Food Safety, Nutrition, and Distribution
Key Findings
Key Finding 1: Increased Risk of Foodborne Illness
Key Finding 2: Chemical Contaminants in the Food Chain
Key Finding 3: Rising Carbon Dioxide Lowers Nutritional Value of Food
The nutritional value of agriculturally important food crops, such as wheat and rice, will decrease as rising levels of atmospheric
Key Finding 4: Extreme Weather Limits Access to Safe Foods
Increases in the frequency or intensity of some extreme
A safe and nutritious food supply is a vital component of
The impacts of
This chapter focuses on some of the less reported aspects of food security, specifically, the impacts of climate change on food safety, nutrition, and distribution in the context of human health in the United States. While ingestion of contaminated seafood is discussed in this chapter, details on the
Systems and processes related to food safety, nutrition, and production are inextricably linked to their physical and biological environment.5,8 Although production is important, for most developed countries such as the United States, food shortages are uncommon; rather, nutritional quality and food safety are the primary health concerns.5,9 Certain populations, such as the poor, children, and Indigenous populations, may be more vulnerable to climate impacts on food safety, nutrition, and distribution (see also Ch. 9: Populations of Concern).
There are two overarching means by which increasing
The second pathway is through the direct CO2 “fertilization” effect on plant photosynthesis. Higher concentrations of CO2 stimulate carbohydrate production and plant growth, but can lower the levels of protein and essential minerals in a number of widely consumed crops, including wheat, rice, and potatoes, with potentially negative implications for human nutrition.13
Figure 7.1: Farm to Table: The Potential Interactions of Rising CO2 and Climate Change on Food Safety and Nutrition
Although the United States has one of the safest food supplies in the world,18 food safety remains an important public
Most
Figure 7.2: Climate Change and Health – Salmonella
How Climate Affects Food Safety
Climate already influences food safety within an agricultural system—prior to, during, and after the harvest, and during transport, storage, preparation, and consumption. Changes in climate factors, such as temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather are key drivers of
The impact of climate on food safety occurs through multiple pathways. Changes in air and water temperatures, weather-related changes, and
- Higher temperatures can increase the number of pathogens already present on produce36 and seafood.37,38
- Bacterial populations can increase during food storage which, depending on time and temperature, can also increase food spoilage rates.39
- Sea surface temperature is directly related to seafood exposure to pathogens (see Ch. 6: Water-Related Illness).40,41,42
-
Precipitation has been identified as a factor in the contamination of irrigation water and produce,32,33,35,43 which has been linked to
foodborne illness outbreaks.44,45 - Extreme weather events like dust storms or flooding can introduce toxins to crops during development (see Ch. 4: Extreme Events).46
-
Changing environmental conditions and soil properties may result in increases in the
incidence of heavy metals in the food supply.47,48,49
Climate Impacts on Pathogen Prevalence
While climate change affects the prevalence of pathogens harmful to human health, the extent of exposure and resulting illness will depend on individual and institutional sensitivity and adaptive capacity, including human behavior and the effectiveness of food safety regulatory,
Rising Temperature and Humidity
Climate change will influence the fate, transport, transmission, viability, and multiplication rate of pathogens in the food chain. For example, increases in average global temperatures and humidity will lead to changes in the geographic range, seasonal occurrence, and survivability of certain pathogens.9,50,51,52
Ongoing changes in temperature and humidity will not affect all foodborne pathogens equally (Table 7.1). The occurrence of some pathogens, such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and Campylobacter, could increase with climate change because these pathogens thrive in warm, humid conditions. For example, Salmonella on raw chicken will double in number approximately every hour at 70°F, every 30 minutes at 80°F, and every 22 minutes at 90°F.53,54
Table 7.1: Foodborne Illness and Climate Change
Click on a table row for more information.
