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Part 618 – Soil Properties and Qualities
Subpart A – General Information
618.0 Definition and Purpose
- Soil properties are measured or inferred from direct
observations in the field or laboratory. Examples of soil properties
are particle-size distribution, cation-exchange
capacity, and salinity.
- Soil qualities are behavior and performance attributes that are
not directly measured. They are inferred from observations of
dynamic conditions and from soil properties. Examples of soil
qualities are corrosivity, natural drainage, frost action,
and wind erodibility.
- Soil properties and soil qualities are the criteria used in soil
interpretations, as predictors of soil behavior, and
for classification and mapping of soils. The soil properties entered
in the National Soil Information System (NASIS)
must be representative of the soil and the dominant land use for
which the interpretations are based.
618.1 Policy and Responsibilities
- Soil property data are collected, tested, and correlated as part
of soil survey operations. These data are reviewed, supplemented,
and revised as necessary.
- The Major Land Resource Area
(MLRA) soil
survey office is responsible for collecting,
testing, and correlating soil property data and interpretive
criteria.
- The MLRA
soil survey regional office (MO) is responsible for the development, maintenance,
quality assurance, correlation, and coordination of the collection
of soil property data that are used as interpretive criteria. This
includes all the data elements listed below.
- The National Soil Survey Center (NSSC) is responsible for the training,
review, and periodic update of soil interpretation technologies.
- The state soil scientist is responsible for ensuring that the
soil interpretations are adequate for the Field Office Technical
Guide and that they meet the needs of Federal, State, and local
programs.
618.2 Collecting, Testing, and Populating
Soil Property Data
- The collection and testing of soil property data is based on the
needs described in the soil survey memorandum of understanding for
individual soil survey areas. The collection and testing must conform to
the procedures and guides established in this handbook.
- As aggregated component data, soil properties and qualities that
are populated in NASIS
are not meant to be site-specific. They represent the component as
it occurs throughout the extent of the map unit. Most data entries
are developed by aggregating information from point data (pedons) to
create low, high, and representative values for the component.
618.3 Soil Properties and Soil Qualities
- The following sections list soil properties and qualities in
alphabetical order and provide some grouping for climatic and
engineering properties and classes. A definition, classes,
significance, method, and guidance for NASIS
database entry are given. The listing includes the soil properties
and qualities in the NASIS
database. For more details on the NASIS
database, refer to part 639 of this
handbook. For specifics on data structure, attributes, and choices
in NASIS,
refer to
http://www.soils.usda.gov/technical/nasis/documents/metadata/index.html.
Then follow the link to the “NASIS
Version 6.x” index webpage.
- Previous databases of soil survey information used metric or English
units for soil properties and qualities. Values in English units, except
for crop yields, were
converted into metric units during transfer into the
NASIS
database. All future edits and entries in
NASIS
except yields and acreage will use metric units.
- Ranges of soil properties and qualities that are posted in the
NASIS database
for map unit components may extend beyond the established limits of the taxon from which the component gets its name, but only to the extent
that interpretations do not change. However, the representative value
(rv) is within the range of the taxon.
618.4 Albedo, Dry
- Definition.—“Albedo, dry” is the estimated ratio
of the incident shortwave (solar) radiation that is reflected by the
air-dry, less than 2 mm fraction of the soil surface to that
received by it.
- Significance
- Soil albedo, as a function of
soil color and angle of incidence of the solar radiation, depends on
the inherent color of the parent material, organic matter content,
and weathering conditions.
- Estimates of the evapotranspiration rates and predictions of soil
water balances require albedo values. Evapotranspiration and soil
hydrology models that are part of water quality and resource
assessment programs require this information.
- Measurement.—There are instruments that measure albedo.
- Estimation.—Approximate the values by use of
the following formula:
- Soil Albedo = 0.069 × (Color Value) - 0.114.
- For albedo, dry, use dry color value. Surface roughness has a
separate significant impact on the actual albedo. The equation above
is the albedo of <2.0 mm smoothed soil condition; if the surface
is rough because of tillage, the albedo differs.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values of the map unit component using the above
formula. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 1, and hundredths
(two decimal places) are allowed.
618.5 Available Water Capacity
- Definition.—“Available water capacity” is the
volume of water that should be available to plants if the soil,
inclusive of fragments, were at field capacity. It is commonly
estimated as the amount of water held between field capacity and
wilting point, with corrections for salinity, fragments, and rooting
depth.
- Classes.—Classes of available water capacity
are not normally used except as adjective ratings that reflect the
sum of available water capacity in inches to some arbitrary depth.
Class limits vary according to climate zones and the crops commonly
grown in the areas. The depth of measurement also is variable.
- Significance.—Available water capacity is an
important soil property in developing water budgets, predicting droughtiness, designing and operating irrigation systems, designing
drainage systems, protecting water resources, and predicting yields.
- Estimates.—The most common estimates of
available water capacity are made in the field or the laboratory as
follows:
- Field capacity is determined by sampling the soil
moisture content just after the soil has drained following a
period of rain and humid weather, after a spring thaw, or
after heavy irrigation. Soil Survey Investigations Report
No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0,
November 2004, USDA, NRCS, provides more information.
- The 15-bar moisture content of the samples is determined
with pressure membrane apparatus.
- An approximation of soil moisture content at field
capacity is commonly made in the laboratory using 1/3-bar
moisture percentage for clayey and loamy soil materials and
1/10-bar for sandy materials. Recently, some soil physicists
have been using 1/10-bar instead of 1/3-bar for clayey and
loamy soil materials and 1/20-bar for sandy soil materials.
- Measure the bulk density of the moist soil. Soil
Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory
Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS, provides more
information.
- Calculate available water capacity (AWC) using the
following formula:
AWC = (W1/3 - W15)
x (Db1/3)
x Cm / 100
Where
AWC = volume of water retained in 1 cm3 of
whole soil between 1/3-bar and 15-bar tension; reported as
cm cm-1 [numerically equivalent to inches
of water per inch of soil (in in-1)]
W1/3 = weight percentage of water retained at
1/3-bar tension
W15 = weight percentage of water retained at
15-bar tension
Db1/3 = bulk density of <2-mm fabric at
1/3-bar tension
Cm = rock fragment conversion factor derived from: volume moist <2-mm fabric (cm3) / volume moist whole soil
(cm3)
Method 3A2b is used to determine volume moist <2-mm fabric
(cm3).
AWC (cm cm-1 or in in-1 horizon) =
AWC (cm cm-1 or in in-1)
x horizon
thickness
- If data are available, estimates are based on available
water capacity measurements. If data are not available, data
from similar soils are used as a guide. The relationship
between available water capacity and other soil properties
has been studied by many researchers. Soil properties that
influence available water capacity are particle size; size,
shape, and distribution of pores; organic matter; type of
clay mineral; and structure.
