Science Images of the Week

This artist's concept illustrates the new view of the Milky Way.  Scientists have discovered that the Milky Way's elegant spiral structure is dominated by just two arms wrapping off the ends of a central bar of stars. Previously, our galaxy was thought to possess four major arms. (Image: NASA)

Artist’s concept of a new view of the Milky Way. Scientists have discovered the Milky Way’s elegant spiral structure is dominated by two arms wrapping off the ends of a central bar of stars. Our galaxy was previously thought to possess four major arms. (NASA)

Native to Madagascar, this is an indri, one of the largest living lemurs in the world. (Photo: Meredith Barrett)

Native to Madagascar, this is an indri, one of the largest living lemurs in the world. (Meredith Barrett)

This is a Spallation Neutron Source cavity assembly in the clean room the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in Virginia. It's a piece of a particle accelerator that scientists use to provide the most intense pulsed neutron beams in the world.  (Photo: Jefferson Lab)

This is a Spallation Neutron Source cavity assembly in the clean room the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in Virginia. It’s a piece of a particle accelerator scientists use to provide the most intense pulsed neutron beams in the world. (Jefferson Lab)

With its solar panels deployed, this is the spacecraft that will be used for NASA's Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) mission as seen in a clean room at the Lockheed Martin Space Systems Sunnyvale, Calif. The spacecraft is scheduled to be launched this April. (Photo: Lockheed Martin)

NASA will use this spacecraft, seen here with its solar panels deployed  in a clean room at Lockheed Martin in Sunnyvale, California, for its Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) mission scheduled for launch this April. (Lockheed Martin)

Immune system cells, called macrophages, normally engulf and kill intruding bacteria but sometimes the microbes, shown in red, find a way to escape into the interior of the cell where it can multiply and invade other cells.  (Photo: Miao lab, UNC School of Medicine)

Immune system cells, called macrophages, normally engulf and kill intruding bacteria but sometimes the microbes, shown in red, find a way to escape into the interior of the cell where it can multiply and invade other cells. (Miao lab, UNC School of Medicine)

A large male purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum) is seen clipping cordgrass with its claws. These crabs are nocturnal and typically live in burrows during the day to stay moist and avoid predators.  (Photo: Tyler Coverdale)

A large male purple marsh crab (Sesarma reticulatum) clips cordgrass with its claws. These crabs are nocturnal and typically live in burrows during the day to stay moist and avoid predators. (Tyler Coverdale)

This is a single 5 minute exposure taken recently in Buenos Aires on an Argentinian summer night.  It shows not only Earth clouds but starry clouds, the pinkish glow of the Carina Nebula, and Small Magellanic Clouds.  The line arcing from the center of the right side to the lower left is the orbiting International Space Station. (Photo & Copyright: Luis Argerich)

This is a single five-minute exposure taken recently in Buenos Aires on an Argentinian summer night. It shows not only Earth clouds but starry clouds, the pinkish glow of the Carina Nebula and Small Magellanic Clouds. The line arcing from the center of the right side to the lower left is the orbiting International Space Station. (Photo & Copyright: Luis Argerich)

Before workers with NASA's US Antarctic Program are sent out into the field they must first undergo training to help them endure the harsh Antarctic conditions.  Here's a look at their training camp site that was set up on the Ross Ice Shelf ,the largest ice shelf of Antarctica.  (Photo: NASA)

Before workers with NASA’s US Antarctic Program are sent into the field, they must first undergo training to endure the harsh Antarctic conditions. Here’s a look at their training camp site, set up on the Ross Ice Shelf ,the largest ice shelf of Antarctica. ( NASA)

Found in the waters surrounding the Philippines a moray eel poses for a photo. (Photo: M. J. Costello)

Found in the waters surrounding the Philippines, a moray eel poses for a photo. (M. J. Costello)

Scientists Discover Universe’s Largest Known Structure

Artist’s impression of a very distant quasar powered by a black hole with a mass two billion times that of the Sun. (Image: ESO/M. Kornmesser via Wikimedia Commons)

Artist’s impression of a very distant quasar powered by a black hole with a mass two billion times that of the Sun. (Image: ESO/M. Kornmesser via Wikimedia Commons)

Scientists have found the largest known structure in the universe, a cluster of galactic cores so vast it would take four billion years for a spacecraft traveling at the speed of light to cross it.

