In vitro meat

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In vitro meat, also known as cultured meat or shmeat, is an animal flesh product that has never been part of a complete, living animal. Alternative names include hydroponic meat, test-tube meat, vat-grown meat, victimless meat and vitro meat.

This form of meat has been described, sometimes derisively, as "laboratory-grown" meat. In vitro meat should not be confused with imitation meat, which is a vegetarian food product produced from vegetable protein, usually from soy or gluten. The terms "synthetic meat" and "artificial meat" may refer to either. The original NASA research on in vitro meat was intended for use on long space voyages or stays;[1] it would be a sustainable food source alongside hydroponic or aeroponically grown vegetables.[dubious – discuss]

Several current research projects are growing in vitro meat experimentally, although no meat has yet been produced for public consumption.[2] As early as 2008, some scientists claimed that the technology was ready for commercial use and simply needed a company to back it.[3] The first meats successfully grown in a lab included goldfish and lamb.[3] Scientists at Maastricht University plan to produce sausage by March 2012 and hamburger by September 2012.[4][5] A long-term goal for in vitro meat laboratories would be to grow fully developed muscle tissue after they made the first-generational products economically feasible for most people.[citation needed] Cultured meat is currently prohibitively expensive,[2] but it is anticipated that the cost could be reduced to about twice that of conventionally produced meat.[6][7] Potentially, any animal's muscle tissue could be grown through the in vitro process, even human.

With the costs of conventional meat farming techniques constantly increasing and an increased demand from a rising world population, in vitro meat may be one of several new technologies needed to maintain food supplies by the year 2050.[8] Conventional meat production may simply become too expensive for the average consumer to support[8] (when the world's population will reach 8.9 billion people[9]). The price of in vitro meat would become detached from the price of grain and corn as there would be no feeding in the conventional sense.

Shmeat is a nickname given to lab-created meat grown from a cell culture of animal tissue.[10][11] The etymology of this usage is the combination of “sheet” and “meat.”[12]

Contents

[edit] History

Modern research into in vitro meat arose out of experiments conducted by NASA, attempting to find improved forms of long-term food for astronauts in space.[13] The technique was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1995,[14] and NASA has been conducting experiments since 2001, producing in vitro meat from turkey cells.[15][16] The first edible form was produced by the NSR/Touro Applied BioScience Research Consortium in 2000: goldfish cells grown to resemble fish fillets.[2][6][17]

In 2001, dermatologist Wiete Westerhof from the University of Amsterdam, medical doctor Willem van Eelen, and businessman Willem van Kooten announced that they had filed for a worldwide patent on a process to produce in vitro meat.[18] In the process, a matrix of collagen is seeded with muscle cells, which are then bathed in a nutritious solution and induced to divide.[19] Scientists in Amsterdam study the culture medium, while the University of Utrecht studies the proliferation of muscle cells, and the Eindhoven University of Technology is researching bioreactors.[19] Van Eelen said that he had thought of the idea of in vitro meat for years, since he was held in a Japanese POW camp.

Jon F. Vein of the United States has also secured a patent (U.S. Patent 6,835,390) for the production of tissue-engineered meat for human consumption, wherein muscle and fat cells would be grown in an integrated fashion to create food products such as beef, poultry and fish.[20]

The first peer-reviewed journal article published on the subject of laboratory-grown meat appeared in a 2005 issue of Tissue Engineering.[13] Of course, the basic concept dates back further. Winston Churchill said in the 1930s, "Fifty years hence, we shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium."[15]

In 2008, PETA offered a $1 million prize to the first company that brings lab-grown chicken meat to consumers by 2012.[3] The Dutch government has put US$4 million into experiments regarding in vitro meat.[15] The In Vitro Meat Consortium, a group formed by international researchers interested in the technology, held the first international conference on the production of in vitro meat, hosted by the Food Research Institute of Norway in April 2008, to discuss commercial possibilities.[2] Time Magazine declared in vitro meat production to be one of the 50 breakthrough ideas of 2009.[21] In November 2009, scientists from the Netherlands announced they had managed to grow meat in the laboratory using the cells from a live pig.[22]