- If roots are excluded from a horizon such as a duripan,
the amount of water available to plants is nearly zero.
Available water capacity values are zero for layers that
exclude roots. If roots are restricted but not excluded,
estimates of available water capacity are reduced according
to the amount of dense material in the layers and the space
available for root penetration. Depending on the ability of
roots to enter the soil mass and utilize the water, values
for the soils with these dense layers may be significantly
less than for soils of similar texture that do not have
pans. Entries are made for all soil layers below dense
layers only if roots are present.
- Depending on their abundance and porosity, rock and
pararock fragments reduce available water capacity.
Nonporous fragments reduce available water capacity in
proportion to the volume they occupy. For example, 50-percent nonporous cobbles reduce available water capacity
as much as 50 percent. Porous fragments, such as sandstone,
may reduce available water capacity to a lesser extent.
- Several factors contribute to a lower amount of plant
growth on saline soils. However, as a rough guide, available
water capacity is reduced by about 25 percent per 4 mmhos cm-1 electrolytic conductivity of the saturated
extract.
- Soils high in gibbsite or kaolinite, such as Oxisols and
Ultisols, may have available water capacity values that are
about 20 percent lower than those with equal amounts of 2:1
layer-lattice clays.
- Soils high in organic matter have a higher available water
capacity than soils low in organic matter if the other
properties are the same.
- Entries.—Enter high, low, and representative
values for available water capacity in cm per cm for each horizon.
Enter “0” for layers that exclude roots. The range of valid entries
is from 0 to 0.7 cm per cm, and hundredths (two decimal places) are
allowed.
618.6 Bulk Density, One-Third Bar
- Definition.—“Bulk density, one-third bar” is the oven-dried
weight of the less than 2 mm soil material per unit volume of soil
at a water tension of 1/3 bar (33 kPa).
- Significance.—Bulk density influences plant
growth and engineering applications. It is used to convert
measurements from a weight basis to a volume basis. Within a family
level particle-size class, bulk density is an indicator of how well plant
roots are able to extend into the soil. Bulk density is used to
calculate porosity.
- Plant Growth.—Bulk density is an indicator of how well
plant roots are able to extend into the soil. Root
restriction initiation and root-limiting bulk densities are
shown below for various particle-size classes.
Particle-Size Class |
Bulk Density (g cm-3) |
|
Restriction-Initiation |
Root-Limiting |
Sandy |
1.69 |
>1.85 |
Loamy |
|
|
coarse-loamy |
1.63 |
>1.80 |
fine-loamy |
1.60 |
>1.78 |
coarse-silty |
1.60 |
>1.79 |
fine-silty |
1.54 |
>1.65 |
Clayey* |
|
|
35-45% clay content |
1.49 |
>1.58 |
>45% clay
content |
1.39 |
>1.47 |
*Soils with high iron oxide
content (e.g., sesquic mineralogy) or with andic soil
properties can initiate restriction at lower bulk densities.
- Engineering Applications.—Soil horizons with bulk
densities less than those indicated below have low strength
and would be subject to collapse if wetted to field capacity
or above without loading. They may require special designs
for certain foundations.
Particle-Size Class |
Bulk Density (g cm-3) |
Sandy |
<1.60 |
Loamy |
|
coarse-loamy |
<1.40 |
fine-loamy |
<1.40 |
coarse-silty |
<1.30 |
fine-silty |
<1.40 |
Clayey |
<1.10 |
- Estimates.—The weight applies to the oven-dry
soil, and the volume applies to the soil at or near field capacity.
Bulk density is a use-dependent property. The entry should
represent the dominant use for the soil.
- Entries.—Enter bulk density at one-third bar with the low, high, and representative values for each
horizon. The range of valid entries is from 0.02 to 2.6 g cm-3, and
hundredths (two decimal places) are allowed. Values should be
estimated to the nearest 0.05 g cm-3.
618.7 Bulk Density, Oven Dry
- Definition.—“Bulk density, oven dry” (pbod)
is the oven-dry weight of the less than 2 mm soil material per unit
volume of oven-dry soil.
- Estimation.—The value pbod
is derived by the following formula:
pbod = [(linear extensibility
percent/100) + 1]3
Where, linear extensibility percent is adjusted to a <2 mm
basis.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for each horizon. The range of valid entries
is from 0.02 to 2.6 g cm-3, and hundredths (two decimal places) are allowed.
618.8 Calcium Carbonate Equivalent
- Definition.—“Calcium carbonate equivalent” is the
quantity of carbonate (CO3) in the soil expressed as CaCO3 and as a
weight percentage of the less than 2 mm size fraction.
- Significance.—The availability of plant
nutrients is influenced by the amount of carbonates in the soil.
This is a result of the effect that carbonates have on soil pH and
of the direct effect that carbonates have on nutrient availability.
Nitrogen fertilizers should be incorporated into calcareous soils to
prevent nitrite accumulation or ammonium-N volatilization. The
availability of phosphorus and molybdenum is reduced by the high
levels of calcium and magnesium which are associated with
carbonates. In addition, iron, boron, zinc, and manganese
deficiencies are common in soils that have a high calcium carbonate
equivalent. In some climates, soils that have a high calcium
carbonate equivalent in the surface layer are subject to wind
erosion. This effect may occur in soils that have a calcium
carbonate equivalent of more than 5 percent. A strongly or violently
effervescent reaction to cold, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCL) defines calcareous in the
wind erodibility groups because of the significance of finely
divided carbonates.
- Measurement.—Calcium carbonate equivalent is
measured by a method that uses an aqueous solution of 3 normal
hydrogen chloride. The method is outlined in Soil Survey Investigations
Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0,
November 2004, USDA, NRCS. It also may be measured in the field
using calcimeters.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for each horizon listed. Round values to the
nearest 5 percent for horizons that have more than 5 percent CaCO3
and to the nearest 1 percent for those with less than 5 percent.
Enter 0 if the horizon does not have free carbonates. The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 110 percent, and only whole numbers
(integers) are allowed.
618.9 Cation-Exchange Capacity NH4OAc
pH 7
- Definition.—“Cation-exchange capacity” is the
amount of exchangeable cations that a soil can adsorb at pH 7.0.
- Significance.—Cation-exchange capacity is a
measure of the ability of a soil to retain cations, some of which
are plant nutrients. Soils that have a low cation-exchange capacity
hold fewer cations and may require more frequent applications of
fertilizer than soils that have a high cation-exchange capacity.
Soils that have a high cation-exchange capacity have the potential to
retain cations, which reduces the risk of the pollution of ground
water.
