SPECIES: Psathyrostachys juncea

Choose from the following categories of information.

• Introductory
• Distribution and occurrence
• Botanical and ecological characteristics
• Fire ecology
• Fire effects
• Management considerations
• References

INTRODUCTORY

AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION FEIS ABBREVIATION SYNONYMS NRCS PLANT CODE COMMON NAMES TAXONOMY LIFE FORM FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS OTHER STATUS
	Photo courtesy Tarleton State University

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

• GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• ECOSYSTEMS
• STATES/PROVINCES
• BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
• SAF COVER TYPES
• SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES
• HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM
• REGENERATION PROCESSES
• SITE CHARACTERISTICS
• SUCCESSIONAL STATUS
• SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT

Russian wildrye is a nonnative, perennial, cool-season, bunch-type grass [136]. It is long lived and resistant to cold and drought [8]. Wasser [161] estimates longevity to be 25 years or longer in cultivated plots in the Northern Great Plains and somewhat shorter on sites within the Great Basin.

The culms of Russian wildrye are leafless, erect and densely tufted, typically 1.3 to 3.7 feet (0.4-1.1 m) tall. The inflorescence is a terminal spike, 1.2 to 4.3 inches (3-11 cm) long. Glumes and lemmas are typically scabrous and short-awned. The fruit is a caryopsis, 0.2 inch (5 mm) long. Leaves are basal, 3 to 11 inches (7-30 cm) long and 0.25 to 0.5 inch (6.4-12.8 mm) wide with blades that are flat or curled inward [61,164]. Leaf sheath bases are usually persistent, often shredding into fibers [36]. Russian wildrye forms an extensive network of dense, fibrous roots and is strictly caespitose, forming no rhizomes or stolons [26,35,59,107]. The root system can establish to a depth of  8 to 10 feet (2.5-3 m), with 75% of roots in the top 6 inches (15 cm). The horizontal spread of the root system can be 4 to 5 feet (1.2-1.5 m) [142].

Physiology:
Flooding — Russian wildrye has moderate flood tolerance in the summer and fall [122], but is intolerant of winter or spring flooding [142].

Drought — Russian wildrye is exceptionally tolerant of drought [82,142]. Russian wildrye produces seminal lateral roots when drought kills the primary roots [15,53,149]. Plants may survive for 60 days or more when restricted to only the seminal root system until moisture conditions improve and adventitious roots develop [15].

Breeding system: Russian wildrye is monoecious [61].

Pollination: A reference could not be found that speaks specifically to the pollination of Russian wildrye, but it is presumed that it is similar to other perennial grasses and is cross-pollinated by wind [58,68,153].

Seed production: Seed production in Russian wildrye ranges from 50 to 300 pounds per acre under dryland conditions [17,136] and 100 to 700 pounds per acre with irrigation [12,95,136]. Grazing soon after seed maturity  increases the seed production the following year by preventing the development of long mesocotyls. Long mesocotyls cause the shoot apices to form in an elevated position where they are more exposed to frost damage, resulting in a loss of seed production potential [96].

Seed dispersal: The seed of Russian wildrye shatters readily at maturity [142]. Most of the seed falls under or near the parent plant [50].

Seed banking: Grasses typically have seeds that are a transient part of the seed bank. Much of the seed remains in the litter layer and is lost to predation [105].

Germination: In the laboratory, Russian wildrye germinates at a rate of 82% to 85% at 62 to 86 ^oF (17-30 ^oC) [11,136,176]. Germination rate drops to 34% at colder temperatures and to 70% at warmer temperatures [176]. Maximum germination rate is achieved at 14 days. Shaw and Cooper [136] recommend 5 days of prechilling prior to planting for optimum seed germination. Seeds can be stored for 4 years before germination rates fall below 70% [136]. Germination rates decrease with increased moisture stress. In laboratory tests, seed germination was greater than 90% at a simulated dehydration level of -59 megapascals (mP). The germination rate dropped to an average of 60% at -120 mP and 33% at -220 mP [14].

Seedling establishment/growth: Russian wildrye is very difficult to establish. It is especially sensitive to seeding depth, and does not emerge well if seeded to a depth of greater than 0.5 to 0.75 inch (1.3-1.9 cm) [6]. Seedlings are weak and develop slowly [142]. Seedling establishment is best on loamy soils because sandy soils may dry out before seedling roots can grow to a depth to find available moisture [72]. 

Asexual regeneration: Russian wildrye produces tillers from axillary buds on the root crown [65]. Heavy grazing can decrease tiller numbers, but moderate grazing to a plant height of 3 inches (7.6 cm) can stimulate tillering and increase tiller numbers [39,65]. Although Russian wildrye does produce tillers, the vegetative spread is very slow [12].

