W \IH{ 01 HIM ol H< 1
THE IMPACT OF VARIOUS METALS
ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
Rod§rt F. Schneider
TECHNICAL REPORT NUMBER 2
_> C O M P L I• -% , -<
INVESTIGATIONS - DENVER CENTER
DENVER,COLORADO
tLEAi
FEBRUARY 17, 1971
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES ii
SYNOPSIS 1
ARSENIC 1
Water Quality .• 1
Biotic Response ... 2
Standards 2
COPPER 5
Water Quality 5
Biotic Response 5
Standards 6
CADMIUM 6
Water Quality , 6
Biotic Response 9
Standards 9
LEAD 12
Water Quality 12
Biotic Response 12
Standards 12
ZINC 16
Water Quality 16
Biotic Response 17
Standards 17
LITERATURE CITED . 20
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LIST OF TABLES
No. Page
1 Arsenic (As) Concentration (mg/1) 3
2 Copper (Cu) Concentration (mg/1) 7
3 Cadmium (Cd) Concentration (mg/1) 10
4 Lead (Pb) Concentration (mg/1) 13
5 Zinc (Zn) Concentration (mg/1) 18
ii
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THE IMPACT OF VARIOUS HEAVY METALS
ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
SYNOPSIS: A literature review of the effects of arsenic, copper, cadmium,
lead and zinc species on water quality and aquatic biota is presented. Some
synergistic and antagonistic effects are discussed and the existing governmental
standards for these metals are summarized.
ARSENIC (As)
Water Quality
Arsenic is a normal constituent of most soils, with concentrations
ranging up to 500 mg/kg. In its elemental form, arsenic is insoluble in
water, but many of the arsenates are highly soluble. Most, if not all,
natural waters contain arsenic compounds. Its natural occurrence is very
common in the freshwater of the western United States (McKee and Wolf, 1963).
Elsewhere (i.e., New Zealand) lethal doses of arsenic (20 mg/animal Ib.)
have been recorded as occurring naturally in freshwater (Grimmett and
Mclntosh, 1939).
Through domestic water supplies arsenic compounds are constantly taken
into the human body where they are cumulative. Human blood normally con-
tains 0.2 to 1.0 mg/1 of arsenic (Browning-; 1961).
In seawater, normal arsenic concentrations are recorded to be 0.003 mg/1
(Lambou and Lira, 1970a.) As mentioned above, arsenic compounds are cumu-
lative in living tissue. Thus, in the sea, marine plants (i.e., brown algae)
have been found to contain concentrations up to 30 mg/1 (FWPCA, 1968).
Arsenic is also commonly found in marine animals. According to the work
of Vinogradov (1953), it accumulates up to 0.3 mg/1 in some molluscs,
coelenterates, and crustaceans. McKee and Wolf (1963) report that shellfish
may contain over 100 mg/kg.
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2
Biotic Response
Arsenic is notorious for its toxicity to humans. Ingestion of as little
as 100 mg usually results in severe poisoning and as little as 130 mg has
proved fatal (Browning, 1961).
Several incidents have demonstrated that arsenic in water may be
carcinogenic. Cancer of the skin and possibly of the liver is attributed
to arsenic in drinking water (Arguello, et. al., 1960; Kathe, J., 1937;
Telio, E. E., 1951).
Some bioassay work has been done with arsenic, but the results are not
based on standard testing methods such as the 96 hour TLm- (see McKee and
Wolf, 1963 p. 141 for detailed bioassay results).
It is interesting to note that arsenic concentrations of 3-20 mg/1
have not harmed aquatic insects such as immature dragonflies, damselflies,
and mayflies (Rudolfs, et. al., 1950).
Rudolfs (1944) also reported that concentrations of 2-4 mg/1 of arsenic
did not interfere in any way with the self-purification of streams.
Standards
Most State codes do not specifically cite metals, so the statement made
here will probably apply to all the metals discussed herein. Governmental
water quality codes often briefly define hazardous metals and for abatement
purposes the common code statement is ". . .no toxic materials (metals,
often understood) in concentrations that will impair the usefulness of
receiving waters as a source of supply or interfere with other legitimate
use of said waters".
To summarize limits for arsenic in water, as suggested by various
agencies, refer to the following table.