- Measurement.—Cation-exchange capacity is
measured by the methods outlined in Soil Survey Investigations
Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0,
November 2004, USDA, NRCS. The ammonium acetate method gives the cation-exchange
capacity value (CEC-7) for soils that have pH >5.5 or contain soluble salts.
This method uses a solution of one normal ammonium acetate buffered
at pH 7.0 to provide the extracting index cation (NH4+). Cation-exchange capacity is reported in centimoles per kilogram (cmol(+)
kg-1), which are equivalent to milliequivalents per 100
grams (meq 100 g-1) of soil. If the pH is less than 5.5, use
effective cation-exchange capacity (refer to Section 618.17).
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values of the estimated range in cation-exchange
capacity, in meq 100 g-1, for each horizon with pH >5.5. The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 400 meq 100 g-1, and tenths (one decimal
place) are allowed. A NASIS calculation is available and can be
viewed in Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.99.
618.10 Climatic Setting
Climatic setting includes frost-free period, precipitation,
temperature, and evaporation. These elements are useful in determining
the types of natural vegetation or crops that grow or can grow in an
area and in planning management systems for vegetation. Climatic data
are observed nationally by the National Weather Service Cooperative
Network, which consists of approximately 10,000 climate stations. The
records are available from the Climatic Data Access Facility (CDAF) at
Portland, Oregon. Climatic data are delivered to the field through the
Climatic Data Access Network. The Climatic Data Access Network consists
of climatic data liaisons established in each State and at National
Headquarters. Climatic data that are input into NASIS are obtained from
the respective climatic data liaison. Climatic data may also be obtained
from project weather stations or from the State climatologist. NRCS has
selected the current standard “normal” period of 1971 to 2000 for climate
database entries. (Existing entries in the NASIS
database may reflect the prior period of 1961 to 1990.) Always check with your
State’s climatic data liaison
before using a climate station that has less than 30 years of records or
that is located outside a county. Footnote the source of the data, the
station, and the starting and ending year of record. Means are given as
a range to represent the change of the climate over the geographic
extent of the assigned soil.
- Frost-Free Period
- Definition.—“Frost-free period” is the
expected number of days between the last freezing
temperature (0 °C) in spring (January-July) and the first
freezing temperature (0 °C) in fall (August-December). The
number of days is based on the probability that the values
for the standard “normal” period will be
exceeded in 5 years out of 10.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the map unit component. Enter 365
for each value for taxa that are frost-free all year and 0
for those that have no frost-free period. Entries are
rounded to the nearest 5 days.
- Precipitation, Mean Annual
- Definition.—“Mean annual precipitation”
is the arithmetic average of the total annual precipitation
taken over the standard “normal” period.
Precipitation refers to all forms of water, liquid or solid,
that fall from the atmosphere and reach the ground.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values in millimeters of water to represent
the spatial range for the map unit component. The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 11,500 mm, and only whole numbers
(integers) are allowed.
- Air Temperature, Mean Annual
- Definition.—“Mean annual air temperature”
is the arithmetic average of the daily maximum and minimum
temperatures for a calendar year taken over the standard
“normal” period.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the map unit component to
represent the spatial range in degrees Celsius (centigrade).
The range of valid entries is from -50.0 to 50.0 degrees,
and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed. Use a minus sign
to indicate temperatures below zero.
- Daily Average Precipitation
- Definition.—“Daily average precipitation”
is the total precipitation for the month divided by the
number of days in the month for the standard “normal”
period.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values, in millimeters. The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 750 mm. Record values to the
nearest whole number (integer).
- Daily Average Potential Evapotranspiration
- Definition.—“Daily average potential evapotranspiration” is the total monthly potential
evapotranspiration divided by the number of days in the
month for the standard “normal” period.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for daily average potential evapotranspiration in millimeters. The range of valid
entries is 0 to 300 mm. Record values to the nearest whole
number (integer).
618.11 Corrosion
Various metals and other materials corrode when they are on or in the soil, and some metals and materials corrode
more rapidly when in contact with specific soils than when in contact with others. Corrosivity ratings are given for
two of the common structural materials, uncoated steel and concrete.
- Uncoated steel
- Definition.—“Risk of corrosion for uncoated steel” is the susceptibility of uncoated
steel to corrosion when in contact with the soil.
- Classes.—The classes for risk of corrosion
to uncoated steel are low, moderate, and high.
- Significance.—Risk of corrosion to uncoated steel pertains to the potential soil-induced
electrochemical or chemical action that converts iron into its ions, thereby dissolving or weakening uncoated
steel.
- Guides.—Part 618, Subpart B,
Exhibits, Section 618.80 gives the relationship of soil
water, general texture group, acidity, and content of
soluble salts (as indicated by either electrical resistivity
at field capacity or electrolytic conductivity of the
saturated extract of the soil) to corrosion classes.
Soil reaction (pH) correlates poorly with corrosion
potential; however, a pH of 4.0 or less almost always
indicates a high corrosion potential.
Ratings, which are based on a single soil property or
quality, that place soils in relative classes for corrosion
potential must be tempered by knowledge of other properties
and qualities that affect corrosion. A study of soil
properties in relation to local experiences with corrosion
helps soil scientists and engineers to make soil
interpretations. Special attention must be given to those
soil properties that affect the access of oxygen and
moisture to the metal, the electrolyte, the chemical
reaction in the electrolyte, and the flow of current through
the electrolyte. Special attention must be given to the
presence of sulfides or of minerals, such as pyrite, that
can be weathered readily and thus cause a high degree of
corrosion in metals.
The possibility of corrosion is greater for extensive
installations that intersect soil boundaries or soil
horizons than for installations that are in one kind of soil
or in one soil horizon.
Using interpretations for corrosion without considering
the size of the metallic structure or the differential
effects of using different metals may lead to wrong
conclusions. Activities that alter the soil, such as
construction, paving, fill and compaction, and surface
additions, can increase the possibility of corrosion by
creating an oxidation cell that accelerates corrosion.
Mechanical agitation or excavation that results in aeration
and in a discontinuous mixing of soil horizons may also
increase the possibility of corrosion.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class of
risk of corrosion for uncoated steel for the whole map unit
component. The classes are low, moderate, and high.
- Concrete
- Definition.—“Risk of corrosion for concrete” is the susceptibility of concrete to
corrosion when in contact with the soil.