Foodborne Hazard | Symptoms | Estimated Annual Illnesses, Hospital Visits, and Deaths |
Other |
Temperature/ Humidity Relationship |
---|---|---|---|---|
Norovirus | Vomiting, non-bloody diarrhea with abdominal pain, nausea, aches, low-grade fever |
|
Extreme |
Pathogens Favoring Colder/Dryer Conditions Pathogens Favoring Warmer/Wetter Conditions |
Listeria monocytogene | Fever, muscle aches, and, rarely, diarrhea. Intensive infection can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, or life-threatening infections (meningitis). |
|
||
Toxoplasma | Minimal to mild illness with fever, serious illness in rare cases. Inflammation of the brain and infection of other organs, birth defects. |
|
||
Campylobacter | Diarrhea, cramping, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. In serious cases can be life-threatening. |
|
Changes in the timing or length of seasons, precipitation and flooding | |
Salmonella spp. (non-typhoidal) | Diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps; in severe cases death. |
|
Extreme weather events, changes in the timing or length of seasons | |
Vibrio vulnificus and parahaemolyticus | When ingested: watery diarrhea often with abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, fever and chills. Can cause liver disease. When exposed to an open wound: infection of the skin |
|
Sea surface temperature, extreme weather events | |
Escherichia coli (E. coli) |
E. coli usually causes mild diarrhea. More severe pathogenic types, such as enterohemorrhagic E. Coli (EHEC), are associated with hemolytic uremic syndrome (a |
|
Extreme weather events, changes in the timing or length of seasons |
There is a summertime peak in the incidence of illnesses associated with these specific pathogens (see Figure 7.3).20,50,55,56 This peak may be related not only to warmer temperatures favoring pathogen growth but also to an increase in outdoor activities, such as barbecues and picnics. Risk for foodborne illness is higher when food is prepared outdoors where the safety controls that a kitchen provides—thermostat-controlled cooking, refrigeration, and washing facilities—are usually not available.5,20,21,50,57,58
Figure 7.3: Seasonality of Human Illnesses Associated With Foodborne Pathogens
Norovirus, the most common cause of stomach flu, can be transmitted by consumption of contaminated food. Although norovirus generally has a winter seasonal peak (see Figure 7.3), changing climate parameters, particularly temperature and rainfall, may influence its incidence and spread. Overall, localized climate impacts could improve health outcomes (fewer cases during warmer winters) or worsen them (elevated transmission during floods), such that projected trends in overall health outcomes for norovirus remain unclear.50,59
Rising ocean temperatures can increase the risk of pathogen exposure from ingestion of contaminated seafood. For example, significantly warmer coastal waters in Alaska from 1997 to 2004 were associated with an outbreak in 2004 of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a bacterium that causes
Finally, climate change is projected to result in warmer winters, earlier springs, and an increase in the overall growing season in many regions.63,64 While there are potential food production benefits from such changes, warmer and longer growing seasons could also alter the timing and occurrence of pathogen transmissions in food and the chance of human exposure.65,66,67
Extreme Events
In addition to the effects of increasing average temperature and humidity on pathogen survival and growth, increases in temperature and precipitation extremes can contribute to changes in pathogen transmission, multiplication, and survivability. More frequent and severe heavy rainfall events can increase infection risk from most pathogens, particularly when it leads to flooding.68 Flooding, and other weather extremes, can increase the incidence and levels of pathogens in food production, harvesting, and processing environments. Groundwater and surface water used for irrigation, harvesting, and washing can be contaminated with runoff or flood waters that carry partially or untreated sewage, manure, or other wastes containing foodborne contaminants.57,69,70,71,72,73 The level of Salmonella in water is elevated during times of monthly maximum precipitation in the summer and fall months;58,74 consequently the likelihood of Salmonella in water may increase in regions experiencing increased total or heavy precipitation events.
Water is also an important factor in food processing. Climate and weather extremes, such as flooding or drought, can reduce water quality and increase the risk of pathogen transfer during the handling and storage of food following harvest.9
The direct effect of drought on food safety is less clear. Dry conditions can pose a risk for pathogen transmission due to reduced water quality, increased risk of runoff when rains do occur, and increased pathogen concentration in reduced water supplies if such water is used for irrigation, food processing, or livestock management.31,33,57,75 Increasing drought generally leads to an elevated risk of exposure to pathogens such as norovirus and
Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins
Mycotoxins are toxic chemicals produced by molds that grow on crops prior to harvest and during storage. Prior to harvest, increasing temperatures and drought can stress plants, making them more susceptible to mold growth.77 Warm and moist conditions favor mold growth directly and affect the biology of insect vectors that transmit molds to crops. Post-harvest contamination is also affected by environmental parameters, including extreme temperatures and moisture. If crops are not dried and stored at low humidity, mold growth and mycotoxin production can increase to very high levels.78,79
Phycotoxins are toxic chemicals produced by certain harmful freshwater and marine
Once introduced into the food chain, these poisonous toxins can result in adverse health outcomes, with both acute and
Climate Impacts on Chemical Contaminants
Climate change will affect human exposure to metals, pesticides, pesticide residues, and other chemical contaminants. However, resulting incidence of illness will depend on the genetic predisposition of the person exposed, type of
Metals and Other Chemical Contaminants
There are a number of environmental contaminants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls, persistent organic pollutants, dioxins, pesticides, and heavy metals, which pose a human health risk when they enter the food chain. Extreme events may facilitate the entry of such contaminants into the food chain, particularly during heavy precipitation and flooding.47,48,49 For example, chemical contaminants in floodwater following Hurricane Katrina included spilled oil, pesticides, heavy metals, and hazardous waste.49,83
Methylmercury is a form of mercury that can be absorbed into the bodies of animals, including humans, where it can have adverse neurological effects. Elevated water temperatures may lead to higher concentrations of methylmercury in fish and mammals.84,85 This is related to an increase in metabolic rates and increased mercury uptake at higher water temperatures.30,86,87 Human exposure to dietary mercury is influenced by the amount of mercury ingested, which can vary with the species, age, and size of the fish. If future fish consumption patterns are unaltered, increasing ocean temperature would likely increase mercury exposure in human diets. Methylmercury exposure can affect the development of children, particularly if exposed in utero.88
Pesticides
![Helicopter crop dusting](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/web/20161224194853im_/https://health2016.globalchange.gov/sites/default/files/styles/photo/public/photo/photo02_0.jpg?itok=XlH7Tj9B)
Crop dusting of a corn field in Iowa.