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TABLE 1. Arsenic (As) Concentration (mg/1)
Arsenic
Concentration
0.05
0.05
0.2
0.2
0.01
0.05
0.05
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.05
1.0
0.05
0.05
0.05
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
USPHS, 1942
USPHS, 1946
W.H.O., 1958
W.H.O. European, 1961
USPHS, 1962
USPHS, 1962
State of California, 1963
State of California, 1963
State of California, 1963
State of California, 1963
State of Texas, 1967
State of Texas, 1967
State of Colorado
(date unknown)
State of Florida
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
Comment
Maximum permissible concentration
in drinking water.
Maximum permissible concentration
in drinking water.
Maximum allowable concentrations
for potable water.
Tolerance limit for drinking
water standards.
Recommended limit for drinking
water.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Maximum limit for domestic
water supplies.
Maximum limit for irrigation
water supplies.
Maximum limit for stock and
wildlife watering.
Maximum limit for fish and
other aquatic life waters.
Maximum limit for inland waters.
Maximum limit for tidal waters.
Maximum allowable limit for
surface waters to be used for
public water supply - after
complete treatment.
Maximum allowable for surface
waters in Florida.
Maximum allowable limit for
surface waters used for public
supply - after complete treat-
ment .
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IABLE 1. Arsenic (As) Concentration (rag/1) - Continued
Arsenic
Concentration
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
State of Indiana
(date unknown)
State of Iowa
(date unknown)
State of Minnesota
(date unknown)
State of Mississippi
(date unknown)
State of Alaska
(date unknown)
State of Connecticut
(date unknown)
State of Maine
(date unknown)
State of Michigan
(date unknown)
State of Montana
(date unknown)
State of Nevada
(date unknown)
State of Ohio
(date unknown)
State of Rhode Island
(date unknown)
State of Vermont
(date unknown)
Comment
Maximum allowable limit for
surface waters used for public
supply - after, complete treat-
ment.
Maximum allowable limit for
surface waters used for public
supply - after complete treat-
ment.
Maximum allowable limit for
surface waters used for public
supply - after complete treat-
ment.
Maximum allowable limit for
surface waters used for public
supply - after complete treat-
ment.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limit for sur-
face waters used for public
supply - after complete treat-
ment .
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
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5
COPPER (Cu)
Water Quality
Metallic copper is insoluble in water, but many copper salts are highly
soluble as cupric or cuprous ions. Copper (cupric) ions are not likely to
be found in natural surface or groundwaters. This is because as they are
introduced into natural waters of pH7, or above, these ions quickly precipitate
and are thereby removed by adsorption and/or sedimentation (McKee and Wolf,
1963).
In natural freshwater, copper salts occur in trace amounts, up to about
0.05 mg/1 (McKee and Wolf, 1963). In seawater, copper is'found at a level
of 0.003 mg/1. Therefore, the presence of greater amounts of copper salts
is generally the result of pollution, attributable to the corrosive action
of the water on copper pipes, to industrial discharges, or frequently to
the use of copper compounds for the control of undesirable algae.
Copper is not considered to be a cumulative systemic poison, like
lead or mercury. In humans, most of the copper ingested is excreted by the
body and little is retained. In lower organisms there is some record of
accumulation. Marine animals have been found to contain 4 to 50 mg/1 and
in some sponges accumulation has exceeded these values (FWPCA, 1968).
Biotic Response
In concentrations high enough to be dangerous to humans, copper renders
a disagreeable taste to the water. Threshold concentrations for taste have
been reported in the range of 1.0 - 2.0 mg/1 of copper, while 5.0 - 7.5 mg/1
makes the water completely undrinkable (Schneider, 1931). For this reason
it is believed that copper is seldom a hazard to domestic supplies.
Copper is present in trace amounts in all living organisms. It is
believed to be essential for nutrition.
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6
The toxicity of copper to aquatic organisms varies significantly not
only with the species, but also with the physical and chemical characteristics
of the water (e.g., temperature, hardness, turbidity, and carbon dioxide
content). Concentrations, toxic to a variety of aquatic organisms, may
vary from 0.015 to 3.0 tng/1 depending upon the water chemistry.