- Classes.—The classes for risk of corrosion
to concrete are low, moderate, and high
- Significance.—Risk of corrosion to concrete pertains to
the potential soil-induced chemical reaction between a base
(the concrete) and a weak acid (the soil solution). Special
cements and methods of manufacturing may be used to reduce
the rate of deterioration in soils that have a high risk of
corrosion. The rate of deterioration depends on soil texture
and acidity; the amount of sodium or magnesium sulfate
present in the soil, singly or in combination; and the
amount of sodium chloride (NaCl) present in the soil. The
presence of NaCl is evaluated because it is used to identify
the presence of seawater, rather than because of its
corrosive effects on concrete. Seawater contains sulfates,
which are one of the principal corrosive agents. A soil that
has gypsum or other sulfate minerals requires a special
cement in the concrete mix. The calcium ions in gypsum react
with the cement and weaken the concrete.
- Guides.—Part 618, Subpart B,
Exhibits Section 618.81 gives the relationship of soil
texture, soil acidity, sulfates, and NaCl to corrosion
classes.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class of
risk of corrosion for concrete for the whole map unit
component. The classes are low, moderate, and high.
618.12 Crop Name and Yield
- Definition.—“Crop name” is the common name for the crop. “Crop yield” is crop yield units per
unit area for the specified crop.
- Classes.—The crop names and the units of
measure for yields that are allowable as data entries are listed in
the NASIS
data dictionary. See Part 618, Subpart
B, Exhibits, Section 618.82 for the Web address of the current NASIS
data dictionary.
- Significance.—Crop names and units of measure are important as records of crop yield.
Although the
crops and yield often are specific to the time when the soil survey was completed, the ranking and comparison
between soils within a soil survey are helpful. These crop and yield data are used to evaluate the soil productive
capabilities, cash rent, and land values. Generally, only the most important crops are listed and only the best
management is reflected.
- Estimates
- Crop names and yields are specific to the soil survey area.
Although the listing of crop names
is not limited to any number, only the most important crops in the survey area should be used. The yields are
derived in a number of ways but should represent a high level of management by leading commercial farmers, which
tends to produce the highest economic return per acre. This level of management includes using the best varieties;
balancing plant populations and added plant nutrients to the potential of the soil; controlling erosion, weeds,
insects, and diseases; maintaining optimum soil tilth; providing adequate soil drainage; and ensuring timely
operations.
- Generally only a representative value is used for each map unit component for non-MLRA soil survey areas.
MLRA
soil survey areas use the high and low representative values from map unit components of non-MLRA soil survey areas.
High and low values represent the range of representative values for a high level of management across the survey area
or across several survey areas.
- Entries.—Enter the common crop name and units of measure. Enter
the corresponding irrigated yields, nonirrigated yields, or both, as
appropriate for the component. Yields can be posted as high, low,
and representative values for the map unit component.
618.13 Diagnostic Horizon Feature — Depth to
Bottom
- Definition.—The diagnostic horizon feature “depth to bottom” is the distance from the top of the soil
to the base of the identified diagnostic horizon or to the lower limit of the occurrence of the diagnostic feature.
- Measurement.—Distance is measured from the top of the soil, which is defined as the top of the
mineral soil, or, for soils with “O” horizons, the top of any
organic layer that is at least
slightly decomposed. For
soils that are covered by 80 percent or more rock or pararock fragments, the top of the soil is the surface of the
fragments. See pages 63-64 in the Soil Survey Manual for a complete discussion.
- Entries.—The values for the diagnostic horizon
feature depth to
bottom used to populate component data in NASIS
are not specific to any one point; they are a reflection of commonly
observed values based on field observations and are intended to
model the component as it occurs throughout the map unit. Enter the
high, low, and representative values in whole centimeters. The high
value represents either the greatest depth to which the base of the
diagnostic horizon or feature extends or, for horizons for features
extending beyond the limit of field observation, is the depth to
which observation was made (usually no more than 200 cm). In the
case of lithic contact, paralithic contact, and petroferric contact,
the entries for depth to the bottom of the diagnostic feature will
be the same as the entries for depth to the top of the feature since
the contact has no thickness.
618.14 Diagnostic Horizon Feature — Depth to
Top
- Definition.—The diagnostic horizon feature “depth to top” is the distance from the top of the soil
to the upper boundary of the identified diagnostic horizon or to the upper limit of the occurrence of the diagnostic
feature.
- Measurement.— Distance is measured from the top of the soil, which is defined as the top of the
mineral soil, or, for soils with “O” horizons, the top of any
organic layer that is at least
slightly decomposed. For
soils that are covered by 80 percent or more rock or pararock fragments, the top of the soil is the surface of the
fragments. See pages 63-64 in the Soil Survey Manual for a complete discussion.
- Entries.—The values for the diagnostic horizon
feature depth to top used to populate component data in NASIS
are not specific to any one point; they are a reflection of commonly
observed values based on field observations and are intended to
model the component as it occurs throughout the map unit. Enter the
high, low, and representative values in whole centimeters.
618.15 Diagnostic Horizon Feature — Kind
- Definition.—The diagnostic horizon feature “kind” is the kind of diagnostic horizon or diagnostic
feature present in the soil.
- Significance.—Diagnostic horizons and features are a particular set of observable or measurable
soil properties, defined in Soil Taxonomy, that are used to classify a soil. They have been chosen because they are thought to
be the marks left on the soil as a result of the dominant soil-forming processes. In many cases they are thought to
occur in conjunction with other important accessory properties. The utilization of diagnostic horizons and features
in the classification process allows the grouping of soils that have formed as a result of similar genetic processes.
The grouping, however, is done on the basis of observable or measurable properties rather than
by speculation about the
genetic history of a particular soil.
- Entries.—The diagnostic horizons and features are listed in the latest
edition of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy.
Allowable terms are given in the NASIS data dictionary.
618.16 Drainage Class
- Definition.—“Drainage class” identifies the natural drainage condition of the soil. It refers to
the frequency and duration of wet periods.
- Classes.—The eight natural drainage classes are listed below. Chapter 3 of the Soil Survey Manual provides a description of each natural drainage
class.
- Excessively drained
- Somewhat excessively drained
- Well drained
- Moderately well drained
- Somewhat poorly drained
- Poorly drained
- Very poorly drained
- Subaqueous
- Significance.—Drainage classes provide a guide to the limitations and potentials of the soil
for field crops, forestry, range, wildlife, and recreational uses. The class roughly indicates the degree, frequency,
and duration of wetness, which are factors in rating soils for various uses.
- Estimates.—Infer drainage classes from observations of landscape position and soil morphology.
In many soils the depth and duration of wetness relate to the quantity, nature, and pattern of redoximorphic features.
Correlate drainage classes and redoximorphic features through field observations of water tables, soil wetness, and
landscape position. Record the drainage classes assigned to the series.
- Entries.—Enter the drainage class name for each map unit component.
Use separate map unit
components for different drainage class phases or for drained versus undrained phases where needed.