As of 2012, 30 laboratories from around the world have announced they're working on in vitro meat research.[23] Scientists have to make the product profitable for corporations in order for them to take this emerging technology into consideration. Finding an industrial process, rather than a scientific process, may make in vitro meat cheaper than conventional meat. Assuming that the proper materials are used and conditions remain ideal, two months of in vitro meat production could deliver up to 50,000 tons of meat from ten pork muscle cells.[24]

[edit] Production

Most meat is animal muscle. The process of developing in vitro meat involves taking muscle cells and applying a protein that helps the cells to grow into large portions of meat.[2] Once the initial cells have been obtained, additional animals would not be needed – akin to the production of yogurt cultures.[25] Conceivably, one animal could provide more than a billion pounds of in vitro meat to feed the world's population for at least several hundred years.[26]

There are, loosely, two approaches for production of in vitro meat: loose muscle cells and structured muscle, the latter one being vastly more challenging than the former. Muscles consist of muscle fibers, long cells with multiple nuclei. They do not proliferate by themselves, but arise when precursor cells fuse. Precursor cells can be embryonic stem cells or satellite cells, specialized stem cells in muscle tissue. Theoretically, it is relatively simple to culture them in a bioreactor and then make them fuse. For the growth of real muscle, however, the cells should grow "on the spot," which requires a perfusion system akin to a blood supply to deliver nutrients and oxygen close to the growing cells, as well as to remove the waste products. In addition, other cell types, such as adipocytes, need to be grown, and chemical messengers should provide clues to the growing tissue about the structure. Lastly, muscle tissue needs to be physically stretched or "exercised" to properly develop.[2]

The price of in vitro meat at retail outlets like grocery stores and supermarkets may decrease prices to levels that middle-class consumers consider to be "inexpensive" due to technological advancements.[26] Milk, cheese and eggs could also be produced without needing multiple animals.

In vitro meat does not necessarily involve genetic engineering, a common misconception. In fact, the cells involved are natural cells which would grow in the normal method.[2] An in vitro meat habitat would be necessary to provide a "victimless shelter" for the formation of the animals whose cells that will eventually become the finished product.[27] No sentient being would be harmed while the skin for the in vitro meat product is being manufactured within the shelter.[27] Sodium benzoate would become a preserative to kill yeasts along with fungi.[27] Other materials would be used are: collagen powder, xanthan gum, mannitol, cochineal and sodium pyrophosphate.[27] Unless the technology improves, this module would only be capable of making very expensive cured pork or artificial leather with a very long shelf life.[27]

[edit] Research

[edit] Challenges

The science for in vitro meat is an outgrowth of the field of biotechnology known as tissue engineering.[28] The technology is simultaneously being developed along with other uses for tissue engineering such as helping those with muscular dystrophy and, similarly, growing transplant organs.[15][29] There are several obstacles to overcome if it has any chance of succeeding; at the moment, the most notable ones are scale and cost.[2][15]

  • Proliferation of muscle cells: Although it is not very difficult to make stem cells divide, for meat production it is necessary that they divide at a quick pace, producing the solid meat.[29] This requirement has some overlap with the medical branch of tissue engineering.
  • Culture medium: Proliferating cells need a food source to grow and develop. The growth medium should be a well-balanced mixture of ingredients and growth factors. Scientists have already identified possible growth media for turkey,[30] fish,[31] sheep [32] and pig [33] muscle cells. Depending on the motives of the researchers, the growth medium has additional requirements.
    • Commercial: The growth medium should be inexpensive to produce. A plant-based medium may be less expensive than fetal bovine serum.[29]
    • Environmental: The production of the growth medium should not have a negative effect on the environment. This means that the production should be energetically favorable. Ideally, the ingredients should come from completely renewable sources. Minerals from mined sources are in this case not possible, nor are synthetically produced nutrients which use non-renewable sources.
    • Animal welfare: The growth medium should be devoid of animal sources (except for the initial "mining" of the original stem cells).[29]
    • Non-Allergenic: While plant based growth media are "more realistic," will be cheaper, and reduce possibility of infectious agents, there is also the possibility that plant-based growth media may cause allergic reactions to some consumers.[34]
  • Bioreactors: Nutrients and oxygen need to be delivered close to each growing cell, on the scale of millimeters. In animals this job is handled by blood vessels. A bioreactor should emulate this function in an efficient manner. The usual approach is the creation of a sponge-like matrix in which the cells can grow, and perfusing it with the growth medium.

