EPA Region 5 to determine the
appropriate testing and remedy. If the hardness trigger level is exceeded repeatedly by a single POE CX
device or within a single CWS, resin change-out or radium testing will be required unless other actions
are determined by the regulatory authorities to be more appropriate.
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7.8 References
Abdo, G.N., BJ. Keller, and G. Rupp. March 2000. Ion Exchange Studied for Copper Removal at Point-
of-use. Water Technology, pp. 108-112.
Alberts, R. and M. Peterson. 2000. Wattenburg Improvement Association Nitrate Removal Pilot Project
- Preliminary Point of Use Filter Evaluation. Prepared for Wattenburg Improvement Association, Fort
Lupton, CO.
Anklam, J. 2001. Personal communication.
Bellen, G. February 2003. Centrally Managed POU Treatment for Compliance with the Arsenic Rule.
Presented at the NSF International and the Center for Public Health Education Conference on Public
Water System Compliance Using Point-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment Technologies. Orlando, FL.
Bellen G. August 2004. Personal communication.
Bellen, G., M. Anderson, and R. Cottier. 1985. Final Report: Management of Point-of-Use Drinking
Water Treatment Systems. National Sanitation Foundation for EPA, Cincinnati, OH. Cooperative
Agreement #R809248010.
Bianchin, S. October 6-8, 1987. Point-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment Devices Used at Superfund
Sites to Remediate Contaminated Drinking Water. Proceedings of the Conference on Point-of-Use
Treatment of Drinking Water. Cincinnati, OH.
Clifford, D. and E. Rosenblum. 1982. The Equilibrium Arsenic Capacity of Activated Alumina. U.S.
EPA, Cincinnati, OH. Cooperative Agreement CR-807939-02.
EPA. 2004. EPA's Arsenic Rule Web Cast Written Transcript. December 1, 2004.
www.epa.gov/safewater/ars/pdfs/webcast-04_arsenic_transcript.pdf.
Fox, K. February 1989. Field Experience with Point-of-Use Treatment Systems for Arsenic Removal.
Journal AWWA.
Fox, K. and T. Sorg. October 1987. Controlling Arsenic, Fluoride, and Uranium by Point-of-Use
Treatment. Journal AWWA.
Guercia, S. November 2001. Secondwind Environmental. Personal communication.
Jones, M. May-June 2001. Environmental Office of Naval Air Station Fallon. Personal communication.
Kinner, N., J. Malley, J. Clement, and K. Fox. June 1993. Using POE Techniques to Remove Radon.
Journal AWWA.
Kunesh, T. June 2003. Whatcom County Health Department, Washington. Personal communication.
Lowry, J.D., S.B. Lowry, and J.K. Cline. January 1989. Radon Removal by POE GAC Systems: Design,
Performance, and Cost. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH. Contract
No. 8C6155TTST.
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Lykins Jr., B.W., R. Astle, J.L. Schlafer, and P.E. Shanaghan. November 1995. Reducing Fluoride by
Managed POU Treatment. Journal AWWA.
Lykins Jr., B.W., R.M. Clark, andJ.A. Goodrich. 1992. Point-of-use /Point-of-entry for Drinking Water
Treatment. Lewis Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI.
Maher, W. November 2001. Maher Water Corporation. Personal communication.
Manley, D. June 2001. Housing Office of Naval Air Station Fallon. Personal communication.
Mazanek, T. July 2003. Environmental Office of Naval Air Station Fallon. Personal communication.
Messina, R. December 2001. Personal communication.
Narasimhan. R. 2005. POU/POE Feasibility Study for Arsenic Treatment. AWWARF Project 2730.
Chapters 2, 4. Order Number 91083F
Pasteros, C. November 2001. Personal communication.
Rogers, K. November 1988. Point-of-Use Treatment of Drinking Water in San Ysidro, NM. U.S. EPA
DWRD, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, CR-812499-01.
Rogers, K. March 1990. Project Summary: Point-of-Use Treatment of Drinking Water in San Ysidro,
NM. U.S. EPA, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH. EPA/600/S2-89/050.
Selburg, R.D. February 13-14, 2003. Illinois EPA - Point of Entry Treatment Program. Presented at the
NSF International and the Center for Public Health Education Conference on Public Water System
Compliance Using Point-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Treatment Technologies. Orlando, FL.
Theis, J. November, 2002. EPA Region 8. Personal communication.
Theis, J. June 2003. EPA Region 8. Personal communication.
Thieleman, J. October 2001. Personal communication.
Thomas, C. August 2005. Personal communication with Blake Atkins of EPA Region 6.
Thomson, B., K. Fox, and M. O'Grady. June 12, 2000. Arsenic Removal by Point-of-use Treatment
Systems at San Ysidro, New Mexico. Presented at the AWWA Annual Conference. Denver, CO.
Thomson, B. and M. O'Grady. February 1998. Evaluation of Point-of-use Water Treatment Systems, San
Ysidro, New Mexico. Report to U.S. EPA (Contract No. 2C1102NTEX).