618.17 Effective Cation-Exchange Capacity
- Definition.—“Effective cation-exchange capacity”
is the sum of ammonium acetate extractable bases plus potassium
chloride extractable aluminum.
- Significance.—Cation-exchange capacity (CEC)
is a measure of the ability of a soil to retain cations, some of
which are plant nutrients. Soils that have a low cation-exchange
capacity hold fewer cations and may require more frequent
applications of fertilizer and amendments than soils that have a
high cation-exchange capacity. Soils that have a high cation-exchange
capacity have the potential to retain cations. Effective CEC is a
measure of CEC that is particularly useful in soils whose
ion-exchange capacity is largely a result of variable charge
components, such as allophane, kaolinite, hydrous iron and aluminum
oxides, and organic matter. As a result, the CEC of these soils is
not a fixed number but is a function of pH. Examples include some
andic soils, Oxisols, and more weathered Ultisols with kaolinitic
mineralogy.
- Measurement.—Effective cation-exchange capacity
is calculated from the results of two separate laboratory methods.
One method measures the basic cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+)
extractable in a solution of one normal ammonium acetate buffered at
pH 7.0. Another method measures the aluminum extractable in a
solution of one normal potassium chloride. The methods are outlined
in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory
Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS. The effective cation-exchange
capacity (ECEC) value is reported for soil horizons that have pH
<5.5 and that are low in soluble salts. For soils that have a pH of
5.5 or greater, the ECEC equals the sum of NH4OAc
extractable bases. Effective cation-exchange capacity is reported in
centimoles per kilogram (cmol(+) kg-1) of soil, which are equivalent
to milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq 100 g-1) of soil.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values of the estimated range in effective cation-exchange
capacity at the field pH of the soil, in meq 100 g-1, for the
horizon. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 400 meq 100 g-1,
and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed. A NASIS calculation is
available and can be viewed in Part
618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.100.
618.18 Electrical Conductivity
- Definition.—“Electrical conductivity” is the electrolytic conductivity of an extract from
saturated soil paste.
- Classes.—The classes of salinity are:
Salinity Class |
Electrical Conductivity (mmhos cm-1) |
Nonsaline |
0 to <2 |
Very slightly saline |
2 to <4 |
Slightly saline |
4 to <8 |
Moderately saline |
8 to <16 |
Strongly saline |
≥16 |
- Significance.—Electrical conductivity is a measure of the concentration of water-soluble salts
in soils. It is used to indicate saline soils. High concentrations of neutral salts, such as sodium chloride and
sodium sulfate, may interfere with the absorption of water by plants because the osmotic pressure in the soil solution
is nearly as high as or higher than that in the plant cells. Salts may also interfere with the exchange capacity of
nutrient ions, thereby resulting in nutritional deficiencies in plants.
- Measurement.—The electrolytic conductivity of a
saturated extract is the standard measure used to express salinity.
Units of measure are decisiemens per meter (dS m-1), which
are equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos cm-1), at
25 degrees C. The laboratory procedure used
to measure electrical conductivity is described in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version
4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
- Estimates.—Field estimates of salinity are made
from observations of visible salts on faces of peds, throughout the
horizon matrix, on the soil surface, or some combination of the
three; from plant growth or
productivity; from the presence of native plant indicator species;
and from field salinity meters. The occurrences of bare spots,
salt-tolerant plants, and uneven crop growth are used as indicators
of salinity and high electrical conductivity. When keyed to
measurements, these observations help to estimate the amount of
salts.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the range of electrolytic conductivity of
the saturation extract during the growing season for each horizon.
Use the following ranges to represent the high and low values of the
salinity classes: 0-2, 2-4, 4-8, 8-16, and 16-32 (or a reasonable
high value for the strongly saline class) or use a combination of
classes (for example, 2-8 for the high and low values). The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 15000 mmhos cm-1, and tenths (one
decimal place) are allowed.
618.19 Elevation
- Definition.—“Elevation” is the vertical distance from mean sea level to a point on the earth’s
surface.
- Significance.—Elevation, or local relief, influences the genesis of natural
soil bodies. Elevation also may affect soil drainage within a landscape, salinity or sodicity within a climatic area,
or soil temperature.
- Estimates.—Elevation is normally obtained from U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps or
measured using altimeters or global positioning systems.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for elevation in meters for each map unit
component. The range of valid entries is from -300 to 8550 meters,
and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed.
618.20 Engineering Classification
- AASHTO
Group Classification
- Definition.—“AASHTO
group classification” is a system that classifies soils
specifically for geotechnical engineering purposes that are
related to highway and airfield construction. It is based on
particle-size distribution and Atterberg limits, such as
liquid limit and plasticity index. This classification
system is covered in Standard No. M 145-82, published by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO),
and consists of a symbol and a group index. The
classification is based on that portion of the soil that is
smaller than 3 inches in diameter.
- Classes.—The AASHTO
classification system identifies two general
classifications: granular materials having 35 percent or
less, by weight, particles smaller than 0.074 mm in diameter
and silt-clay materials having more than 35 percent, by
weight, particles smaller than 0.074 mm in diameter. These
two divisions are further subdivided into seven main group
classifications. Part 618,
Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.83 shows the criteria
for classifying soil in the AASHTO
classification system. The group and subgroup
classifications are based on estimated or measured
grain-size distribution and on liquid limit and plasticity
index values.
- Significance.—The group and subgroup classifications of this system aid in the
evaluation of soils for highway and airfield construction. The classifications can help to make general
interpretations relating to performance of the soil for engineering uses, such as highways and local roads
and streets.
- Measurements.—Measurements involve sieve analyses for the determination of grain-size
distribution of that portion of the soil between a 3 inch and 0.074 mm particle size. ASTM
Designations D 422,
C 136, and C 117 have applicable procedures for the determination of grain-size distribution. The liquid
limit and plasticity index values (ASTM
Designation D 4318) are determined for that portion of the soil having
particles smaller than 0.425 mm in diameter (no. 40 sieve). Measurements, such as laboratory tests, are made
on most benchmark soils and on other representative soils in survey areas.
- Estimates.—During soil survey investigations and field mapping activities, the soil is
classified by field methods. This classification involves making estimates of particle-size fractions by a
percentage of the total soil, minus the greater-than-3-inch fraction. Estimates of liquid limit and plasticity
index are based on clay content and mineralogy relationships. Estimates are expressed in ranges that include
the estimating accuracy as well as the range of values for the taxon.
- Entries.—Enter classes and separate
them by commas for each horizon, for example, A-7, A-6. The
acceptable entries for AASHTO
group are A-1, A-l-a, A-l-b, A-2, A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6,
A-2-7, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7, A-7-5, A-7-6, and A-8.