[edit] Initiatives

Perhaps the first research into in vitro meat was performed by M. A. Benjaminson from Touro College.[35] His research group managed to grow muscle tissue from goldfish in a laboratory setting with several kinds of growth media.

In 2004, a group of researchers started the non-profit organization New Harvest, with the goal of promoting research into in vitro meat. Among the founders are Jason Matheny[15] and Vladimir Mironov. According to their website, cultured meat in a processed form, like sausages,[15] hamburgers,[15] or chicken nuggets, may become commercially available within several years.[15] One of the first places of businesses to accept this in vitro meat would be fast food restaurants.[dubious – discuss] Since they do not disclose which farmer or rancher provided them with food, in vitro meat in fast food restaurants is often seen as an inevitable advancement.[dubious – discuss]

In April 2005, a research project into cultured meat started in the Netherlands, and in 2008, it was reported that most research into in vitro meat is being conducted by Dutch scientific teams.[29] The research is carried out under the lead of Henk Haagsman, a meat science researcher at the University of Amsterdam, the Eindhoven University of Technology and Utrecht University, in cooperation with sausage manufacturer Stegeman. The Dutch government granted a 2 million Euro subsidy for the project.[19]

On April 21, 2008, PETA announced a $1 million X-Prize style reward for the first group to successfully produce synthetic meat that is comparable to and commercially viable against naturally sourced meat products.[36]

[edit] Differences from conventional meat

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[edit] Health

Large scale production of in vitro meat may require artificial growth hormones to be added to the culture for meat production.[28] No procedure has been presented to produce large scale in vitro meat without the use of antibiotics to prevent bacterial infections.

Because in vitro meat has yet to be placed on the market, the health risks have not yet been fully investigated. This question is one of the main focuses of scientists working on in vitro meat, and the aim is to produce healthier meat than conventional meat, most notably by reducing its fat content and controlling nutrients.[dubious – discuss]

Researchers have suggested that omega-3 fatty acids could be added to in vitro meat as a health bonus.[15] In a similar way, the omega-3 fatty acid content of conventional meat can also be increased by altering what the animals are fed.[37] An issue of Time magazine has suggested that the in vitro process may also decrease exposure of the meat to bacteria and disease.[2]

Due to the strictly controlled and predictable environments of both in vitro meat farming and vertical farming, it is predicted that there will be reduced exposure to dangerous chemicals like pesticides and fungicides, severe injuries, and wildlife.[38].

[edit] Artificiality

Although in vitro meat consists of natural meat cells, consumers may find such a high-technology approach to food production distasteful. Technology in cuisine tends to remain stagnant for a long period of time as people are often wary of new cooking methods. In vitro meat has been disparagingly described as Frankenmeat, reflecting a sentiment that it is unnatural and therefore wrong.[39]

If in vitro meat turns out to be different in appearance, taste, smell, texture, or other factors, it may not be commercially competitive with conventionally produced meat. The lack of fat and bone may also be a disadvantage, for these parts make appreciable culinary contributions. However, the lack of bones and/or fat may make many traditional meats like Buffalo wings more palatable to small children.[40]

Moulds for in vitro meat would only come from the most visually appealing parts of the animal; creating an sense of authenticity into the food product.[41]

[edit] Environmental

Some have speculated that in vitro meat might require fewer resources and produce less greenhouse gas and other waste than conventional meat production.[42] For every acre that is used for vertical farming and/or in vitro meat manufacturing, anywhere between 10 acres (4.0 ha) to 20 acres (8.1 ha) of land may be converted from conventional agriculture usage back into its natural state.[43] Vertical farms (in addition to in vitro meat facilities) could exploit methane digesters to generate a small portion of its own electrical needs. Methane digesters could be built on site to transform the organic waste generated at the facility into biogas which is generally composed of 65% methane along with other gasses. This biogas could then be burned to generate electricity for the greenhouse or a series of bioreactors.[44]

