Every year, work-related falls from elevations result in numerous critical injuries. In 2002, the most recent year for which statistics on workplace fatalities in the United States are available, the U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics lists falls to a lower level as the second most frequent cause of work-related fatalities (after highway incidents). Falls accounted for 13% of all workplace fatalities (714) in 2002. Review of the narratives from OSHA fatality data between 1991 and 2001 indicated that approximately 15% of recorded shipyard fatalities were due to falls from heights.

The risk of falling from heights is inherent to Navy ship construction (drydocks) and aircraft maintenance sites and to any shipboard and shore facility work spaces containing scaffolds, platforms, weapons systems, auxiliary equipment, confined spaces, storage tanks, and other structures. The dangers of working at heights and the extra precautions needed to do so may mean that routine maintenance and inspections of equipment and structures that present fall hazards are carried out less frequently or may be less comprehensive than required. Falls from elevations also typically lead to negative publicity and contribute to the degradation of morale and mission readiness. In addition to harming personnel, conditions that contribute to severe fall injuries often result in expenditures for medical care, down time, and costly retrofits that could have been built-in during ship system planning and acquisition phases. Typical costs for a fatality range from $800,000 to $2,400,000, while the average cost of serious injury is more than $30,000. These are direct costs and do not include worker replacement, pain and suffering, employee morale, and other indirect costs.

The following is a general cost profile that compares incorporating fall protection and prevention measures at various stages of design, construction, and maintenance: 

During conceptual design --------- If it costs $1
At the final drawing stage -------- it will cost $10
As a construction modification --- it will cost $100
During startup and testing ------- it will cost $1,000
During maintenance phase ------- it will cost $10,000

Defense acquisition and construction programs and projects include many products and facilities that require work at elevated locations. These programs and projects must manage the potentially fatal risk of working at heights as an integral part of the design and process control that provides safe and effective defense systems. Defense acquisition regulations (DoD 5000.02) require planning and risk management for life cycle cost control and safety. Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR) require construction safety precautions consistent with the latest Army Corps of Engineer Safety Manual. 

Elimination or minimization of fall hazards can best be achieved by incorporating fall protection measures during planning and design phases. Fall protection and prevention measures must be considered during all phases of design, construction, use, maintenance, operation, and final disposal. 

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Note: Although fall protection is very much a concern at all Navy shore facilities, this section will deal for the most part with fall hazards onboard Navy ships.

Working Aloft or Over the Side

Many areas on ships are inaccessible to maintenance, inspection, or repair crews from decks or built-in work platforms. This may mean climbing masts and kingposts or being suspended over the side of the ship on temporary scaffolding, from cranes, or in man baskets. The greatest hazard associated with working over the side or aloft is falling onto the pier or into a drydock or the water. Working aloft or over the side requires much preparation and extra precautions. These include filling out check lists, certifying cranes and aerial lift equipment, informing nearby ships, restricting the work area, and inspection of rigging, staging and personal protection equipment. Personnel must receive special training on working from heights and wear special harnesses secured to anchorages that can withstand the forces of a fall. In addition, extra personnel are needed as observers who can assist people working at heights or call for help in the event of an emergency. 

Masts - Several fall hazards are associated with the need to climb masts for general maintenance like painting, repairs, or maintenance of radar or other equipment. Ladders leading to masts are most often vertical. Not all of these ladders are equipped with ladder climbing devices, commonly called "climber rails," which allow for the use of full fall protection while climbing up the ladder. Other fall hazards when working on masts are the danger of being knocked off the mast by moving equipment such as radar or losing one's balance due to sudden shifting of the ship or while hoisting tools and equipment.

Confined Spaces, Tanks, and Voids

Working in confined spaces can involve fall hazards. Platforms inside confined spaces may not have adequate guardrail systems. Use of personal fall arrest systems may be complicated by the lack of adequate anchorage points inside confined spaces. Deep tanks on Navy ships generally span four to five frames, or bulkheads, which have sloping sides with multiple configurations and can be over 40 feet in depth. Typically, access is through a top hatch or elliptical passages with small diameters and no guardrails. Because of the damp atmosphere in many of these confined spaces, and their chemically corrosive nature, ladders can easily become corroded and subject to failure. Wet or oily residues can also contribute to personnel falling when they lose their grip or footing on slippery surfaces. In some cases "D"-holes cut into the tank baffle plates substitute for ladders but do not meet safe ladder criteria. In addition, the "D"-holes may be placed as much as three feet apart vertically, making climbing even more difficult. [For further information on confined spaces, see the Confined Spaces section of these Acquisition Safety web pages.]

Ladders 

Falls down ladders are a common shipboard hazard. Many ladder mishaps occur while sailors and shipyard workers are attempting to move equipment or carry various items up and down inclined ladders. Typically, ship ladders are inclined at a 68 degree angle, which is fairly steep. Ladders are often built at an even steeper angle or are completely vertical to allow more room for other items in the space constrained ship environment. Steep angles make climbing the ladders awkward, especially while carrying bulky materials. Other factors which lead to falls from ladders are uneven surfaces, poor traction (lack of non-skid surfaces), lack of materials handling alternatives, lack of adequate lighting to see ladder rungs, and lack of guard rails, chains, or man ropes at hatch openings (first four steps).

Scaffolding

During ship maintenance, repair, or construction, particularly in drydocks, it is often necessary to construct, erect, and use temporary scaffolding. Factors that increase the risk of falls from scaffolding are: 

•  Difficulty providing fall protection during erection and dismantling stages because of inadequate anchorages or tie off points for fall arrest gear
•  Poor construction
•  Faulty erection
•  Obstructions to reaching equipment created by the scaffolding
•  Poor traction
•  No guardrails around edges
•  Lack of easy access

  Aircraft Maintenance

Working on aircraft presents unique fall hazards because of slippery surfaces on the wings, tail, and fuselage. Combat aircraft are typically "thin skinned" and don't readily accommodate anchorages for tying off fall arrest gear. Aircraft maintenance aboard ship can complicate the issue of providing suitable fall protection because of the issues of space, time, and limitations of shipboard support structures.

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