- AASHTO
Group Index
- Definition.—The AASHTO group and subgroup classifications may be further modified by
the addition of a group index value. The empirical group index formula was devised for approximate
within-group evaluation of the “clayey granular” materials
and the “silty-clay” materials.
- Significance.—The group index (GI) aids in the evaluation of the soils for highway and
airfield construction. The index can help to make general interpretations relating to performance of the soil
for engineering uses, such as highways and local roads and streets.
- Measurement.—The group index is calculated from an empirical formula:
GI = (F-35) [0.2 + 0.005 (LL-40)] + 0.01 (F-15) (PI-10)
Where:
F = percentage passing sieve No. 200 (75 micrometer),
expressed as a whole number
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index
In calculating the group index of A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, only the PI portion of the formula is
used.
- Entries.—The group index is reported to the nearest
integer. If the calculated group index is negative, the
group index value is zero. The minimum group index value is
0 and the maximum is 120. A NASIS
calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.98.
- Unified Soil Classification
- Definition.—The “Unified soil classification system” is a system
that classifies mineral
and organic mineral soils for engineering purposes based on particle-size characteristics, liquid limit, and
plasticity index.
- Classes
- The Unified soil classification
system identifies three major soil divisions:
- Coarse grained soils having less than 50 percent, by weight, particles smaller than 0.074 mm in diameter.
- Fine grained soils having 50 percent or more, by weight, particles smaller than 0.074 mm in diameter.
- Highly organic soils that demonstrate certain organic characteristics. These divisions are further
subdivided into a total of 15 basic soil groups.
- The major soil divisions and basic soil groups are determined
on the basis of estimated or measured values for grain-size distribution and Atterberg limits.
ASTM
Designation D 2487
shows the criteria chart used for classifying soil in the Unified system, the 15 basic soil groups of the
system, and the plasticity chart for the system.
- Significance.—The various groupings of this classification have been devised to
correlate in a general way with the engineering behavior of soils. This correlation provides a useful
first step in any field or laboratory investigation for engineering purposes. It can
be used to make some
general interpretations relating to probable performance of the soil for engineering uses.
- Measurement.—The methods for measurement are provided in ASTM Designation D 2487.
Measurements involve sieve analysis for the determination of grain-size distribution of that portion of the
soil between 3 inches and 0.074 mm in diameter (no. 200 sieve). ASTM
Designations D 422, C 136, and C 117 have
applicable procedures that are used, where appropriate, for the determination of grain-size distribution.
Values for the Atterberg limits (liquid limit and plasticity index) are also used. Specific tests are made
for that portion of the soil having particles smaller than 0.425 mm in diameter (no. 40 sieve) according to
ASTM
Designations D 423 and D 424. Measurements, such as laboratory tests, are made on most benchmark soils and
on other representative soils in survey areas.
- Entries for Measured Data.—For
measured Unified data, enter up to
four classes for each horizon. ASTM
Designation D 2487 provides flow charts for classifying the soils. Separate the
classes by commas, for example, CL-ML, ML. Acceptable entries are GW, GP, GM, GC, SW, SP, SM, SC, CL, ML,
OL, CH, MH, OH, PT, CL-ML, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-GC, GC-GM, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC, and SC-SM.
- Estimates.—The methods for estimating are provided in ASTM Designation D 2488. During
all soil survey investigations and field mapping activities, the soil is classified by field methods. The
methods include making estimates of particle-size fractions by a percentage of the total soil. The Atterberg
limits are also estimated based on the wet consistency, ribbon or thread toughness, and other simple field
tests. These tests and procedures are explained in ASTM
Designation D 2488. If samples are later tested in the
laboratory, adjustments are made to field procedures as needed. Estimates are expressed in ranges that
include the estimating accuracy as well as the range of values from one location to another within the map
unit. If an identification is based on visual-manual procedures, it must be clearly stated so in reporting.
- Entries for Estimated Soils.—For
estimated visual-manual Unified data,
enter up to four classes for each horizon. ASTM
Designation D 2488 provides flow charts for classifying the soils.
Separate the classes by commas, for example, CL, ML, SC. Acceptable entries are GW, GP, GM, GC, SW, SP, SM,
SC, CL, ML, CH, MH, OL/OH, PT, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-GC, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, and SP-SC.
618.21 Erosion Accelerated, Kind
- Definition.—“Erosion accelerated, kind” is the type of detachment and removal of surface soil
particles that is largely affected by human activity.
- Significance.—The type of accelerated erosion is important in assessing the current health of
the soil and in assessing its potential for different uses. Erosion, whether natural or induced by humans, is an
important process that affects soil formation and may remove all or parts of the soils formed in the natural
landscape.
- Classes.—There are five kinds of accelerated erosion:
- Water erosion, sheet
- Water erosion, rill
- Water erosion, gully
- Water erosion, tunnel
- Wind erosion
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class for each map unit component. Multiple entries are
allowable, but a representative value should be indicated.
618.22 Erosion Class
- Definition.—“Erosion class” is the class of accelerated erosion.
- Significance
- The degree of erosion that has taken place is important in assessing the health
of the soil and in assessing the soil’s potential for different uses. Erosion is an important process that affects
soil formation and may remove all or parts of the soils formed in natural landscapes.
- Removal of increasing amounts of soil increasingly alters various properties and capabilities of the soil.
Properties and qualities affected include bulk density, organic matter content, tilth,
and water infiltration. Altering
these properties affects the productivity of the soil.
- Estimation.—During soil examinations, estimate the degree to which soils have been altered
by accelerated erosion. The Soil Survey Manual describes the procedures involved.
- Classes.—There are five erosion classes:
- None - deposition
- Class 1
- Class 2
- Class 3
- Class 4
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class for each map unit component.
618.23 Excavation Difficulty Classes
- Definition.—“Excavation difficulty classes” are
used for soil layers, horizons, pedons, or geologic layers and
estimate the difficulty of making an excavation into them.
Excavation difficulty, in most instances, is strongly controlled by
water state, which should be specified.
- Classes.—The excavation difficulty classes are defined in the
following table.
Class |
Definition |
Low |
Excavations can be made with a spade using arm-applied pressure only. Neither application of impact
energy nor application of pressure with the foot to a spade is necessary. |
Moderate |
Arm-applied pressure to a spade is insufficient. Excavation can be accomplished quite easily by
application of impact energy with a spade or by foot pressure on a spade. |
High |
Excavation with a spade can be accomplished with difficulty. Excavation is easily possible with a
full length pick, using an over-the-head swing. |
Very High |
Excavation with a full length pick, using an over-the-head swing, is moderately to markedly difficult.