The sighting challenges a theory from Einstein which suggests such a massive object shouldn’t exist in the universe.

A quasar is the compacted center of a galaxy surrounding a massive black hole from the early days of the universe.  Quasars  go through periods of extreme brightness which can last anywhere from 10 to 100 million years. They tend to band together in enormous clusters, or structures, forming large quasar groups (LQGs).

The international group of scientists led by Roger Clowes from the University of Central Lancashire’s Jeremiah Horrocks Institute, used data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), a major surveying project that uses 2.5-m wide-angle optical telescope located at New Mexico’s Apache Point Observatory, to make their findings.

Clowes and his colleagues are astounded by the size of this structure, which defies the Cosmological Principal, based on Albert Einstein’s theory of General Relativity that assumes when you look at the universe from a sufficiently large scale; it looks the same no matter where you are observing it from.  The Cosmological Principle, according to the research team, is assumed but has never been demonstrated observationally ‘beyond reasonable doubt.’

LQG - Large quasar group as imaaged by the Big Throughput Camera at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile (Photo: Chris Haines)

Large quasar group (LQG) as imaged by the Big Throughput Camera at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile (Photo: Chris Haines)

“While it is difficult to fathom the scale of this LQG, we can say quite definitely it is the largest structure ever seen in the entire universe,” said Clowes. “This is hugely exciting, not least because it runs counter to our current understanding of the universe. The universe doesn’t seem to be as uniform as we thought.”

Clusters of galaxies can be anywhere from six to 10 million light-years across, but the LQGs can be 650 million light-years or more across. Making calculations based on the Cosmological Principle, along with the modern theory of cosmology, astrophysicists shouldn’t be able to find a structure in the universe larger than 1.2 billion light-years, much less four billion light-years across as this newly sighted structure is.

To get some additional perspective of what the astronomers found, let’s step back and give it a sense of scale.  Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is separated from its nearest neighbor, the Andromeda Galaxy, by a distance of 2.5 million light-years.

Clowes points out that his team’s discovery does have a typical dimension of 1.6 billion light-years. But, because it is elongated, its longest dimension is four billion light-years, making it about 1,650 times larger than the distance from the Milky Way to Andromeda.

Milky Way Contains Billions of Earth-sized Planets, Studies Find

The Milky Way - Looking up at the stars in our galaxy imagine that 1 out of 6 of them have an Earth-like planet orbiting it, according to two recently released studies (Photo: Steve Jurvetson via Wikimedia Commons)

One out of every six stars in our Milky Way galaxy has an Earth-like planet orbiting it, according to two new studies. (Photo: Steve Jurvetson via Wikimedia Commons)

There are at least 17 billion Earth-sized worlds in our Milky Way galaxy, according to two new studies.

Both groups of scientists used data from NASA’s Kepler mission to reach their conclusions, which were presented to the American Astronomical Society in Long Beach, California.

The scientists found that the closer the planets are to their stars, the easier they are to find because they transit more frequently, giving scientists more opportunities to observe them.

One group, led by Francois Fressin of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), said its studies show 50 percent of stars in our galaxy have a planet the size of Earth or larger closely orbiting them.

Add in larger planets, which have been found to be in wider orbits around its star, and the percentage of stars with planets goes up to 70 percent, according to the researchers.

Based on current ongoing observations from the Kepler mission, along with others using different detection techniques, it looks like practically all Sun-like stars have planets, according to the Harvard-Smithsonian team.