A study by researchers at Oxford and the University of Amsterdam found that in vitro meat was "potentially ... much more efficient and environmentally-friendly", generating only 4% greenhouse gas emissions, reducing the energy needs of meat generation by up to 45%, and requiring only 2% of the land that the global meat/livestock industry does.[42][45] The patent holder for in vitro meat,[19] the journalist Brendan I. Koerner,[46] and Hanna Tuomisto, a PhD student from Oxford University all believe it has less environmental impact.[47] This is in contrast to cattle farming; which is "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases";[48] causing more damage to the environment than the combined effects of the world's transportation system. Vertical farming may completely eliminate the need to create extra farmland in rural areas along with in vitro meat.[49] Their combined role may create a sustainable solution for a cleaner environment.[49]

One skeptic is Margaret Mellon of the Union of Concerned Scientists, who speculates that the energy and fossil fuel requirements of large scale in vitro meat production may be more environmentally destructive than producing food off the land.[3] However, it has been indicated that both vertical farming in urban areas and the activity of in vitro meat facilities will cause very little harm to the species of wildlife that live around the facilities.[50] Many natural resources will be spared from depletion due to the conservation efforts made by both vertical farming and in vitro meat; making them ideal technologies for an overpopulated world.[51] Conventional farming, on the other hand, kills ten wildlife animals per hectacre each year.[50] Converting ten acres of farmland from its man-made condition back into either pristine wilderness or grasslands would save approximately 40 animals while converting two acres of that same farmland back into the state it was in prior to settlement by human beings would save approximately 80 animals.

[edit] Ethical considerations

Animal welfare groups are generally in favor of the production of in vitro meat because it does not have a nervous system and therefore cannot feel pain.[3][25][29]

Independent inquiries may be set up by certain governments to create a degree of standards for in vitro meat.[52] Laws and regulations on the proper creation of in vitro meat products would have to be modernized to adapt to this newer food product.[52] Some societies may decided to block the creation in vitro meat for the "good of the people - making its legality in certain countries a questionable matter.[52]"

[edit] Economic

The production of in vitro meat is currently very expensive—about US$1 million for a piece of beef weighing 250 grams (0.55 lb)[2]—and it would take considerable investment to switch to large scale production. However, the In Vitro Meat Consortium has estimated that with improvements to current technology there could be considerable reductions in the cost of in vitro meat. They estimate that it could be produced for 3500€/tonne (US$5037/tonne),[7] which is about twice the cost of unsubsidized conventional European chicken production.[6][7]

It has been suggested in the past that the high costs of food in developed countries are linked to packaging and advertising as opposed to the actual cost of the food product.[53] The American cable news network CNN projected that these prices would stabilize after the year 2017 due to the decreased number of plantings by North American and European farmers.[54] Prices have only recently begun to stabilize thanks to the total number of cash crop plantings – which started to increase again at the 2009 planting season.[55][56] Traditional livestock farming operations are suffering due to the rising cost of gasoline and electricity.[57]

The effects of the 2007–2008 world food price crisis are not expected to be repeated beyond 2011 due to ample stockpiles of various staple food items.[58] However, in vitro meat could help to improve the global stockpile of food with its inexpensive meat products. The UN's World Food Programme does not expect the price of wheat and corn – which are required to maintain livestock – to return to the levels that people enjoyed prior to 2008.[55][56] This is due to the rising cost of commodity goods in the emerging markets.[55][56] Good weather helped to increase grain yields in 2011 while demand had dropped due to the recession; leading to some price decreases.[59] This may not prevent the cost of conventional meat from becoming completely unaffordable to the masses by 2050. Skyscraper farming and urban agriculture initiatives may also play a helping role in lowering prices by bringing farming to urban areas (where the majority of the world's population lives).[60]