Werner, T. October 2001. Personal communication.
Werner, T. June 2002. Personal communication.
Werner, T. June 2003. Personal communication.
7-37
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Appendix A
Small System Compliance Technologies
Exhibit A.1: Small System Compliance Technologies (SSCTs)1 for Arsenic2 (40
CFR141.62(d)
SSCT
Activated alumina (centralized)
Activated alumina (POU)4
Coagulation/filtration5
Coagulation-assisted microfiltration
Electrodialysis reversal6
Enhanced coagulation/filtration
Enhanced lime softening (pH>10.5)
Ion exchange
Lime softening5
Oxidation/filtration7
Reverse osmosis (centralized)6
Reverse osmosis (POU)4
Affordable for listed small system categories3
All size categories
All size categories
501-3,300; 3,301-10,000
501-3,300; 3,301-10,000
501-3,300; 3,301-10,000
All size categories
All size categories
All size categories
501-3,300; 3,301-10,000
All size categories
501-3,300; 3,301-10,000
All size categories
Section 1412(b) (4) (E) (ii) of SDWA specifies that SSCTs must be affordable and technically
feasible for small systems.
2SSCTs for arsenic V. Pre-oxidation may be required to convert arsenic III to arsenic V.
3The Act specifies three categories of small systems: (i) those serving 25 or more, but fewer than
501, (ii) those serving more than 500, but fewer than 3,301, and (iii) those serving more than 3,300, but
fewer than 10,001.
4When POU or POE devices are used for compliance, programs to ensure proper long-term
operation, maintenance, and monitoring must be provided by the water system to ensure adequate
performance.
5Unlikely to be installed solely for arsenic removal. May require pH adjustment to optimal range
if high removals are needed.
technologies reject a large volume of water—may not be appropriate for areas where water
quantity may be an issue.
7To obtain high removals, the iron-to-arsenic ratio must be at least 20:1.
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Exhibit A.2: Best Available Technologies for Radionuclides (40 CFR 141.66(g),
142.65(a)(2))
Contaminant
Combined radium-226 and radium 228
Uranium
Gross alpha particle activity (excluding radon and
uranium)
Beta particle and photon radioactivity
Best Available Technology
Ion exchange, reverse osmosis, lime softening
Ion exchange, reverse osmosis, lime softening,
coagulation/filtration
Reverse osmosis
Ion exchange, reverse osmosis
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Exhibit A.3: List of SSCTs for Radionuclides and Limitations to Use (40 CFR
141.66(h), 142.65(a)
Unit Technologies
1 . Ion exchange
2. POU Ion exchange
3. Reverse osmosis
4. POU reverse osmosis
5. Lime softening
6. Green sand filtration
7. Co-precipitation with barium
sulfate
8. Electrodialysis/ electrodialysis
reversal
9. Preformed hydrous manganese
oxide filtration
10. Activated alumina
11. Enhanced coagulation
Limitations
(See Notes)
a
b
c
b
d
e
f
-
g
a, h
i
Operator Skill Level
Required
Intermediate
Basic
Advanced
Basic
Advanced
Basic
Intermediate to
Advanced
Basic to Intermediate
Intermediate
Advanced
Advanced
Raw Water Quality Range
and Considerations
All ground waters
All ground waters
Surface waters usually
require prefiltration
Surface waters usually
require prefiltration
All waters
Ground waters with suitable
water quality
All ground waters
All ground waters
All ground waters
All ground waters; competing
anion concentrations may
affect regeneration frequency
Can treat a wide range of
water qualities
a. The regeneration solution contains high concentrations of the contaminant ions. Disposal options
should be carefully considered before choosing this technology.
b. When POU devices are used for compliance, programs for long-term operation, maintenance, and
monitoring must be provided by the water utility to ensure proper performance.
c. Reject water disposal options should be carefully considered before choosing this technology.
d. The combination of variable source water quality and the complexity of the water chemistry involved
may make this technology too complex for small surface water systems.
e. Removal efficiencies can vary depending on water quality.
f. This technology may be very limited in application to small systems. Since the process requires static
mixing, detention basins, and filtration, it is most applicable to systems with sufficiently high sulfate
levels that already have a suitable filtration treatment train in place.
g. This technology is most applicable to small systems that already have filtration in place.
h. Handling of chemicals required during regeneration and pH adjustment may be too difficult for small
systems without an adequately trained operator.
i. Assumes modification to a coagulation/filtration process already in place.
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Exhibit A.4: Compliance Technologies by System Size Category for
Radionuclides (40 CFR 141.66(h), 142.65(a))
Contaminant
Combined radium-226
and radium-228
Gross alpha particle
activity
Beta particle activity and
photon activity
Uranium
Compliance Technologies for System Size Categories1
25-500
1-9
3,4
1-4
1,2,4,10, 11
501-3,300
1-9
3,4
1-4
1-5,10, 11
3,301-10,000
1-9
3,4
1-4
1-5, 10, 11
lumbers correspond to those technologies listed in Exhibit A.2.