Copper acts synergistically with the sulfates of other metals such as
zinc and cadmium to produce a potent toxic effect on fish (Anonymous, 1950;
Doudoroff, 1952; and Tarzwell, 1958). Synergism also exists between copper
and mercury (Corner and Sparrow, 1956).
Standards
Limits set for copper in water vary markedly. The following table
summarizes agency recommendations.
CADMIUM (Cd)
Water Quality
The elemental form of cadmium is insoluble in water, although the chloride,
nitrate, and sulfate of this metal are highly soluble. In the literature
searched no "normal" level for freshwater was recorded. Mention was made
of "normal" levels for seawater of <0.08 mg/1 (FWPCA, 1968).
Cadmium salts may be found in wastes from electroplating plants, pigment
works, textile printing, lead mines and certain chemical industries. Welsch
and Lieber (1954) reported groundwater contamination by cadmium to the ex-
tent of 3.2 mg/1 on Long Island, N.Y., as the result of an electroplating
industry's waste discharge. High concentrations of cadmium have been re-
ported in Missouri mine waters (Anonymous, 1955). One spring in the area
had 1,000 mg/1 of cadmium.
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TABLE 2. Copper (Cu) Concentration (mg/1)
Copper
Concentration
0.2
3.0
3.0
3.0
0.2
1.0
1.0
1.5
3.0
1.0
1.0
0.1
0.02
0.05
1.0
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
USPHS, 1925
USPHS, 1942
USPHS, 1946.
State of Oklahoma, 1957
State of Oklahoma, 1957
State of Oklahoma, 1957
W.H.O., 1958
W.H.O., 1958
W.H.O. European, 1961
USPHS, 1962
State of California, 1963
State of California, 1963
State of California, 1963
State of California, 1963
State of Texas, 1967
FWPCA, 1968
Comment
Mandatory maximum limit for
drinking water.
Recommended limit for drinking
water (not mandatory).
Recommended limit for drinking
water (not mandatory).
Limit for municipal water supply.
Limit for agricultural water use.
Limit for recreational waters.
Permissible limit for drinking
water.
Excessive limit for drinking
water.
Limit after 16 hours contact
with new pipe, but distribution
system should have <0.05 mg/1
copper.
Recommended limit for drinking
water.
Threshold concentration in
domestic supplies.
Threshold concentration in
irrigation supplies.
Threshold concentration for
freshwater fish and aquatic
life.
Threshold concentration for
seawater fish and aquatic life.
Recommended limit for inland
and tidal waters.
Water Quality Criteria for aquatic
life. Maximum copper concentration
at any time or place should not be
greater than 1/10 the 96-hour
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TABLE 2. Copper (Cu) Concentration (mg/1) - Continued
Copper
Concentration
1.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.2
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
FWPCA, 1968 (Continued)
State of Alaska
(date unknown)
State of Connecticut
(date unknown)
State of Florida
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
State of Maine
(date unknown)
State of Michigan
(date unknown)
State of Minnesota
(date unknown)
State of Minnesota
(date unknown)
Comment
value, nor should any 24-hour
average concentration exceed
1/30 of the 96-hour TI^ value.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limits for
surface waters to be used for
drinking water, shellfish, fish
and wildlife, and industrial
water supply.
Maximum allowable for drinking
water.
Maximum allowable for drinking
water.
Same As USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Maximum allowable limit for rec-
reation water, fish propagation
and wildlife.
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
State of Montana
(date unknown)
State of Nevada
(date unknown)
State of Rhode Island
(date unknown)
State of Vermont
(date unknown)
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
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9
Biotic Response
Cadmium is moderately toxic to all organisms and it is a cumulative
poison in mammals. It tends to concentrate in the liver, kidneys, pancreas,
and thyroid of humans and other mammals.
Common levels found in marine plants are approximately 0.4 mg/1, while
in marine animals a range of 0.15 to 3 mg/1 has been recorded (FWPCA, 1968).
Few studies have been made of the toxicity of cadmium in the aquatic
environment. Medical reports are of little value because the adverse effects
of human ingestion vary appreciably from person to person.
Aquatic organisms (i.e., Daphnia magna) are currently being exposed to
cadmium and other toxic metals via bioassay techniques at EPA's Duluth,
Minnesota, laboratories. Preliminary results indicate Daphnia are very
sensitive to cadmium; the LC-50 (3 wk.) was 5 mg/1 in Lake Superior water.