Any benefits that may come out of in vitro meat will have to be balanced with extra costs in order to protect the consumers' ability to afford food and the environment; particularly how in vitro meat affects global climate change.[52]

Vertical farming may absorb the other conventional farming jobs that become obsolete as a result of in vitro meat becoming popular with the masses.[38] Rural real estate values may plummet if ranch land previously used for the production of animal products is abandoned or sold for a loss. In vitro meat is also thought to be able to increase food security levels for the world's poor.[61]

[edit] In fiction

In vitro meat has often featured in science fiction. The earliest mention may be in Two Planets (original German title: Auf Zwei Planeten) (1897) by Kurd Lasswitz, where "synthetic meat" is one of the varieties of synthetic food introduced on Earth by Martians. Other notable books mentioning artificial meat include The Space Merchants (1952) by Frederik Pohl and C.M. Kornbluth; Neuromancer (1984) by William Gibson; Oryx and Crake (2003) by Margaret Atwood; and the Ware Tetralogy by Rudy Rucker.

In film, artificial meat has featured prominently in Giulio Questi's 1968 drama La morte ha fatto l'uovo (Death Laid an Egg) and Claude Zidi's 1976 comedy L'aile ou la cuisse (The Wing or the Thigh). "Man-made" chickens also appear in David Lynch's 1977 surrealist horror, Eraserhead.

The Starship Enterprise from Star Trek may use in-vitro meat as a food source. [62]