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Appendix B. Potential Funding Sources for the Implementation
of a POU or POE Compliance Strategy
Funding for PWS improvements, such as the installation of POU and POE treatment devices for
compliance with an MCL, can be obtained by applying for loans or grants. Also, some manufacturers and
dealers may provide financing options. A table summarizing available funding sources and contact
information can be found in Exhibit B. 1. More detailed information on funding and funding sources can
be found on EPA's website http://www.epa.gov/efinpage/.
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Exhibit B.1: Funding Sources.
Name of Program
Limitations
Contact Information
Drinking Water State
Revolving Fund
(DWSRF)
System must demonstrate adequate technical, financial, and managerial
capacity
System can not be in significant noncompliance, unless funding will ensure
compliance
Loans will not be provided for O&M expenses
Lab fees for monitoring may not be financed with a DWSRF loan
Standard loan term: 20 years (term may be extended to 30 years in some
States for economically disadvantaged communities)
Additional State-specific requirements
State website, State DWSRF Program Manager, or
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwsrf/contacts.html
Rural Utilities Service
Water and Waste
Disposal Loan and
Grant Program
Project may not service > 10,000 people
Private, for-profit systems not eligible
Grants provided only to reduce user charges to reasonable level in
communities where the service area median household income falls below
poverty level or 80% of the State non-metropolitan median household
income (whichever is higher)
Grants limited to 70% of eligible costs
State Rural Development Office or
http://www.usda.gov/rus/water/prog.htm
Community
Development Block
Grants
Average income of community may not exceed Department of Housing and
Urban Development's Section 8 low-income limit for metropolitan areas, or
80% of the State or county MHI for non-metropolitan areas
State Community Development Block Grants
Program Office
Public Works and
Infrastructure
Development Grants
Grants normally limited to 50% of eligible costs
Under conditions of severe distress, grant funding may cover 80% of project
costs
Regional Economic Development Administration
Office
Rural Community
Assistance
Corporation
Eligibility limited to communities in 11 "western" States
Project may not service > 20,000 people
Assistance limited to rural utilities
Maximum loan term: 25 years
Rural Community Assistance Corporation online at
http://www.rcac.org/programs/serv-financial.html
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Appendix C. Model Ordinance Language
for a System Implementing a POU or POE Compliance Strategy
Following is an example ordinance systems may want to use in order to grant the PWS the ability
to implement a POU or POE treatment strategy. The ordinance also grants the PWS the ability to access
private dwellings for installation, monitoring, maintenance, and other activities related to POU and POE
devices. This example ordinance was drafted to be overly inclusive in order to cover situations that could
arise due to the implementation of a POU or POE treatment strategy. Some sections may not apply to
specific systems because of current service agreements; specific administrative or legal process
requirements; or other geographic, political, or financial constraints. Water systems should amend and
adapt this model to meet their particular needs. Water systems should seek legal assistance prior to
preparing an ordinance based on this model.
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Model Ordinance
Section 1. Introduction
1. In accordance with the federal Safe Drinking Water Act and State drinking water regulations,
INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEMmust minimize contamination in drinking water.
It is the intent of the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM to accomplish this through
the installation and operation oflNSERT TYPE OF TREATMENT UNIT THAT WILL BE
INSTALLED which INSERT NAME OF BODY PASSING THE ORDINANCE has decided is the
most protective and cost efficient way to meet drinking water standards.
Section 2. Purpose and Intent
2.1 The INSERT NAME OF BODY PASSING THE ORDINANCE is passing this ordinance in order to
comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act, State drinking water regulations, and to protect the
health of the consumers of water supplied by the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM.
2.2 The specific purposes of this Ordinance are:
2.2.1 To require the installation of INSERT TYPE OF TREATMENT UNIT THAT WILL BE
INSTALLED to improve the quality of drinking water.
2.2.2 To minimize INSERT TYPE OF CONTAMINATION THAT TREATMENT UNITS WILL
REMOVE in drinking water supplied by INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM.
2.2.3 To provide for an operation, maintenance, and monitoring program for INSERT TYPE OF
TREATMENT UNIT that will be installed as part of this Ordinance.
Section 3. Applicability
This ordinance applies to all customers connected to the INSERT NAME PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM and
all customers who connect to the INSERT NAME PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM m the future.
Section 4. Authority and Effective Date
INSERT NAME OF BODY PASSING THE ORDINANCE is authorized under INSERT BODY OF LAW
PROVIDING JURISDICTION to adopt this ordinance.
This ordinance becomes effective immediately upon adoption.
Section 5. Definitions
5.1 Building means a combination of any materials, whether portable or fixed, having a roof to form
a structure for the shelter of persons, animals, or property.
5.2 Consumer means any person, corporation, or other entity using or receiving water from the
INSERT NAME PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM.