A second group of researchers, from the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Hawaii at Manoa, found smaller exoplanets to be much more plentiful than larger ones in the star systems it observed. The analysis also confirmed that the frequency of planets increased as its size decreased, which team member Andrew Howard and the Kepler team reported last year.

Perhaps one percent of stars have planets the size of Jupiter, while 10 percent have planets the size of Neptune, according to the Berkeley/ Hawaii team. The group’s research also shows the exoplanets they observed, which were two or three times the diameter of Earth, are typically more like our solar system’s Uranus and Neptune, each of which has a rocky core  surrounded by helium and hydrogen gases and, perhaps, water.

Artist's illustration represents the variety of planets being detected by NASA's Kepler spacecraft. A new analysis has determined the frequencies of planets of all sizes, from Earths up to gas giants. (Image: C. Pulliam & D. Aguilar (CfA))

Artist’s conception of the wide variety of planets detected by NASA’s Kepler spacecraft. (C. Pulliam & D. Aguilar/CfA)

They suggest planets orbiting close to their stars may even be water worlds, with oceans hundreds of kilometers deep, surrounding a rocky core.

Although the planets between one to two times larger than Earth may not necessarily be habitable,  the Berkeley/Hawaii team  said those planets might be rocky and, if they’re located within what they call the “Goldilocks zone” –not too hot, not too cold, just right for liquid water– could support life.

The Harvard-Smithsonian researchers found that, except for the gas giants, the type of star didn’t really have much effect on the size of its planets, contradicting previous findings. Neptune-type planets, they said, can be found just as frequently orbiting around relatively cool stars, called red dwarfs, as they are around sun-like stars. The same is true for smaller worlds.

“Earths and super-Earths aren’t picky,” said Guillermo Torres of the Harvard-Smithsonian team. “We’re finding them in all kinds of neighborhoods.”

As more data is gathered, more planets in larger orbits will be revealed, according to the Harvard-Smithsonian researchers. They say when Kepler’s mission is extended, astronomers should be able to spot Earth-sized planets at greater distances, including those with Earth-like orbits within the habitable zone.

Science Images of the Week

Astronauts on the International Space Station recently used a digital camera to capture several hundred photographs of the Aurora Australis, or the “southern lights”. Solar panels and other sections of the ISS fill some of the upper right side of the photograph.  (Photo: NASA)

Astronauts on the International Space Station recently used a digital camera to capture several hundred photographs of the Aurora Australis, or the “southern lights.”  (Photo: NASA)

A research team from the University at Buffalo (New York) that has been studying glaciers at Ayr Lake on Baffin Island, Canada found that the island's glaciers reacted rapidly to past climate change, providing what they say is a rare glimpse into glacier sensitivity to climate events. (Photo: Jason Briner via NSF)

A research team from the University at Buffalo in New York, studying glaciers at Ayr Lake on Baffin Island, Canada, found the island’s glaciers reacted rapidly to past climate change, providing what they say is a rare glimpse into glacier sensitivity to climate events. (Photo: Jason Briner via NSF)

The lava lake in the Halemaʻumaʻu crater of Hawaii’s Kīlauea volcano spits and sputters with occasional bursts of volcanic material. (Photo: USGS)

The lava lake in the Halemaʻumaʻu crater of Hawaii’s Kīlauea volcano spits and sputters with occasional bursts of volcanic material. (Photo: USGS)

Two galaxies becoming one - this is a Hubble photo of NGC 2623 which is really two galaxies that are in the final stages of a titanic galaxy merger some 300 million light-years away.  (Photo: NASA)

Two galaxies becoming one. This is a Hubble telescope photo of NGC 2623, two galaxies in the final stages of a titanic galaxy merger, located some 300 million light-years away. (Photo: NASA)