[edit] In popular culture

Shmeat was a subject on an episode of the Colbert Report on 17 March 2009.[63]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Fraser Cain (2005-07-06). "Artificial Meat Could Be Grown on a Large Scale". Universe Today. http://www.universetoday.com/10663/artificial-meat-could-be-grown-on-a-large-scale/. Retrieved 2012-02-21. 
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Siegelbaum, D.J. (2008-04-23). "In Search of a Test-Tube Hamburger". Time. http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1734630,00.html?imw=Y. Retrieved 2009-04-30. 
  3. ^ a b c d e Levine, Ketzel (2008-05-20), Lab-Grown Meat a Reality, But Who Will Eat It?, National Public Radio, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90235492, retrieved 2010-01-10 
  4. ^ Meat without slaughter: '6 months' to bio-sausages at New Scientist
  5. ^ "In vitro meat". YouTube. 2012-02-23. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBashCiVlCo. Retrieved 2012-04-04. 
  6. ^ a b c Temple, James (2009-02-23). "The Future of Food: The No-kill Carnivore". Portfolio.com. http://www.portfolio.com/views/columns/dual-perspectives/2009/02/23/The-No-kill-Carnivore. Retrieved 2009-08-07. 
  7. ^ a b c Preliminary Economics Study of Cultured Meat, eXmoor Pharma Concepts, 2008
  8. ^ a b Artificial food? Food for thought by 2050 from guardian.co.uk
  9. ^ Data from UN WORLD POPULATION TO 2300
  10. ^ "Lab-Grown Meat a Reality, But Who Will Eat It?". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90235492. Retrieved 2011-12-08. 
  11. ^ "Meet Shmeat: Test-Tube Meat". Huffingtonpost.com. 2008-12-10. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/12/10/meet-shmeat-test-tube-mea_n_149936.html. Retrieved 2011-12-08. 
  12. ^ "Meat grown in the lab". Shmeat.net. 2007-11-14. http://www.shmeat.net. Retrieved 2011-12-08. 
  13. ^ a b "Paper Says Edible Meat Can be Grown in a Lab on Industrial Scale" (Press release). University of Maryland. 2005-07-06. http://www.newsdesk.umd.edu/scitech/release.cfm?ArticleID=1098. Retrieved 2008-10-12. 
  14. ^ "Catachem, Inc Announces FDA Approval of UIBC In-Vitro Diagnostic (IVD) Chemistry Reagent Kit". BioPortfolio, verbatim, paid reprint of Catachem press release. 1995-02-21. Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20080602022053/http://www.bioportfolio.com/news/Catachem_35.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-07. 
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Macintyre, Ben (2007-01-20). "Test-tube meat science's next leap". The Australian. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/test-tube-meat-sciences-next-leap/story-e6frg8y6-1111112859219. Retrieved 2011-11-26. 
  16. ^ Webb, Sarah (2006-01-08). "Tissue Engineers Cook Up Plan for Lab-Grown Meat (The Year in Science: Technology)". Discover. http://discovermagazine.com/2006/jan/technology. Retrieved 2009-08-07. 
  17. ^ Benjaminson, Morris (2001-12-05). "Featured Research at Touro: Growing Fish Fillets Outside the Fish". Touro College School of Health Sciences. http://www.touro.edu/shs/spacefish.asp. Retrieved 2010-01-10.  Advance announcement of paper's publication in Acta Astronautica (not found there, but note Journal articles below).
  18. ^ WO9931222 A1 Application WO9931222, van Eelen, Willem Frederik; Willem Jan van Kooten & Wiete Westerhof, "INDUSTRIAL SCALE PRODUCTION OF MEAT FROM IN VITRO CELL CULTURES", published 1999-06-24 
  19. ^ a b c d van Eelen, Willem (2007-12-12). "Patent holder Willem van Eelen: ‘In another five years meat will come out of the factory’". inVitroMeat Foundation, operated by Willem van Eelen, publishing what appears to be an English translation of an article in Dutch by Anouck Vrouwe (subscribers only) from Het Financieele Dagblad. http://www.invitromeatfoundation.eu/uk/publications.php. 
  20. ^ US B1 6835390, Vein, Jon, "Method for producing tissue engineered meat for consumption", published 2001-11-16, issued 2004-12-28 
  21. ^ "The 50 Best Inventions of 2009". Time Magazine. 2009-11-12. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1934027_1934003_1933982,00.html. 
  22. ^ Rogers, Lois (2009-11-29). "Scientists grow pork meat in a laboratory". The Sunday Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/article6936352.ece. 
  23. ^ Lab-Grown Meat? $1 Million Reward Deadline Nears at FoodSafetyNews.com
  24. ^ Artificial meat grown in a lab could become a reality THIS year at DailyMail.co.uk
  25. ^ a b Raizel, Robin (2005-12-11). "In Vitro Meat". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E4D81331F932A25751C1A9639C8B63. Retrieved 2009-08-07. 
  26. ^ a b Kurzweil, Raymond (2005). The Singularity is Near. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303788-9. 
  27. ^ a b c d e In vitro meat habitat at Terreform
  28. ^ a b Edelman, P. D, D. C. McFarland, V. A. Mironov, and J. G. Matheny. 2005. In vitro-cultured meat production. Tissue Engineering 11(5–6): 659–662.
  29. ^ a b c d e f Kruglinski, Susan; Wright, Karen (2008-09-22). "I'll Have My Burger Petri-Dish Bred, With Extra Omega-3". Discover. http://discovermagazine.com/2008/oct/22-i.ll-have-my-burger-petri-dish-bred. 