Other unpublished data (Biesinger, Christensen, Shelhom, in press) reveal
no effect to fathead minnows or bluegills exposed to 37 ug/1 through a
complete generation. The tests also indicate that following prolonged
exposure there is a large accumulation of cadmium in fish (personal com-
munication, J. I. Teas ley) .
Cadmium acts synergistically with zinc to increase toxicity. Hublou,
Wood, and Jeffries (1954) found that cadmium concentrations of 0.03 mg/1 in
combination with 0.15 mg/1 of zinc from galvanized screens caused mortality
of salmon fry.
Standards
Because scant data are available as to the long-term adverse effects
of cadmium on the environment, the standards are possibly excessively re-
strictive.
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10
TABLE 3. Cadmium (Cd) Concentrations (mg/1)
Cadmium
Concentration
0.1
0.0
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
USSR, 1949
State of Oklahoma, 1957
W.H.O. European, 1961
USPHS, 1962
State of Texas, 1967
FWPCA
State of Alaska
(date unknown)
State of Colorado
(date unknown)
State of Connecticut
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
State of Indiana
(date unknown)
State of Iowa
(date unknown)
Comment
Maximum permissible concentration
in domestic supplies of Russia.
Suggested criteria for municipal,
industrial, agricultural, recre-
ation, fish and wildlife water
use.
Maximum tolerance limit for
drinking water.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Maximum limit for inland and
tidal waters.
The concentration of cadmium
must not exceed 1/30 of the
96-hour TLjn concentration at
any time or place and the maxi-
mum 24-hour average concentration
should not exceed 1/500 of the
96 -hour TLjn concentration.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limits for
drinking water.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Maximum allowable limit for
fish propagation and wildlife
waters .
Maximum allowable for drinking
water.
Maximum allowable for drinking
water.
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TABLE 3. Cadmium (Cd) Concentrations (mg/1) - Continued
11
Cadmium
Concentration
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
State of Maine
(date unknown)
State of Michigan
(date unknown)
State of Minnesota
(date unknown)
State of Mississippi
(date unknown)
State of Montana
(date unknown)
State of Nevada
(date unknown)
State of Ohio
(date unknown)
State of Rhode Island
(date unknown)
State of Vermont
(date unknown)
Comment
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable for drinking
water.
Maximum allowable for drinking
water.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
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12
LEAD (Pb)
Water Quality
Some natural waters contain lead in solution, as much as 0.8 mg/1
(Lambou and Lira, 1970b) . These concentrations are most often found in
mountain streams flowing through limestone and galena. Surface and ground-
waters used for drinking supply in the U.S. often have a trace of lead but
it seldom exceeds 0.04 mg/1 (Ohio River Sanitation Commission, 1953).
The lead concentration in seawater is about 0.00003 mg/1. It is
found in marine plants at a level of 8.4 mg/1. Residues in marine animals
reach a concentration in the range of 0.5 mg/1. Lead is highest in
calcareous tissue (FWPCA, 1968).
Higher concentrations than listed above are usually the result of
pollution from mines or leaded gasolines.
Biotic Response
Lead tends to be deposited in bone as a cumulative poison. Sensitivity
to lead poisoning differs with individuals as concentrations causing human
sickness may vary from 0.042 to 1.0 mg/1 (Mason, 1908).
Abundant bioassay data are available (see McKee and Wolf, 1963 p. 208).
Lead has an antagonistic effect with calcium. In soft water, lead may be
very toxic at concentrations of 0.1 mg/1 (Doudoroff and Katz, 1953). In
hard water these concentrations are not toxic. As a matter of fact, the
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (Anon., 1950) reported that
calcium in a concentration of 50 mg/1 completely destroyed the toxic effect
of 1.0 mg/1 of lead.
Standards
In recent years the USPHS standard for lead in drinking water has
been lowered. The major reason for this lowering of limits is that
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13
TABLE 4. Lead (Pb) Concentration (mg/1)
Lead
Concentration
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.02
0.3
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.5
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
USPHS, 1925
Germany, 1933
USPHS, 1942'
USPHS, 1946
Uruguay, 1951
Netherlands, 1953
Mersey and Severn River
Boards in England
(date unknown)
W.H.O. International, 1958
International Water Supply
Assoc. (USA, Great Britain,
France, and Netherlands),
1958
W.H.O. European, 1961
USPHS, 1962
State of California, 1963
State of Texas, 1967
State of Texas, 1967
Comment
Maximum permissible concentration
in drinking water.
