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Corals

Elkhorn Coral (Acropora palmata)

Staghorn Coral (Acropora cervicornis)

Video: Protecting Coral Reefs

Corals are invertebrates that have been on Earth for about 500 million years and are taxonomically related to anemones, jellyfish, and hydras. They are made of invertebrate polyps and can generally be categorized as either hard or soft. Hard corals have calcium carbonate skeletons, grow in colonies, and are reef-building animals that live in symbiosis with phytoplankton called zooxanthellae. Soft corals are flexible, have calcareous particles in their body walls for structural support, can be found in both tropical and cold ocean waters, do not grow in colonies or build reefs, and do not always contain zooxanthellae.

Corals listed under the Endangered Species Act

There are 22 coral species listed as "threatened" and 3 coral species listed as "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act, grouped below by status:

Threatened coral species:

• Acropora palmata - Elkhorn coral
• Acropora cervicornis - Staghorn coral
• Dendrogyra cylindrus - Pillar coral
• Mycetophyllia ferox - Rough cactus coral
• Orbicella annularis - Lobed star coral
• Orbicella faveolata - Mountainous star coral
• Orbicella franksi - Boulder star coral
• Acropora globiceps
• Acropora jacquelineae
• Acropora lokani
• Acropora pharaonis
• Acropora retusa
• Acropora rudis
• Acropora speciosa
• Acropora tenella
• Anacropora spinosa
• Euphyllia paradivisa
• Isopora crateriformis
• Montipora australiensis
• Pavona diffluens
• Porites napopora
• Seriatopora aculeata

Endangered coral species:

• Cantharellus noumeae
• Siderastrea glynni
• Tubastraea floreana

Threats to Corals

• ocean warming
• ocean acidification
• dredging
• coastal development
• coastal point source pollution
• agricultural and land use practices
• disease
• predation
• reef fishing
• aquarium trade
• physical damage from boats and anchors
• marine debris
• aquatic invasive species

International Protections for Corals

These corals are also listed in CITES Appendix II.

Regulatory Overview

In 2006, elkhorn and staghorn corals were listed as threatened under the ESA.

In 2009, we received a petition from the Center for Biological Diversity [pdf] to list 83 species of corals under the ESA and designate critical habitat for these species. In April 2012, we completed a status review report and draft Management Report of the 82 candidate species of corals (all petitioned species except for the Large Ivory Coral, Oculina varicosa). In November 2012, we proposed to list 66 of those candidate species of corals as threatened or endangered under the ESA and also proposed to reclassify elkhorn and staghorn corals (already listed species) from threatened to endangered status. On September 10, 2014, we published a final rule listing 20 of the petitioned coral species as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. Elkhorn and staghorn corals retained their listing status as threatened species. You can find more information about this final listing decision on our website.

In 2013, we received a petition from WildEarth Guardians [pdf] to list 81 marine species, including 23 species of corals. We found that the petitioned action may be warranted for 3 of the petitioned coral species (Cantharellus noumeae, Siderastrea glynni, and Tubastraea floreana) and completed comprehensive status reviews for these species. In December 2014, we proposed to list these three coral species as endangered and solicited public comment. On October 7, 2015, we published a final rule listing these three foreign coral species as endangered under the Endangered Species Act. 

More Information

• Final rule to list 20 species of corals (Sept 2014, 79 FR 53852) and References cited in the final rule [pdf]
• Results of an update of the Corals of the World Information Base (Veron 2014)
• Permits for Coral Research
• Proposed listing of 82 species of corals (Dec 2012, 77 FR 73219)
• 90-day finding on the petition to list 83 species of corals (Feb 2010, 75 FR 6616)
• 90-day finding on the petition to list 23 species of corals (Oct 2013, 78 FR 63941)
• Proposed rule to list 3 foreign coral species under the ESA (Dec 2014, 79 FR 74953)
• Final rule to list 3 foreign coral species under the ESA (Oct 2015, 80 FR 60560)
• Protected Caribbean Corals Program (NOAA Fisheries Southeast Regional Office)
• Pacific Islands Coral Program (NOAA Fisheries Pacific Islands Regional Office)
• NOAA's Coral Reef Conservation Program

Updated: October 15, 2015