Excavation is possible in a reasonable period of time with a backhoe mounted on a 40 to 60 kW (50-80 hp)
tractor. |
Extremely High |
Excavation is nearly impossible with a full length pick using an over-the-head arm swing. Excavation
cannot be accomplished in a reasonable time period with a backhoe mounted on a 40 to 60 kW (50-80 hp)
tractor. |
- Significance.—Excavation difficulty classes are important for evaluating the cost and time
needed to prepare shallow excavations.
- Estimates.—Estimates of excavation difficulty classes are made from field observations.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class for each horizon. The allowable entries are
low, moderate,
high, very high, and extremely high.
618.24 Extractable Acidity
- Definition.—“Extractable acidity” is a measure of soil exchangeable hydrogen ions that may become
active by cation exchange.
- Significance.—Extractable acidity is important for soil classification and for certain
evaluations of soil nutrient availability or of the effect of waste additions to the soil.
- Measurement.—Extractable acidity is determined by
a method using a solution of barium chloride-triethanolamine
buffered at pH 8.2, as outlined in Soil Survey
Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
Units of measure are centimoles per kilogram (cmol(+) kg-1)
of soil,
which are equivalent to milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq 100 g-1)
of soil.
- Entries.—Enter the range of extractable acidity
in milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq 100 g-1) of soil for the
horizon. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 250 meq 100 g-1,
and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed. A NASIS calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.101.
618.25 Extractable Aluminum
- Definition.—“Extractable aluminum” is the amount
of aluminum that approximates the aluminum considered exchangeable.
It is a measure of the “active” acidity present in soils with a 1:1
water pH <5.5.
- Significance.—Extractable aluminum is important for soil classification and for certain
evaluations of soil nutrient availability and of toxicities. An aluminum saturation of about 60 percent is usually
regarded as toxic to most plants. It may be a useful measurement for assessing potential lime needs for acid
soils.
- Measurement.—Extractable aluminum is determined by
a method using a solution of one normal potassium chloride, as
outlined in Soil Survey Investigations
Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
Units of measure are centimoles per kilogram (cmol(+) kg-1)
of soil,
which are equivalent to milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq 100 g-1)
of soil.
- Entries.—Enter the range of extractable aluminum as milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq 100 g-1)
of soil for the horizon. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 150
meq 100 g-1, and hundredths (two decimal places) are
allowed.
618.26 Flooding Frequency Class, Duration
Class, and Month
- Definition.—“Flooding” is the temporary covering of the soil surface by flowing water from any
source, such as streams overflowing their banks, runoff from adjacent or surrounding slopes, inflow from high tides,
or any combination of sources. Shallow water standing or flowing that is not concentrated as local runoff during or
shortly after rain or snowmelt is excluded from the definition of flooding. Chapter 3 of the Soil Survey Manual
provides additional information. Standing water (ponding) or water that forms a permanent covering is also excluded
from the definition.
- Classes.—Estimates of flooding class are based on the interpretation of soil properties and
other evidence gathered during soil survey fieldwork. Flooding
hazard is expressed by flooding frequency class, flooding
duration class, and time of year that flooding occurs. Not
considered here, but nevertheless important, are velocity and depth
of floodwater. Frequencies used to define classes are generally
estimated from evidence related to the soil and vegetation. They are
expressed in wide ranges that do not indicate a high degree of
accuracy. Flooding frequencies that are more precise can be
calculated by performing complex analyses used by engineers. The
class “very frequent” is used for areas subject to daily and monthly
high tides.
- Flooding Frequency Class.—Flooding frequency class
indicates the number of
times flooding occurs over a period of time. The classes of flooding are defined as
follows:
Flooding Frequency Class |
Definition |
None |
No reasonable possibility of flooding; one chance
out of 500 of flooding in any year or less
than 1 time in 500 years. |
Very rare |
Flooding is very unlikely but is possible under extremely unusual weather conditions; less than
1 percent chance of flooding in any year or less than 1 time in 100 years but more than 1 time
in 500 years. |
Rare |
Flooding is unlikely but is possible under unusual weather conditions; 1 to 5 percent chance of
flooding in any year or nearly 1 to 5 times in 100 years |
Occasional |
Flooding is expected infrequently under usual weather conditions; 5 to 50 percent chance of
flooding in any year or 5 to 50 times in 100 years. |
Frequent |
Flooding is likely to occur often under usual weather conditions; more than a 50 percent chance
of flooding in any year (i.e., 50 times in 100 years), but less than a 50 percent chance of
flooding in all months in any year. |
Very frequent |
Flooding is likely to occur very often under usual weather conditions; more than a 50 percent
chance of flooding in all months of any year. |
- Flooding Duration Class.—The average duration of inundation per
flood occurrence is given only for the occasional, frequent, and very frequent classes
(defined above).
Flooding Duration Class |
Duration |
Extremely brief |
0.1 to 4 hours |
Very brief |
4 hours to < 2 days |
Brief |
2 days to < 7 days |
Long |
7 days to < 30 days |
Very long |
> 30 days |
- Assignment.—Yearly flooding frequency classes are assigned to months
and indicate the
months of occurrence and not the frequency of the flooding during the month, except for the very frequent
class. The time period expressed includes two-thirds to three-fourths of the occurrences. Time period and
duration of flooding are the most critical factors that determine the growth and survival of a given plant
species. Flooding during the dormant season has few if any harmful effects on plant growth or mortality and
may improve the growth of some species. If inundation from floodwater occurs for long periods during the
growing season, the soil becomes oxygen deficient and plants may be damaged or killed.
- Significance.—The susceptibility of soils to flooding is an important consideration for building
sites, sanitary facilities, and other uses. Floods may be less costly per unit area of farmland as compared to that
of urban land, but the loss of crops and livestock can be disastrous.
- Estimates.—The most precise evaluation of flood-prone areas for stream systems is based on
hydrologic studies. The area subject to inundation during a flood of a given frequency, such as one with a 1 percent
or 2 percent chance of occurrence, is generally determined by one of two basic methods.
- The first method is used if stream flow data are available. In this method, the data are analyzed to
determine the magnitude of floods of different frequencies. Engineering studies are made to determine
existing channel capacities and flow on the flood plain by the use of valley cross sections and water-surface
profiles.
- The second method is used if stream flow data are not available. In this method, hydrologists make an
estimate of flood potential from recorded data on rainfall. They consider such factors as—
- Size, slope,
and shape of the contributing watershed.
- Hydrologic characteristics of the soil.
- Land use and
treatment.
- Hydraulic characteristics of the valley and channel system.
- With the use of either method, soil surveys can aid in the delineation of flood-prone areas. Possible
sources of flooding information are—
- NRCS project-type studies, such as those arising from
Public Law 556, flood protection, river basin, or resource
conservation and development projects.