5.3 Customer means any purchaser or buyer of water from the INSERT NAME PUBLIC WATER
SYSTEM.
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5.4 Dwelling Unit means a house or other structure in which a person or persons live.
5.5 Non-Residential User is defined as a user of water provided by the INSERT NAME P UBLIC
WATER SYSTEM for purposes other than personal consumption. Such purposes may include, but
are not limited to, resale, as a component or ingredient in other products designed for resale or
service to the public, or otherwise providing water directly or indirectly to a person for the
purposes of consumption.
5.6 Owner of the Premises includes the legal owners, their agents, or authorized representatives.
5.7 Person means a human being, partnerships, associations, corporations, legal representatives, or
trustees.
5.8 Potable Water means any water supply intended or used for human consumption or other
domestic use.
5.9 Premises means any real property to which water is provided, including all improvements,
buildings, dwelling units, mobile homes, and other structures located on it.
5.10 Residential User is defined as any person occupying a dwelling unit receiving water from the
INSERT NAME PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM for the purpose of personal consumption.
5.11 Service Connection is the point of delivery at which the INSERT NAME PUBLIC WATER
SYSTEM connects to the private supply line.
5.12 Structure means anything constructed or erected, the use of which requires a fixed location on
the ground or attached to something located on the ground.
5.13 Tap means any faucet, spigot, or fountain that supplies water for consumption by drinking or
cooking (including ice).
5.14 Treatment Unit includes any device installed by the INSERT NAME PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM
to treat water as well as any associated equipment or devices, including separate taps, storage
tanks, and bypass valves.
5.15 Water Supplier means INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM, its employees, agents,
and authorized representatives.
Section 6. Residential Users
6.1 Installation
6.1.1 The owner of the premises or residential users will allow the Water Supplier to install
INSERT TYPE OF TREATMENT UNIT and all ancillary equipment needed for the proper
operation of the treatment units.
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6.1.2 A treatment unit will be installed on a separate tap next to the kitchen tap to be used for
drinking and cooking water (or INSERT TAPS THAT WILL BE TREATED].
6.1.3 Treatment units will be installed by a properly trained and certified person. All units will
be installed in accordance with State and local codes, if any, and in accordance with the
manufacturer's specifications.
6.1.4 Title to the treatment units remains with the Water Supplier. While in effect, this
Ordinance shall run with the land and shall be enforceable on all parties having or
acquiring any right, title, or interest in any dwelling unit.
6.2 Maintenance
6.2.1 The Water Supplier will maintain the treatment units. Maintenance may include, but is
not limited to: any required repair to, or replacement of a treatment unit; any sampling of
a treatment unit or the water a treatment unit is treating; or any action deemed necessary
by the Water Supplier for the on-going proper operation of a treatment unit.
6.2.1.1 All maintenance will be conducted by a properly trained and
certified person.
6.2.2 Regular Maintenance. The owner of the premises or residential users will provide the
Water Supplier access to the treatment units on a regular basis so that the Water Supplier
can maintain the treatment units.
6.2.2.1 The Water Supplier will periodically notify the owner of the premises or
residential users of the intention to provide maintenance to a treatment unit.
Notification will be provided in the water bill (or INSERT OTHER MEANS OF
NOTIFICATION).
6.2.2.2 Regular maintenance will be provided during normal business hours or as
arranged between the Water Supplier and Residential User. Sampling will occur
approximately every INSERT TIME FRAME FOR SAMPLING IN
ACCORDANCE WITH FEDERAL AND STATE REGULATIONS AND
MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS.
6.2.2.3 In the event that the owner of the premises or the residential users will not be
able to provide access to a treatment unit on the date and time specified in the
notification, the residential user will schedule an alternative time with the Water
Supplier.
6.2.3 Emergency Repairs or Replacement. Residential users must provide access to the
treatment units for emergency or unexpected repairs or replacements. Refusal to allow
entry may result in termination of service in accordance with Section 8 of this Ordinance.
6.2.4 Residential users must notify the Water Supplier of any observed leaks or defects
immediately. The Water Supplier shall arrange to repair the leak or other defect within
INSERT REPAIR TIME FRAME (i.e., two consecutive calendar days upon receipt of
notice, four business days from receiving notice, etc.)
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6.2.5 The owner of the premises and residential users shall not adjust, modify, repair, replace,
remove, disconnect, bypass, or otherwise tamper with a treatment unit.
6.2.5.1 Customers shall pay the Water Supplier for any costs incurred due to the owner
of the premises or the residential user adjusting, modifying, by-passing,
tampering with, or removing a treatment unit or any ancillary equipment.
6.2.6 INSERT ANY MAINTENANCE CONDITION SPECIFIC TO THE TYPE OF
TREATMENT UNIT INSTALLED. FOR EXAMPLE, "RESIDENTIAL USERS SHALL
ENSURE THAT THE TREATMENT UNIT REMAINS PL UGGED INTO AN
OPERATIONAL OUTLET."