This is NASA’s SMiRF - Small Multi-Purpose Research Facility that evaluates the performance of thermal protection systems required to provide long-term storage and transfer of cryogenic propellants in space. Recent testing was done over a range of temperatures as low as -253°C and tank pressures from 20-80 psia (pounds per square inch absolute). (Photo: NASA & Bridget R. Caswell (Wyle Information Systems, LLC))

NASA’s Small Multi-Purpose Research Facility ( SMiRF ) evaluates the performance of thermal protection systems required to provide long-term storage and transfer of cryogenic propellants in space. Recent testing was done over a range of temperatures as low as -253°C and tank pressures from 20-80 psia (pounds per square inch absolute). (Photo: NASA & Bridget R. Caswell (Wyle Information Systems, LLC))

The Soyuz rocket, carrying ISS Expedition 33 crew members, launches to the International Space Station from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on Tuesday 10-23-12.  (Photo: NASA/Bill Ingalls)

The Soyuz rocket carrying ISS Expedition 33 crew members launches to the International Space Station from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, on Tuesday, Oct. 23, 2012. (Photo: NASA)

Paragorga arborea, also known as bubblegum coral, is an abundant coral species that can grow massive colonies, can reach up to 8 meters in height and can be hundreds of years old. (Photo: NOAA/MBARI)

Paragorga arborea, also known as bubblegum coral, is an abundant coral species that can grow massive colonies, and has been found at polar, subpolar, and subtropical regions of all of the world’s oceans. It can reach up to eight meters in height and live up to 100 years.  (Photo: NOAA/MBARI)

A look at the center of our galaxy – Using a massive nine-gigapixel image from the VISTA infrared survey telescope at ESO’s Paranal Observatory in Chile, an international team of astronomers has created a catalog of more than 84 million stars located in the central parts of the Milky Way.  The image is so large that, if printed with the resolution of a typical book, it would be 9 meters long and 7 meters tall.  (Photo: ESO/VVV Consortium/Ignacio Toledo)

A look at the center of our galaxy. Using a massive nine-gigapixel image, (from the VISTA infrared survey telescope at ESO’s Paranal Observatory in Chile) an international team of astronomers has created a catalog of more than 84 million stars located in the central parts of the Milky Way. The image is so large that, if printed with the resolution of a typical book, it would be 9 meters long and 7 meters tall. (Photo: ESO/VVV Consortium/Ignacio Toledo)

This is a robot at the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory that has been coded with PaR-PaR, which stands for Programming a Robot; a simple high-level, biology-friendly, robot-programming language that allows researchers to make better use of liquid-handling robots and thereby make possible experiments that otherwise might not have been considered.  (Photo: Roy Kaltschmidt, Berkeley Lab)

This is a robot at the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory that has been coded with PaR-PaR, which stands for Programming a Robot; a simple, high-level, biology-friendly, robot-programming language that allows researchers to make better use of liquid-handling robots and thereby make possible experiments that otherwise might not have been considered. (Photo: Roy Kaltschmidt, Berkeley Lab)

A bright particle of material found in a hole dug by the Curiosity Martian rover caused a bit of concern at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory because another similar object, found nearby, was identified as a piece of debris from the spacecraft.  However, the mission's science team assessed the bright particles in this scooped pit to be native Martian material rather than spacecraft debris. (Photo: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS)

A bright particle of material found in a hole dug by the Curiosity Martian rover caused a bit of concern at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory because another similar object, found nearby, was identified as a piece of debris from the spacecraft. However, the mission’s science team assessed the bright particles in this scooped pit to be native Martian material rather than spacecraft debris. (Photo: NASA)

NASA is funding research for a potentially revolutionary technology that would be capable of detecting, with atomic-level precision, gravitational waves that were predicted in Einstein’s general theory of relativity. (Photo: NASA)

NASA/Goddard physicist Babak Saif checks an oscilloscope as he works on a project that would be capable of detecting, with atomic-level precision, gravitational waves that were predicted in Einstein’s general theory of relativity. (Photo: NASA)

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