Russian wildrye is adapted to sites receiving 8 to 14 inches (20-36 cm) of annual precipitation [62,76,145]. Holzworth and Lacey [73] rate Russian wildrye as one of the best pasture grasses for Montana on sites receiving <13 inches (330 mm) precipitation.

The following table lists elevation ranges where Russian wildrye is reported to occur or has been successfully planted on wildland sites:

Although Russian wildrye is hard to establish and slow to spread, once it is established, the extensive root growth makes this grass very competitive for water and nutrients [26,136,142]. When established in pure stands, it may nearly exclude other vegetation for years [72,82].

Plummer [125] suggests that Russian wildrye planted into salt desert shrub areas seldom persists longer than 10-12 years and is replaced eventually by natives or more invasive introduced grasses. On a salt desert shrub site in Utah, Russian wildrye persisted for more than 14 years at a cover of 15% to 21%; natural recruitment of native species including shadscale (Atriplex spp.), green molly (Kochia americana), and bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides) increased on the plots within this time period [111]. In the arid shadscale zone of Utah and Nevada, Russian wildrye was still surviving on some sites after 10 years, although coverage was considered "sparse" [24].

In pinyon-juniper woodlands on the Hualapai Indian Reservation in Arizona, Russian wildrye persisted on seeded sites for more than 21 years [41].

In aspen (Populus spp.) parkland pastures in British Columbia, Russian wildrye established well, but was replaced steadily by crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) until it was considered "all but gone" within 10 years [103,158].

Russian wildrye planted into a big sagebrush habitat in Nevada persisted for at least 18 years. It persisted best for the first 11 years, and then was steadily replaced by the sagebrush [130].

In Alberta rangelands, cultivated fields of Russian wildrye have persisted for 17 to 35 years; native grasses generally did not reinvade the fields [140].

FIRE ECOLOGY

• FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS
• POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY

Fire regimes: The historic fire regimes of grassland communities were generally of the stand replacement type. Fire frequency was highly variable because fires could occur in any given year as long as the grass was dry enough to burn and ignition sources were available. Fire return intervals probably ranged from 4 to 20 years in the plains grasslands and 5 to 40 years in the mountain grasslands, depending on climate and ignition sources. Native Americans ignited fires for a variety of reasons, and this was a predominant source of ignition at low to middle elevations in areas of high use. Grassland fuels, when cured and dry, are ideally suited for burning; however, bunchgrasses can be difficult to ignite regardless of their dryness. Historically, grassland fires would burn until a break in terrain or a change in weather stopped the fire, sometimes covering several hundred square miles [117].

Russian wildrye was not present in North America while historic fire regimes were still operating. It is unclear how Russian wildrye may affect or alter fire regimes in plant communities where it is present because as of this writing (2005), fire ecology studies are lacking for Russian wildrye. The following table provides some fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where Russian wildrye occurs. For further information regarding fire regimes and fire ecology of communities and ecosystems where Russian wildrye is found, see the FEIS species reviews for the plant community or ecosystem dominant listed below:

FIRE EFFECTS

• IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT
• PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE
• DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE
• FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Russian wildrye was favored by a spring burn of a cultivated field near Fargo, North Dakota. Canopy coverage of Russian wildrye was higher on the burned areas in the second postburn season (13%) than on the unburned areas (10.5%) [113].

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

• IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE
• VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES
• OTHER USES
• OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Once established, Russian wildrye provides one of the best sources of forage on many semiarid rangelands [8]. The leaves have a longer growing season than most dryland grasses and have the ability to cure on the stem; this allows for a long grazing season. The forage yields per acre for Russian wildrye are usually not as high as other grasses, but the high digestibility and long season of use compensate for the lower yields [60]. Plants in new pastures should be allowed to mature and set seed before they are grazed [141]. Although Russian wildrye can be grazed from early spring to winter, it is often best to graze this grass lightly in the spring, and then again in late summer and fall when other grasses are unproductive or low in quality [8,102,141]. Grazing systems that utilize crested wheatgrass in spring, native range in summer, and Russian wildrye in late summer and fall have been recommended for maintaining high daily gains for beef cattle in the Northern Great Plains [102].

Russian wildrye recovers rapidly after grazing if adequate moisture is available and is tolerant of close grazing [82,136]. It is better utilized for pasture and range rather than hay production because most of the growth is from basal leaves, which are difficult to pick up with harvesting equipment [141].

Palatability/nutritional value: The palatability and nutritional value of Russian wildrye to livestock and wildlife have been rated as follows [43]:

Deer mice eat Russian wildrye seeds, but in feeding tests, the seeds did not rank as "preferred" [47]. 'Bozoisky' wildrye was ranked as "avoided" by black-tailed jackrabbits in a feeding study near Burns, Oregon [54]. Angora goats "indifferently" graze Russian wildrye when crested wheatgrass is readily available [55].