Section 7. Non-Residential Users
7.1 Installation
7.1.1 The owner of the premises or non-residential users will allow the Water Supplier to
install INSERT TYPE OF TREATMENT UNIT and all ancillary equipment needed for the
proper operation of the treatment units.
7.1.2 Treatment units will be installed on locations with separate taps designated for drinking
water.
7.1.3 Treatment units will be installed by a properly trained and certified person. All units will
be installed in accordance with State and local codes, if any, and in accordance with the
manufacturer's specifications.
7.1.4 Title to the treatment units remains with the Water Supplier. While in effect, this
Ordinance shall run with the land and shall be enforceable on all parties having or
acquiring any right, title, or interest in any premises.
7.2 Maintenance
7.2.1 The Water Supplier will maintain the treatment units. Maintenance may include, but is
not limited to: any required repair to, or replacement of a treatment unit; any sampling of
a treatment unit or the water a treatment unit is treating; or any action deemed necessary
by the Water Supplier for the on-going proper operation of a treatment unit.
7.2.1.1 All maintenance will be conducted by a properly trained and certified person.
7.2.2 Regular Maintenance. The owner of the premises or non-residential users will provide
the Water Supplier access to the treatment units on a regular basis so that the Water
Supplier can maintain the treatment units.
7.2.2.1 The Water Supplier will periodically notify the owner of the premises, his agent,
his authorized representative, or the non-residential users of the intention to
provide maintenance to a treatment unit. Notification will be provided in the
monthly water bill (or INSERT OTHERMEANS OF NOTIFICATION).
7.2.2.2 Regular maintenance will be provided during normal business hours or as
arranged between the Water Supplier and owner of the premises. Sampling will
occur approximately every INSERT TIME FRAME FOR SAMPLING IN
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ACCORDANCE WITH FEDERAL AND STATE REGULATIONS AND
MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATIONS.
7.2.2.3 In the event that the owner of the premises or non-residential users will not be
able to provide access to a treatment unit on the date and time specified in the
notification, the owner of the premises or the non-residential users will schedule
an alternative time with the Water Supplier.
7.2.3 Emergency Repairs or Replacement. The non-residential users must provide access to
the treatment units for emergency or unexpected repairs or replacements. Refusal to
allow entry may result in termination of service in accordance with Section 8 of this
Ordinance.
7.2.4 In the event that a leak or other defect is detected, the non-residential user will: notify the
Water Supplier at INSERT TELEPHONE NUMBER within 24 hours of noticing the leak
or other defect and follow all directions given by the Water Supplier. The Water Supplier
shall arrange to repair the leak or other defect within INSERT REPAIR TIME FRAME
(i.e., two consecutive calendar days upon receipt of notice, four business days from
receiving notice, etc.)
7.2.5 The owner of the premises and the non-residential user shall not adjust, modify, repair,
replace, remove, disconnect, bypass, or otherwise tamper with a treatment unit.
7.2.5.1 The Customer shall pay the Water Supplier for any costs incurred due to the
adjusting, modifying, by-passing, tampering with, or removing a treatment unit
or any ancillary equipment.
7.2.6 INSERT ANY MAINTENANCE CONDITION SPECIFIC TO THE TYPE OF
TREATMENT UNIT INSTALLED. FOR EXAMPLE, "NON-RESIDENTIAL USERS
SHALL ENSURE THAT THE TREATMENT UNIT REMAINS PLUGGED INTO AN
OPERATIONAL OUTLET."
Section 8. Emergency Suspension of Utility Service
8.1 The Water Supplier may, without prior notice, suspend water service to any premises when such
suspension is necessary to prevent or stop an actual or threatened imminent and substantial
danger to the Water Supplier's public water supply.
8.2 The Water Supplier may, without prior notice, suspend water service to any premises when such
suspension is necessary to prevent or stop an actual or threatened imminent and substantial
danger to the environment or to the health or welfare of any person.
8.3 As soon as practicable after the emergency suspension of service, the Water Supplier will notify
Customers of the suspension. Notice will be provided in person or by certified mail, return
receipt requested.
8.4 The Water Supplier will not reinstate service until the actual or threatened danger has been
eliminated and its cause determined and corrected.
8.4.1 The Customer shall pay the Water Supplier for any costs incurred for suspending service:
responding to, eliminating, determining the cause of, and correcting actual or threatened
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dangers; and reinstating service, if the actual or threatened danger was caused by persons
other than the Water Supplier.
Section 9. Non-Emergency Suspension of Utility Service
9.1 The Water Supplier may terminate, after notice and opportunity for a hearing, the water service of
any Customer who:
Fails or refuses to allow the installation of treatment units as required by this Ordinance.
Fails or refuses to allow the Water Supplier access to the premises to conduct regular or
emergency maintenance.
Adjusts, modifies, repairs, replaces, removes, disconnects, bypasses, or otherwise
tampers with a treatment unit without prior written permission from the Water Supplier.