© Lucas Payne/AgStock Images/Corbis
Climate change is likely to exhibit a wide range of effects on the biology of plant and livestock pests (weeds, insects, and microbes). Rising minimum winter temperatures and longer growing seasons are very likely to alter pest distribution and populations.89,90,91 In addition, rising average temperature and
Pesticides are chemicals generally regulated for use in agriculture to protect plants and animals from pests; chemical management is the primary means for agricultural pest control in the United States and most developed countries. Because climate and CO2 will intensify pest distribution and populations,94,95 increases in pesticide use are expected.96,97 In addition, the efficacy of chemical management may be reduced in the context of climate change. This decline in efficacy can reflect CO2-induced increases in the herbicide tolerance of certain weeds or climate-induced shifts in invasive weed, insect, and plant pathogen populations96,98,99,100,101,102,103,104 as well as climate-induced changes that enhance pesticide degradation or affect coverage.104,105
Increased pest pressures and reductions in the efficacy of pesticides are likely to lead to increased pesticide use, contamination in the field, and exposure within the food chain.106 Increased exposure to pesticides could have implications for human health.5,31,46 However, the extent of pesticide use and potential exposure may also reflect climate change induced choices for crop selection and
Pesticide Residues
Climate change, especially increases in temperature, may be important in altering the transmission of vector-borne diseases in livestock by influencing the life cycle, range, and reproductive success of disease vectors.8,67 Potential changes in veterinary practices, including an increase in the use of parasiticides and other animal health treatments, are likely to be adopted to maintain livestock health in response to climate-induced changes in pests, parasites, and microbes.5,25,106 This could increase the risk of pesticides entering the food chain or lead to evolution of pesticide resistance, with subsequent implications for the safety, distribution, and consumption of livestock and aquaculture products.107,108,109
Climate change may affect aquatic animal health through temperature-driven increases in disease.110 The occurrence of increased infections in aquaculture with rising temperature has been observed for some diseases (such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis and Flavobacterium columnare)111 and is likely to result in greater use of aquaculture drugs.78
While sufficient quantity of food is an obvious requirement for
In developed countries with abundant food supplies, like the United States, the health burden of malnutrition may not be intuitive and is often underappreciated. In the United States, although a number of foods are supplemented with
How Rising CO2 Affects Nutrition
Figure 7.4: Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Protein and Minerals
VIEWThough rising CO2 stimulates plant growth and carbohydrate production, it reduces the nutritional value (protein and minerals) of most food crops (Figure 7.4).13,130,131,132,133,134,135,136 This direct effect of rising CO2 on the nutritional value of crops represents a potential threat to human health.13,136,137,138,139
Protein
As CO2 increases, plants need less protein for photosynthesis, resulting in an overall decline in protein concentration in plant tissues.137,138 This trend for declining protein levels is evident for wheat flour derived from multiple wheat varieties when grown under laboratory conditions simulating the observed increase in global atmospheric CO2 concentration since 1900.132 When grown at the CO2 levels projected for 2100 (540–958 ppm), major food crops, such as barley, wheat, rice, and potato, exhibit 6% to 15% lower protein concentrations relative to ambient levels (315–400 ppm).13,137,138 In contrast, protein content is not anticipated to decline significantly for corn or sorghum.138
While protein is an essential aspect of human dietary needs, the projected human health impacts of a diet including plants with reduced protein concentration from increasing CO2 are not well understood and may not be of considerable threat in the United States, where dietary protein deficiencies are uncommon.