Temporary concentration in drinking
water that had been in pipes for
24 hours.
Maximum permissible concentration
in drinking water.
Maximum permissible concentration
in drinking water.
Maximum recommended limit in
potable water.
Temporary concentration in
drinking water that had been
in pipes for 24 hours.
Working standards for all heavy
metals in certain English
streams.
Maximum allowable limits for
lead in drinking water.
Maximum allowable limits for
lead in drinking water.
Maximum tolerance limit for
drinking water.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Maximum limit for surface waters
used by fish or to be processed
for human consumption.
Maximum limit for inland waters.
Maximum limit for tidal waters.
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TABLE 4. Lead (Pb) Concentration (mg/1) - Continued
14
Lead
Concentration
0.05
2-4
8-10
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Organization & Date
of Recommendation
FWQA, 1970
FWQA, 1970
FWQA, 1970
FWQA, 1970
State of Alaska
(date unknown)
State of Colorado
(date unknown)
State of Connecticut
(date unknown)
State of Florida
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
State of Indiana
(date unknown)
State of Iowa
(date unknown)
State of Maine
(date unknown)
State of Minnesota
(date unknown)
Comment
Physiologically safe in water
for lifetime.
Physiologically safe in water
for period of a few weeks
(borderline health hazard
thereafter).
Toxic in water with exposure
of several weeks.
Lethal, unknown concentration,
probably more than 15 mg/1 for
a period of several weeks.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water, industrial
supply, agriculture, fish
propagation and wildlife, and
recreation.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Maximum allowable limit for
fish propagation and wildlife
waters.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable limit for
drinking water.
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IA.BLE 4. Lead (Pb) Concentration (mg/1) - Continued 15
Lead Organization & Date
Concentration of Recommendation Comment
0.05 State of Mississippi Maximum allowable limit for
(date unknown) drinking water.
0.05 State of Nevada Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
(date unknown) Water Standards.
0.05 State of Ohio Maximum allowable limit for
(date unknown) drinking water.
0.05 State of Rh6de Island Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
(date unknown) Water Standards.
0.05 State of Vermont Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
(date unknown) Water Standards.
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16
control causes little undue hardship on water purveyors, and total cumulative
ingestion by the consumer is reduced.
ZINC (Zn)
Water Quality
Some zinc salts (e.g., zinc chloride and zinc sulfate) are highly
soluble in water. These salts are often found in industrial wastewater
from galvanizing industries, ;and manufacturers of paint pigments, cosmetics,
pharmaceutics, dyes, insecticides, and numerous other products. In zinc-
mining areas, this metal has been found in natural waters in concentrations
as high as 50 mg/1 (American Water Works Assoc., 1950).
In most freshwater (surface and ground), zinc is present only in trace
amounts. Jacobs (1953) presented some evidence that zinc ions are absorbed
strongly and permanently on silt, with the resultant inactivation of the
metal.
In seawater, the normal zinc concentration is about 0.01 mg/1. Marine
plants may contain up to 150 mg/1 of zinc, while marine animals contain
ranges of 6 to 1,500 mg/1.
High concentrations of zinc in domestic water are undesirable from
an aesthetic standpoint as well as from a health hazard standpoint. (Note:
health hazards are discussed later.) At a concentration of 30 mg/1, zinc
gives water a milky appearance (Kehoe, Cholak, Largent, 1944). Concentra-
tions as low as 5.0 mg/1 cause a greasy film on boiling of the water
(Howard, 1923).
The soluble salts of zinc impart an unpleasant, astringent taste to
water and can be detected as low as 4.3 mg/1 (Cohen, Kamphake, Harris,
and Woodward, 1960).
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17
Biotic Response
Zinc has no known adverse physiological effects upon man except at very
high concentrations (i.e., 675-2,280 mg/1 causes vomiting). In fact, zinc
is an essential and beneficial element in human nutrition (Rothstein, 1953) .
Normal uptake by humans is 10-15 mg/day (Browning, 1961).