9.2 Except in accordance with Section 8 of this Ordinance, the Water Supplier will notify the
Customer of the proposed termination of water service at least 30 days before the proposed
termination. Notice will be provided in person or by certified mail, return receipt requested.
9.2.1 The Customer may request a hearing on the proposed termination by filing a written
request for a hearing with the Water Supplier, not more than 10 consecutive calendar
days after receipt of notice of the proposed termination.
9.3 If water service is terminated, the Water Supplier will not reinstate water service until the
Customer and owner of the premises allows for the installation of treatment units.
9.3.1 The Customer and the owner of the premises must enter into a written agreement to allow
the Water Supplier access to the premises to conduct regular or emergency maintenance.
9.4 The Customer shall pay all costs incurred by the Water Supplier to reinstate service.
Section 10. Installation and Maintenance Charges
10.1 Customers may be charged INSERT COST OF INSTALLATION for the installation of a treatment
unit. Customers may be charged in equal increments every month for one year.
10.1.1 Customers may be charged for all costs incurred by the Water Supplier to make any
required modifications to existing plumbing in order to install the treatment unit.
Customers may be charged in equal increments every month for one year.
10.2 Customers may be charged a monthly maintenance charge of INSERT MONTHLY
MAINTENANCE CHARGE for as long as the treatment unit remains installed on the premises.
10.3 Any installation and maintenance charges collected by the Water Supplier shall be deposited in
the operating budget of the Water Supplier. Such funds shall be used for the purchase of new
treatment units and to help defray the costs associated with purchasing, installing, maintaining,
and removing the treatment units.
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10.4 The INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM reserves the right to increase or decrease the
installation and maintenance charges as deemed appropriate through an amendment to this
ordinance.
Section 11. Enforcement
11.1 All users of water supplied by the Water Supplier shall abide by the provisions of this Ordinance
and any such rules, regulations, and ordinances promulgated for the improvement and
maintenance of the quality of the water intended for human consumption supplied by the Water
Supplier.
11.2 Failure to abide by the provision of this Ordinance may result in the termination of service as
described in Section 8 or 9 or in the imposition of service charges.
11.2.1 The Water Supplier may charge the customer INSERT AMOUNT OF SERVICE
CHARGE FOR EACH FAILURE for failure to allow access for the installation of the
treatment unit.
11.2.2 The Water Supplier may charge the customer INSERT AMOUNT OF SERVICE
CHARGE FOR EACH FAILURE for failure to allow access for the maintenance of the
treatment unit.
11.2.3 In the event that the Customer, owner of the premises, residential user, or non-residential
user fails to allow access to the premises for the purpose of removing the treatment unit,
the Water Supplier may apply to the INSERT CO URT OF JURISDICTION Ce.s., District
Court, County Sheriff) for an order permitting entry onto the premises and for the
removal of the treatment unit.
11.3 Any service charges imposed and collected by the Water Supplier shall be deposited in the
operating budget of the Water Supplier. Such funds shall be used for the purchase of new
treatment units and to help defray the costs associated with purchasing, installing, maintaining,
and removing the treatment units.
11.4 The INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM reserves the right to increase or decrease the
service charges as deemed appropriate through an amendment to this ordinance.
Section 12. Liability
12.1 The Customer, owner of the premises, residential user, and non-residential user shall indemnify
and hold harmless the Water Supplier for any injury or damage which may occur as a result of:
1. The installation, maintenance, operation, sampling, monitoring, or removal of a
treatment unit.
2. The adjusting, modifying, repairing, replacing, removing, disconnecting,
bypassing, or otherwise tampering with a treatment unit.
3. The failure to inspect, detect, and report, in accordance with the Ordinance, any
leaks or other defects which could have reasonably been detected by the required
inspection.
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12.2 The Customer or the owner of the premises shall be liable for any damage to a treatment unit
resulting from fire, theft, or impact. Note that the water system may wish to obtain the advice of
local legal counsel before including this provision.
Section 13. Severability
13.1 If any provision or provisions of this Ordinance is held to be invalid, illegal, unenforceable or in
conflict with the law of any jurisdiction, the validity, legality and enforceability of the remaining
provisions shall not in any way be affected or impaired thereby.
Adopted this day of by the INSERT NAME OF BODY PASSING THE
ORDINANCE.
Authorized Signatory
Witness
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Appendix D. Sample Access and Maintenance Agreement
Following is an example access and maintenance agreement that may be needed between the
PWS and homeowners. Water systems should amend this agreement to meet their particular needs.
Water systems should seek legal assistance prior to preparing an agreement based on this model.
INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM has decided to install INSERT TYPE OFPOUORPOE
TREATMENT DEVICE to treat for INSERT CONTAMINANTYS) BEING REMOVED.
We have chosen to use this treatment technology as an effective means of removing this type of
contamination from our drinking water in a cost-efficient manner. Installation of this technology will
help to ensure the delivery of safe water to your home or business. Failure to properly operate and
maintain these units may produce water with new or higher levels of contamination.