Micronutrients
The ongoing increase in atmospheric CO2 is also very likely to deplete other elements essential to human health (such as calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, and zinc) by 5% to 10% in most plants.13 The projected decline in mineral concentrations in crops has been attributed to at least two distinct effects of elevated CO2 on plant biology. First, rising CO2 increases carbohydrate accumulation in plant tissues, which can, in turn, dilute the content of other nutrients, including minerals. Second, high CO2 concentrations reduce plant demands for water, resulting in fewer nutrients being drawn into plant roots.136,140,141
The ongoing increase in CO2 concentrations reduces the amount of essential minerals per calorie in most crops, thus reducing nutrient density. Such a reduction in crop quality may aggravate existing nutritional deficiencies, particularly for populations with pre-existing health conditions (see Ch. 9: Populations of Concern).
Carbohydrate-to-Protein Ratio
Elevated CO2 tends to increase the concentrations of carbohydrates (starch and sugars) and reduce the concentrations of protein.137 The overall effect is a significant increase in the ratio of carbohydrates to protein in plants exposed to increasing CO2.13 There is growing evidence that a dietary increase in this ratio can adversely affect human metabolism142 and body composition.143
A reliable and resilient food distribution system is essential for access to a safe and nutritious food supply. Access to food is characterized by transportation and availability, which are defined by
The shift in recent decades to a more global food market has resulted in a greater dependency on food transport and distribution, particularly for growing urban populations. Consequently, any
How Extreme Events Affect Food Distribution and Access
Projected increases in the frequency or severity of some extreme events will interrupt food delivery, particularly for vulnerable transport routes.10,12,151,152 The degree of disruption is related to three factors: a) popularity of the transport pathway, b) availability of alternate routes, and c) timing or seasonality of the extreme event.153 As an example, the food transportation system in the United States frequently moves large volumes of grain by water. In the case of an extreme
Immediately following an extreme event, food supply and safety can be compromised.154,155,156 Hurricanes or other storms can disrupt food distribution infrastructure, damage food supplies,7 and limit access to safe and nutritious food, even in areas not directly affected by such events (see also Ch. 4: Extreme Events).157 For example, the Gulf Coast transportation network is vulnerable to storm surges of 23 feet.158 Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, where storm surges of 25 to 28 feet were recorded along parts of the Gulf Coast, grain transportation by rail or barge was severely slowed due to physical damage to infrastructure and the displacement of employees.155,159 Barriers to food transport may also affect food markets, reaching consumers in the form of increased food costs.160
The risk for food spoilage and contamination in storage facilities, supermarkets, and homes is likely to increase due to the impacts of extreme weather events, particularly those that result in power outages, which may expose food to ambient temperatures inadequate for safe storage.156 Storm-related power grid disruptions have steadily increased since 2000.161 Between 2002 and 2012, extreme weather caused 58% of power outage events, 87% of which affected 50,000 or more customers.161 Power outages are often linked to an increase in illness. For example, in August of 2003, a sudden power outage affected over 60 million people in the northeastern United States and Canada. New York City’s Department of
Children may be especially vulnerable because they eat more food by body weight than adults, and do so during important stages of physical and mental growth and development. Children are also more susceptible to severe infection or complications from E. coli infections, such as hemolytic uremic syndrome.168,169,170 Agricultural field workers, especially pesticide applicators, may experience increased
Heavy metals. Arsenic and other heavy metals occur
naturally in some groundwater
sources.180
Climate change can exacerbate
Zoonosis and livestock. Zoonotic diseases, which are
spread from animals to humans, can be transmitted through direct
contact with an infected animal or through the consumption of
contaminated food or water. Climate change could potentially
increase the rate of zoonoses, through environmental change
that alters the biology or evolutionary rate of disease vectors
or the
Foodborne
In addition to the emerging issues identified above, the authors
highlight the following potential areas for additional scientific
and research activity on food safety, nutrition and distribution,
based on their review of the literature. Understanding
Future assessments can benefit from research activities that:
- synthesize and assess efforts to identify and respond to
current and projected food safety concerns and their impacts
on human
health within the existing and future food safety infrastructure; - develop, test, and expand integrated
assessment models to enhance understanding of climate and
weather variability, particularly extreme events, and the role of human responses, including changes in farming technology and management, on health risks within the food chain; and - examine
the impacts of rising CO2 and
climate change on human and livestock nutritional needs, as well as the impacts of changing nutritional sources on diseasevulnerability .186
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