Zinc exhibits its greatest toxicity toward fish and aquatic organisms.
In soft water, concentrations of zinc ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/1 have been
reported to be lethal, but calcium is antagonistic toward such toxicity.
Fish sensitivity to zinc varies with species, age and condition of
the fish, as well as the physical and chemical characteristics of the
water. Bioassay results are listed in detail by McKee and Wolf, 1963, p. 295).
There is some controversy as to a synergistic effect between zinc and
copper. Doudoroff and Katz (1953) believe a synergistic effect exists while
the Water Pollution Research Board of England (1960) disagrees. The key to
this disagreement appears to be the hardness of the water, but more study
will be required before a definite statement can be made.
Standards
Zinc "taste tests" have been partly instrumental in changing the
standards for potable supply. This is one reason for the range in limits
listed in Table 5.
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18
5. Zinc (Zn) Concentration (mg/1)
Zinc Organization & Date
Concentration of Recommendation
5.0
15.0
15.0
1.0
5.0
15.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
1.0
5.0
1.0
USPHS, 1925
USPHS, 1942
USPHS, 1946
Mersey and Severn River
Boards in England, 1953
W.H.O. International, 1958
W.H.O. International, 1958
W.H.O. European, 1961
USPHS, 1962
State of Texas, 1967
State of Alaska
(date unknown)
State of Connecticut
(date unknown)
State of Florida
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
State of Illinois
(date unknown)
Comment
Maximum permissible concentration
in drinking water.
Recommended limited concentration
in drinking water.
Recommended limited concentration
in drinking water.
Working standards in English
streams for all heavy metals
in combination with zinc.
Permissible limit in drinking
water.
Excessive limit in drinking
water.
Recommended limit for drinking
water.
Recommended limit for drinking
water.
Maximum limit for inland and
tidal waters.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable for drinking
water, industrial supply, agri-
culture, fish and wildlife, and
recreation.
Maximum allowable for drinking
water.
Maximum allowable for fish and
wildlife waters.
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T&BLE 5. Zinc (Z-Q Concentration (mg/1) - Continued
19
Zinc Organization & Date
Concentration of Recommendation
Comment
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
State of Maine
(date unknown)
State of Michigan
(date unknown)
State of Minnesota
(date unknown)
State of Montana
(date unknown)
State of Nevada
(date unknown)
State of Rhode Island
(date unknown)
State of Vermont
(date unknown)
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Maximum allowable in drinking
water.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
Same as USPHS, 1962, Drinking
Water Standards.
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20
LITERATURE CITED
American Water Works Assoc., 1950. "Water Quality and Treatment",
2nd ed., AWWA.
Anon., 1950 "Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission, subcommittee
on Toxicities Metal Finishing Industries Action Committee", Report
No. 3.
Anon., 1955. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission, "Cadmium",
Incomplete Interim Report, Kettering Lab., Univ. of Cincinnati.
Arguello, R. A., E. E. Tello, B. A. Macola, and L. Manzano, 1960.
"Cutaneous Cancer in Chronic Endemic Regional Arsenicism in the
Province of Cordoba, Argentine Republic", Rev. Fac. Ciec. Med.
Univ. Cordoba 8, 409 (1950); Proc. Conf. on Physiological Aspects
of Water Quality, Public Health Service.
Biesinger, Christensen, and Shelhom, 1971, unpublished data.
Browning, E., 1961. "Toxicity of Industrial Metals", Butterworths,
London, England.
Cohen, J. M., L. J. Kamphake, E. K. Harris, and R. L. Woodward, 1960.
"Taste Threshold Concentrations of Metals in Drinking Water",
Journal AWWA 52, 660.
Corner, E. D. S. and B. W. Sparrow, 1956. "The Modes of Action of Toxic
Agents. I. Observations on the Poisoning of Certain Crustaceans by
Copper and Mercuty", Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc. V. K. 35,531
Doudoroff, P., 1952. "Some Recent Developments in the Study of Toxic
Industrial Wastes", Proc. 4th Annual Pacific N.W. Ind. Waste Conf.,
State College (Pullman, Washington) 21.