The undersigned are the current legal owners of, and can provide access to, the following property:
2
The undersigned agree:
1. To allow the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM , its employees,
authorized representatives, and others under agreement with the INSERT NAME OF
PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM . to enter the aforementioned property to:
a. Install, replace, maintain, or remove the treatment unit and any ancillary
equipment.
b. Maintain the treatment unit and any ancillary equipment. Maintenance may
include periodic testing of the unit as well as the collection of samples. Any
maintenance, testing, or sample collection will occur during normal business
hours or as arranged between the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM
and property owner:
2. To not adjust, modify, tamper with, bypass, or remove the treatment unit or any ancillary
equipment.
3. To, within a reasonable period of time, notify the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER
SYSTEM of:
2 Insert a description of the property here. This description should include the full address and, if
known, the legal description provided in land records (e.g., Map 52, Parcel 40, Town X). Ensure that the
undersigned owns the structure (e.g., house, business, office, other building) and not just the land that the
structure is on.
3 Insert a description of the frequency of sampling and maintenance activities (e.g., the first of
each month, once per calendar quarter, twice a year, etc.)
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a. Any problems, concerns, or questions concerning the treatment unit or any
ancillary equipment.
b. The rental, lease, sale, or other transfer of the aforementioned property.
4. To indemnify and hold harmless the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER
SYSTEM for any injury or damage which may occur as a result of the installation,
maintenance, operation, monitoring, or removal of the treatment unit or any ancillary
equipment.
All equipment shall remain the property of the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM. The
undersigned agree to reimburse the INSERT NAME OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM for any costs
incurred because the undersigned adjusted, modified, bypassed, tampered with, or removed the treatment
unit or any ancillary equipment.
This agreement remains in effect: .4
While in effect, this agreement shall run with the land and shall be binding on all parties having or
acquiring any right, title, or interest in the property described herein.
This written permission is given by the undersigned voluntarily with knowledge of legal rights and
without threat or promise of any kind.
Owners: Witnesses:
Name Date Name Date
Name Date Name Date
4 Insert the length of time that the agreement is to remain in effect. For example, "for a period of
one year from the date of installation; until the Public Water System determines that the treatment system
is no longer necessary, or until the treatment unit is removed from the property."
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Appendix E. Sample Monitoring Log for POU or POE Devices
Following is a sample monitoring log systems may find useful to track monitoring of POU and
POE devices throughout the system. Both a completed example log and blank log are provided. Systems
should contact their State to see if this reporting form is acceptable. This log can also be modified to be
used on an individual unit basis.
Example Monitoring Log
System Name: Valley Water System
Type of POU or POE Device: RO units with pre and post GAG cartridges.
Sample
Date
4/4/04
4/4/04
4/4/04
4/4/04
5/10/04
5/10/04
5/10/04
5/10/04
Location
11 11 Home St.
Location #3
2222 State St.
Location # 7
3333 Main St.
Location #10
44 College St.
Location #18
122 Home St.
Location #2
223 State St.
Location #8
334 Main St.
Location #12
85 College St.
Location #25
Contaminant(s)
Monitored
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic
Certified Lab or
Field Test Kit
Certified Lab
Certified Lab
Certified Lab
Certified Lab
Certified Lab
Certified Lab
Certified Lab
Certified Lab
Results
0.004 mg/L
0.003 mg/L
0.004 mg/L
0.070 mg/L
0.005 mg/L
0.004 mg/L
0.006 mg/L
0.005 mg/L
Notes
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator. The
unit was replaced
within 24 hours of
receiving sample
results. New RO unit
was resampled after
installation and arsenic
was 0.003 mg/L.
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator
Sample taken by J.
Smith, Operator
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Monitoring Log
System Name
Type of POU or POE Device.
Sample
Date
Location
Contaminant(s)
Monitored
Certified Lab
or Field Test
Kit
Results
Notes
E-2
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Appendix F. Sample Maintenance Log for POU or POE Devices
This appendix contains a sample maintenance log systems may find useful to track maintenance
of POU and POE devices. The sample maintenance log is designed to be used for each individual POU or
POE device to allow the system to track maintenance at each individual unit. Maintenance logs are
important since they will provide information on when components were replaced, how often the alarm
was triggered, and if the unit is problematic. Detailed records may be useful to systems to justify to a
vendor that certain devices are not functioning and require replacement. The system will want to keep
these maintenance logs in a central office, have the records located with each individual unit, or both.
Keeping the maintenance logs at the unit location may result in damage to the records and the system may
want to keep copies at a central office.
Following is a completed sample maintenance log and a blank maintenance log that systems may
want to use. Systems should contact their State to see if this reporting form is acceptable for reporting
purposes.
F-l
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Example Maintenance Log
System Name: Valley Water System
Type of POU or POE Device: RO units with pre and post GAG cartridges.