The forage of Russian wildrye is nutritious, highly digestible, and it retains digestibility and high nutritive value into the fall and winter [6,33,64,142,166]. In a 2-year field study in eastern Montana, Russian wildrye averaged a crude protein level of 14.5%, and a phosphorus level of 0.27%, adequately meeting the requirements for a 1,000 pound (500 kg) lactating cow of  9% crude protein and 0.22% phosphorus [38]. Fat content usually averages about 1.62% [64].

Cook and Harris [33] compared spring season digestible protein levels in Russian wildrye and crested wheatgrass. They found that the digestible protein of Russian wildrye was 8.1% in early-spring and 7.4% in late-spring, compared to 10.6% early-spring and 3.9% late-spring for crested wheatgrass. The recommended digestible protein for lactating ewes is 5.4% in the first 8 weeks after lambing. Russian wildrye provides adequate protein throughout the crucial spring lactating period, whereas crested wheatgrass is inadequate toward the end of the period.

Grazing studies have generally shown that Russian wildrye's high nutritive values in late-summer and fall results in better late-season weight gains in cattle than other forage grasses. In a grazing study of Russian wildrye in Saskatchewan, Holt and Knipfel [71] found that over a 6-year period, the average daily weight gain in September and October was 0.75 pounds (0.34 kg) per day for cows and 2.2 pounds (1.0 kg) per days for calves.

One limitation of Russian wildrye as a forage grass is the potential for cattle to develop grass tetany, a deficiency of available magnesium caused by a high potassium: magnesium plus calcium ratio [10,77]. The grass tetany risk can be reduced by seeding Russian wildrye in mixtures with alfalfa (Medicago sativa) or other legumes [9].

Cover value: The degree to which Russian wildrye provides cover for wildlife species has been rated as follows [43]:

Russian wildrye has been commonly and effectively used in revegetation efforts to control invasive nonnatives including leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula), spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), diffuse knapweed (C. diffusa), Russian knapweed (C. repens), yellow starthistle (C. solstitialis), cheatgrass, halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus), Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica), Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), and musk thistle (Carduus nutans). Herbicide application, with or without cultivation, prior to seeding with Russian wildrye often improves the level of weed control [20,21,25,26,32,40,42,50,91,92,100,126,131,167,168,169,170].

Although Russian wildrye has been planted for erosion control, it is not especially suited for this purpose. When planted in pure stands, it does not naturally fill in between rows very quickly after planting [37,44,140,141]. A high percentage of bare ground is left exposed, increasing the risk of wind and water erosion [171]. However, in critical situations, planting Russian wildrye provides quick cover, giving better erosion control than no vegetation cover at all [87,94]. 

Attempts to use Russian wildrye to revegetate mine spoils have generally not been successful [49,104,109].

Dormaar and others [44] compared native rangeland to 17- to 27-year-old cultivated monocultures of Russian wildrye in southern Canada. The native range had about 7.5 times more root mass in the upper soil horizons, and soils in the native rangeland had significantly more (P<0.01) organic matter. The wide spacing used for the seeding of the Russian wildrye resulted in 44% bare ground exposure, compared to less than 5% for the native range.

As of this writing (2005), Russian wildrye is apparently not considered invasive or noxious.

The biggest limitation in growing Russian wildrye is the difficulty of establishment. Seeding depth is the most crucial factor determining successful establishment. Seed establishment is enhanced by seeding into a firm, weed-free seedbed at a depth of less than 1 inch (2.5 cm). Seeding can be done in early spring, in summer if soil moisture is adequate, or in late fall once soil temperatures remain below 45 ^oF (4.4 ^oC). Row spacings of  2 to 3 feet (0.7-0.9 m) are recommended for pastures in dry areas, and 1 to 2 feet (0.3-0.7 m) in areas where the annual precipitation is above 14 inches (35.6 cm) [70,154].

Although Russian wildrye will produce seed well on relatively fertile dryland soils, seeds are difficult to harvest due to lodging and shattering [136]. The relatively high moisture content and softness of the seed can lead to damage during harvesting and reduced germination potential. Seeds should be harvested in the firm dough stage with a combine set at a slow cylinder speed (1,000 rpm). Seeds harvested in this stage will need to be dried before storage [154]. Binding and field curing is an alternative method of seed harvest [12,31,154]. Nitrogen fertilization is necessary to maintain high seed yields of Russian wildrye for many years [154].

Russian wildrye is subject to attack by grasshoppers and cutworms [141], but is relatively resistant to the bluegrass billbug [7,112]. Russian wildrye is resistant to barley-yellow-dwarf virus [110], but is susceptible to Septoria leaf spot disease [18] and head smut [150].

Psathyrostachys juncea: References

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