  30. ^ McFarland, D. C., Doumit, M. E., & Minshall, R. D. (1988). The turkey myogenic satellite cell: Optimization of in vitro proliferation and differentiation. Tissue and Cell, 20(6), 899–908.
  31. ^ Benjaminson, M. A., Gilchriest, J. A., & Lorenz, M. (2002). In vitro edible muscle protein production system (MPPS): Stage 1, fish. Acta Astronautica, 51(12), 879–889.
  32. ^ Dodson, M. V., & Mathison, B. A. (1988). Comparison of ovine and rat muscle-derived satellite cells: Response to insulin. Tissue and Cell, 20(6), 909–918.
  33. ^ Doumit, M. E., Cook, D. R., & Merkel, R. A. (1993). Fibroblast growth factor, epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor-BB stimulate proliferate of clonally derived porcine myogenic satellite cells. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 157(2), 326–332.
  34. ^ I. Datar, M. Betti, Possibilities for an in vitro meat production system, Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 11 (2010) at 17.
  35. ^ In Search of a Test-Tube Hamburger from Touro College
  36. ^ "The PETA Files – Lab Meat: Tastes Like a Million Bucks". PETA. 2008-04-21. http://blog.peta.org/archives/2008/04/lab_meat_tastes.php. 
  37. ^ Azcona, J.O., Schang, M.J., Garcia, P.T., Gallinger, C., R. Ayerza (h), and Coates, W. (2008). "Omega-3 enriched broiler meat: The influence of dietary alpha-linolenic omega-3 fatty acid sources on growth, performance and meat fatty acid composition". Canadian Journal of Animal Science, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 88:257–269
  38. ^ a b Despommier, D. (2008). "Vertical Farm Essay I". Vertical Farm. http://www.verticalfarm.com/essay_print.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-26. 
  39. ^ A Practical Health Guide to In Vitro Meat from the Animal Liberation Front
  40. ^ Pigott, George M.; Tucker, Barbee W. (1990). Seafood. CRC Press. p. 236. ISBN 0-8247-7922-3. 
  41. ^ Dressing the Meat of Tomorrow at James King
  42. ^ a b Specter, Michael (2011-05-23), Annals of Science, Test-Tube Burgers, The New Yorker, http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/05/23/110523fa_fact_specter, retrieved 2010-06-28 
  43. ^ A Farm on Every Floor, The New York Times, August 23, 2009
  44. ^ Case Study — Landfill Power Generation, H. Scott Matthews, Green Design Initiative, Carnegie Mellon University. http://gdi.ce.cmu.edu/gd/education/landfill-case.pdf Retrieved 07.02.09
  45. ^ Lab-grown meat would 'cut emissions and save energy', 21 June 2011
  46. ^ Koerner, Brendan I. (2008-05-20). "Will Lab-Grown Meat Save the Planet? Or is it only good for cows and pigs?". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2191705/. 
  47. ^ Cheng, Maria (2010-01-15). "Stem Cells Turned Into Pork". http://news.discovery.com/tech/stem-cells-meat-petri-dish.html/. 
  48. ^ "Livestock a major threat to environment". FAO Newsroom. http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html. 
  49. ^ a b The Vertical Farm Project. 2009. “Agriculture for the 21st Century and Beyond.”
  50. ^ a b S.L. Davis (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet". Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp. 449–450. 
  51. ^ Despommier, Dickson (November 2009). "The Rise of Vertical Farms". Scientific American (New York: Scientific American Inc.) 301 (5): 60–67. ISSN 00368733. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-rise-of-vertical-farms. 
  52. ^ a b c d In vitro meat at Food Ethics Council
  53. ^ The Farmer
  54. ^ CNN "Food prices rising across the world" 24 March 2008
  55. ^ a b c World food prices stabilize, no drop in sight: WFP from Reuters
  56. ^ a b c Inflation slows in Feb. as food prices stabilize from GMA News
  57. ^ Rising electricity costs makes modern farming unsustainable – Entenergy.com
  58. ^ "Food Outlook". FAO. November 2010. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/al969e/al969e00.pdf. Retrieved April 24, 2011. "Amid fears of a repeat of the price surge experienced in 2008, FAO expects supplies of major food crops between 2010 and 2012 to be more adequate than two years ago, mainly because of much larger reserves." 
  59. ^ Brown, Lester (May/June 2011). "The New Geopolitics of Food". Foreign Policy. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/04/25/the_new_geopolitics_of_food?page=full. Retrieved 7 June 2011. 
  60. ^ FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). "Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture, Household Food Security and Nutrition"
  61. ^ "Test-Tube Meat: Could it Feed the World One Day?". Global Envision. 2011. http://www.globalenvision.org/topics/agriculture?page=1. Retrieved 2012-02-03. 
  62. ^ "Star Trek 'Charlie X'". 
  63. ^ "The Colbert Report: World of Nahlej – Shmeat". Comedy Central. 2009-03-17. http://www.colbertnation.com/the-colbert-report-videos/221975/march-17-2009/world-of-nahlej---shmeat. Retrieved 2011-12-08. 

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