Device Location: 228 State St. Unit #11 Date Installed: 1/5/04
Date and Time
of Service Call
2/5/04
4: 00pm
7/9/05
4:30pm
2/20/05
4: 00pm
6/15/05
12: 00pm
Reason for Service Call
Follow-up installation visit
to inspect all components.
Routine check-up
Routine check-up
Response to call from
customer on 6/14/05 about
water quality concerns
Services Provided
Checked all components
and discussed unit
operation with customer.
Checked all components,
changed out carbon pre-
filter.
Checked all components,
changed out all
cartridges.
Checked all components.
Changed out carbon pre-
filter and took arsenic
sample.
Service
Provider
J. Jones,
Vendor-
providing
services under
contract.
J. Jones,
Vendor
providing
services under
contract.
J. Jones,
Vendor
providing
services under
contract.
J. Smith,
Operator for
system
Notes
Customer
seemed
satisfied with
unit and water
quality and
quantity.
Customer had
no complaints.
Customer had
no complaints.
Arsenic sample
result was
0.004 mg/L.
F-2
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Maintenance Log
System Name:
Type of POU or POE Device:
Device Location:
Date Installed:
Date and Time
of Service Call
Reason for Service
Call
Services Provided
Service
Provider
Notes
F-3
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Appendix G. Sample Public Education Notice for Systems
Using POU Devices for Nitrate Removal
The following page contains a sample public education flyer that can be included in mailings to
customers or posted throughout the service community when POU devices are used for nitrate removal.
Continued public education is important when POU devices are used for nitrate removal to educate the
community on the health risks associated with nitrate, particularly for infants. Systems should check with
their State prior to using this notice to verify whether it is suitable or if additional information should be
included. If necessary, this flyer should also be translated into appropriate languages depending on the
needs of the service community.
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Sample Public Education Flyer for Nitrate
Contamination
Your Tap Water and Point-of-Use Treatment Devices
Why have I received a point-of-use device?
Your water system has installed a point-of-use (POU) treatment device under your kitchen sink
to remove nitrate from your water. Treatment is necessary because nitrate levels in your water
exceed the standard of 10 milligrams per liter. Because centralized treatment at the water
treatment plant is very expensive, your system is instead providing POU devices to all
households and other connections.
What health effects does nitrate have?
Nitrate in drinking water can come from natural,
industrial, or agricultural sources. These include septic
systems and run-off from farms. Nitrate in drinking
water is a serious health concern for infants less than six
months old, because their bodies cannot process nitrates
as well as older children and adults can.
Only water from a tap with
a POU device should be
used to prepare infant
formula, juice, or other
foods for children less than
T , . , , ., , . ., , , . , . six months old.
Infants below the age of six months who drink water
containing nitrate in excess of the limit could become
seriously ill and, if untreated, may die. Symptoms include shortness of breath and blue baby
syndrome. Blue baby syndrome is indicated by blueness of the skin and means that the blood is
unable to absorb oxygen. Symptoms in infants can develop rapidly, with health deteriorating
over a period of days. If symptoms occur, seek medical attention immediately.
What steps should I take?
Use water from the tap with the POU device to prepare infant formula, juice, or other
foods for children less than six months old. Water from other taps in your house is NOT
treated for nitrates; do not use water from those taps to prepare food for infants.
Water from other taps may safely be used for bathing infants. Adults and children older than six
months can drink water from any tap, although use of the tap with the POU device is
recommended.
G-2
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Appendix H. Sample Public Education Notice for Systems
Using POU Devices for Chronic Contaminant Removal
The following page contains a sample public education flyer that can be included in mailings to
customers or posted throughout the service community when POU devices are used for contaminant
removal for contaminants besides nitrate. Continued public education is important when POU devices are
used for nitrate removal to educate the community on the health risks associated with nitrate. Systems
should check with their States prior to using this notice to verify whether it is suitable or if additional
information should be included.
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Sample Public Education Flyer for Chronic
Contaminants
Your Tap Water and Point-of-Use Treatment Devices
Why have I received a point-of-use device?
Your water system has installed a point-of-use (POU) treatment device under your kitchen sink
to remove chronic contaminants from your water. Treatment is necessary because contaminant
levels in your source water exceed an EPA limit. Health effects from chronic contaminants vary
depending on the contaminant but can include things like cancer and liver damage. These health
effects occur only after chronic exposure (drinking the water over many years).
Because centralized treatment at the water treatment plant is very expensive, your system is
instead providing POU devices to all households and buildings. By treating only the water used
for drinking and cooking, the water system can save money and pass the savings on to its
customers.
What steps should I take?
Use water from the tap with the POU device for drinking and cooking. In your kitchen, use
the untreated tap for washing dishes. Water from other taps in your house is NOT treated; do not
use water from those taps for drinking or for brushing teeth. Untreated water may be safely used
for bathing and laundry.
In addition, the water system needs your cooperation to properly maintain the POU device.
Maintenance ensures that the device is working correctly and that your water is safe. Please
allow water system personnel into your home to take water samples or replace devices.
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