Dourdoroff, P. and M. Katz, 1953. "Critical Review of Literature on the
Toxicity of Industrial Wastes and Their Components to Fish. II. The
Metals, as Salts", Sewage and Industrial Wastes 25, 802.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968. "Water Quality
Criteria", Report of National Technical Advisory Committee, Dept.
of Interior, Washington, D.C.
Grimmett, R. E. R. and I. G. Mclntosh, 1939. "Occurrence of Arsenic in
Soils and Waters in the Waiotapu Valley and Its Relation to Stock
Health", N.Z. Jour. Sci. Tech. 21, 138 A (1939); Water Pollution
Abs. 13 (July 1940) .
Howard, C. D., 1923. "Zinc Contamination in Drinking Water", Jour.
AWWA 10., 411.
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Hublou, W. F., J W. Wood and E. R. Jeffries, 1954. "The Toxicity of
Zinc or Cadmium for Chinook Salmon", Oregon Fish Comm., Briefs
5, 1.
Jacobs, H L , 1953. "Rayon Waste Recovery and Treatment", Sewage and
Ind. Wastes 25, 296.
Kathe, J., 1937. "Das Arsen Vordommen bei Reichenstein und die Sogenannte
Reichensteiner Krankheit". 110 Jahresbericht der Schlesischen
Gesellschaft fuer vaterlaendische Kultr. Medizinisch - naturwissenshaft-
liche Reihe, No. 3 Breslau Ferdinand Wirt.
Kehoe, R. A., J. Cholak and E: J. Largent, 1944. "The Hygienic Signifi-
cance of the Contamination of Water with Certain Mineral Constituents",
Jour. AWWA 36, 645.
Lambou, V. and B. Lira, 1970a. "Hazards of Arsenic in the Environment,
With Particular Reference to the Aquatic Environment"', FWQA, U.S.
Dept. of Interior, August 1970 (mimeo.)
Lambou, V. and B. Lira, 1970b. "Hazards of Lead in the Environment, With
Particular Reference to the Aquatic Environment," FWQA, U.S. Dept.
of Interior, August 1970 (mimeo.)
Lieber, M. and W. F. Welsch, 1954. "Contamination of Ground Water by
Cadmium", Jour. AWWA 46, 541.
Mason, W. P., 1908. "Examination of Water (Chemical and Bacteriological)",
John Wiley and Sons.
McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, 1963. "Water Quality Criteria", 2nd ed.
State Water Quality Control Board of California. Publication No. 3-A.
Ohio River Water Sanitation Commission, 1953. "Report on the Recommended
Physiologically Safe Limits for Continued Human Consumption of Lead
in Water", O.R.W.S.C. The Kettering Lab, Coll. Med., Univ. Gin.,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Rothstein, A., 1953. "Toxicology of the Minor Metals", Univ. Rochester,
AEG Proj. UR-262, June 5, 1953.
Rudolfs, W., et.al_., 1944. "Critical Review of the Literature of 1943",
Sewage Works Jour. 16, 222.
Rudolfs, W., G. E Barnes, G. P. Edwards, H. Heukelekian, E. Hurwitz,
C. E. Renn, S. Steinberg, and W. F. Vaughan, 1950. "Review of
Literature on Toxic Materials Affecting Sewage Treatment Processes,
Streams and BOD Determinations", Sewage and Industrial Wastes 22, 1157.
Russell, F. C., 1944. "Minerals in Pasture, Deficiencies and Excesses in
Relation to Animal Health", Imperial Bur. of Animal Nutrition, Aberdeen,
Scotland, Tech. communication 15.
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Schneider, W. G., 1931. "Copper and Health", Jour. N.E.W.W.A. 44, 485 (1930);
Water Pollution Abs. 4 (Sept. 1931).
Tarzwell, C. M., 1958. "Disposal of Toxic Wastes", Ind. Wastes 3;2, 48.
Tello, E. E. "Hidroarsenicismo Cronico Regional Endemico (Hacre)",
Imprinta de la Universidad Cordoba, Rep. Argentina P. 162.
Vinogradov, A. P., 1953. "The Elementary Chemical Composition of Marine
Organisms", Sears Foundation, New Haven, Connecticut.
Water Pollution Research Board of England, 1960. "Report of the Water
Pollution Research Laboratory for the Year 1959", Dept. Sci. and Ind.
Res., H. M. Stationery Office, London.
GPO 838-817
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