Habitat fragmentation and the associated reduction in connectivity between habitat patches are commonly cited causes of genetic differentiation and reduced genetic variation in animal populations. We used eight microsatellite markers to investigate genetic structure and levels of genetic diversity in a relict population of wood frogs (Lithobates sylvatica) in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. We also estimated migration rates among subpopulations, tested for a pattern of isolation-by-distance, and looked for evidence of a recent population bottleneck. The results from the clustering algorithm in Program STRUCTURE indicated the population is partitioned into two genetic clusters (subpopulations), and an estimate of FST (FST = 0.0675, P-value < 0.0001) also supports the genetic differentiation of the two clusters. Migration rates among the two subpopulations were small. Though we found support for a pattern of genetic isolation-by-distance, other processes also may have affected levels of genetic differentiation. Genetic variability in the population is low relative to other studies. However, we found no evidence that a recent bottleneck was responsible for the low variation. Conservation of the population of wood frogs would be improved by increasing the spatial distribution of the population and improving gene flow between the subpopulations. Construction or restoration of wetlands in the landscape between the clusters has the potential to address each of these objectives.

1. Ecologists have long been interested in the processes that determine patterns of species occurrence and co-occurrence. Short-comings of many existing empirical approaches for these questions include a reliance on patterns of occurrence at a single time point, failure to properly account for imperfect detection, and treating the environment as a static variable. <br />
2. We fit detection and non-detection data collected from repeat visits using a dynamic site occupancy model that simultaneously accounts for the temporal dynamics of a focal prey species, its predators, and its habitat. Our objective was to determine how disturbance and species interactions affect the co-occurrence probabilities of an endangered toad and recently introduced non-native predators in stream breeding habitats. To do this we determined support for alternative processes that could affect co-occurrence frequency in the system. <br />
3. Co-occurrence probabilities of toads with non-native predators in high-disturbance ephemeral streams and low-disturbance perennial streams were directly related to the differences disturbance regimes in each of the stream types. If predators were established at a site, they were rarely lost from the site except in cases when the site dried out. Once a dry site became suitable again, toads colonized them much more rapidly than predators, creating a period of predator-free space.<br />
4. We attribute the dynamics to a ‘storage effect’ where toads persisting outside of the stream environment during periods of drought rapidly colonized sites when they become suitable again. Our results demonstrate that, even in a highly connected stream network, temporal disturbance can structure frequencies with which breeding amphibians encounter non-native predators.<br />
5. Dynamic site occupancy models are a powerful tool for quantifying inter-species and species-habitat interactions. In contrast to previous methods that infer dynamic processes based on static patterns in occupancy, the approach we take allows the dynamic processes that determine species-species and species-habitat interactions to be directly estimated.

1. Altered global climates in the 21st century pose serious threats for biological systems and practical actions are needed to mount a response for species at risk.<br />
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2. We identify management actions from across the world and from diverse disciplines that are applicable to minimizing loss of amphibian biodiversity under climate change. Actions were grouped under three thematic areas of intervention: (i) installation of microclimate and microhabitat refuges; (ii) enhancement and restoration of breeding sites; and (iii) manipulation of hydroperiod or water levels at breeding sites.<br />
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3. Synthesis and applications. There are currently few meaningful management actions that will tangibly impact the pervasive threat of climate change on amphibians. A host of potentially useful but poorly tested actions could be incorporated into local or regional management plans, programmes and activities for amphibians. Examples include: installation of irrigation sprayers to manipulate water potentials at breeding sites; retention or supplementation of natural and artificial shelters (e.g. logs, cover boards) to reduce desiccation and thermal stress; manipulation of canopy cover over ponds to reduce water temperature; and, creation of hydrologoically diverse wetland habitats capable of supporting larval development under variable rainfall regimes. We encourage researchers and managers to design, test and scale up new initiatives to respond to this emerging crisis.