- Flood hazard analyses.
- Corps of Engineers (COE) flood plain information
reports.
- Special flood reports.
- Local flood-protection and flood-control project
reports.
- Department of Housing and Urban Development
flood-insurance study reports.
- Maps by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), NRCS,
Tennessee Valley Authority, COE, or National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration.
- Studies by private firms and other units of Government.
- USGS quadrangle sheets and hydrologic atlases of
flood-prone areas and stream gauge data.
- General estimates of flooding frequency and duration are made for each soil. However, in intensively used
areas where construction has materially altered the natural water flow, flood studies are needed to adequately
reflect present flooding characteristics.
- Soil scientists collect and record evidence of flood events during the course of the soil survey. The
extent of flooded areas, flood debris in trees, damage to fences and bridges, and other signs of maximum water
height are recorded. Information that is helpful in delineating soils that have a flood hazard is also
obtained. Hydrologists may have flood stage predictions that can be related to kinds of soil or landscape
features. Conservationists and engineers may have recorded elevations of high flood marks. Local residents
may have recollections of floods that can help to relate the events to kinds of soil, topography, and
geomorphology.
- Certain landscape features have developed as the result of past and present flooding and include former
river channels, oxbows, point bars, alluvial fans, meander scrolls, sloughs, natural levees, backswamps, sand
splays, and terraces. Most of these features are easily recognizable on aerial photographs
when the
photo image is compared to on-the-ground observations. Different kinds of vegetation and soils are normally associated
with these geomorphic features.
- The vegetation that grows in flood areas may furnish clues to past flooding. In
the central and southeastern
United States, the survival of trees in flood-prone areas depends on the frequency, duration, depth, and time
of flooding and on the age of the tree.
- Past flooding may sometimes leave clues in the soil, such as—
- Thin strata of material of contrasting color, texture,
or both.
- An irregular decrease in organic matter content, not due
to human-alteration by mixing or transportation of material,
which is an indication of a buried genetic surface horizon.
- Soil layers that have abrupt boundaries to contrasting
kinds of material, which indicate that the materials were
laid down suddenly at different times and were from
different sources or were deposited from stream flows of
different velocities.
- Artifacts which are easily moved and deposited by flood
waters (e.g., plastic bottles).
- Laboratory analyses of properly sampled layers are often helpful in verifying these observations. Organic
carbon and particle-size analyses are particularly useful in verifying flood deposits. Microscopic
observations may detect preferential horizontal orientation of plate-like particles; microlayering, which
indicates water-laid deposits; or mineralogical differences between layers.
- Entries.—Flooding and frequency are posted for each month of the year for each map unit
component. Flooding entries reflect the current existing and mapped condition with consideration for dams, levees,
and other human-induced changes affecting flooding frequency and duration.
- Enter the flooding frequency class name: none, very rare, rare, occasional, frequent, or very
frequent.
- Enter the flooding duration class name that most nearly represents the soil: extremely brief, very
brief, brief, long, or very long.
618.27 Fragments in the Soil
- Definition.—“Fragments” are unattached, cemented pieces of
bedrock, bedrock-like material, durinodes, concretions, nodules, or
pedogenic horizons (e.g., petrocalcic fragments) 2 mm or larger in
diameter and woody material 20 mm or larger in diameter in organic
soils. Fragments are separated into three types: rock fragments,
pararock fragments (which are distinguished by cementation class),
and wood fragments. The words “rock” and “pararock” are used here in
the broad sense and do not connote only natural fragments of
geologic material.
- Rock fragments are unattached pieces of geologic or
pedogenic material 2 mm in diameter or larger that are strongly cemented or
more resistant to rupture. Rock fragments from 2 mm to 75 mm (3 inches) are considered when estimating the
percent passing sieves, as discussed in
section 618.43.
- Pararock fragments are unattached, cemented pieces of
geologic or pedogenic material 2 mm in diameter or larger that
are extremely weakly cemented to moderately cemented. These fragments are not retained on sieves because they
are crushed by grinding during sample preparation.
- Wood fragments are woody materials that cannot be crushed between the fingers when moist or wet and are
larger than 20 mm in size. Wood fragments are only used in organic soils. They are comparable to rock and
pararock fragments in mineral soils.
- Significance
- The fraction of the soil 2 mm or larger in diameter has an impact on the behavior of the whole
soil. Soil properties, such as available water capacity, cation-exchange capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity,
structure, and porosity, are affected by the volume, composition, and size distribution of fragments in the soil.
Fragments also affect the management of the soil and are used as interpretation criteria. Terms related to volume,
size, and hardness of fragments are used as texture modifier terms.
- Generally, the fraction of soil greater than 75 mm (3 inches) in diameter is not included in the engineering
classification systems. However, it can be added as a descriptive term to the group name, for example, poorly graded
gravel with silt, sand, cobbles, and boulders. Estimates of the percent of cobbles and boulders are presented in
the soil descriptions for a group name (see
ASTM
Designation D 2487, appendix X1.1). A small amount of these larger particles generally has little effect on soil
properties. The particles may, however, have an effect on the use of a soil in certain types of construction. Often, the larger
portions of a soil must be removed before the material can be spread in thin layers, graded, or compacted and graded
to a smooth surface. As the quantity of this “oversized” fraction increases, the properties of the soil can be
affected. If the larger particles are in contact with each other, the strength of the soil is very high and the
compressibility very low. If voids exist between the larger particles, the soil will likely have high saturated
hydraulic conductivity and may undergo some internal erosion as a result of the movement of water through the voids.
Most of the smaller and more rapid construction equipment normally used in excavating and earthmoving cannot be used
if the oversize fraction of a soil is significant.
- Measurement.— The fraction from 2 to 75 mm in diameter may
be measured in the field. However, 50 to 60 kg of sample material
may be necessary if there is an appreciable amount of fragments near
75 mm. An alternative means of measuring is to visually estimate the
volume of the 20- to 75-mm fraction, then sieve and weigh the 2- to
20-mm fraction. The fraction 75 mm
(3 inches) or greater is usually not included in soil samples taken in the field for laboratory testing.
Measurements can be made in the field by weighing the dry sample and the portion retained on a 3-inch screen.
The quantity is expressed as a weight percentage of the total soil. A sample as large as 200 pounds to more than a
ton may be needed to assure that the results are representative. Measurements of the fraction from 75 to 250 mm (3
to 10 inches) and the fraction greater than 250 mm (10 inches) in
diameter are usually obtained from volume estimates.
- Estimates
- Estimates are usually made by visual
means and are on the basis of percent by volume. The percent by
volume is converted to percent by weight by using the average bulk unit
weights for soil and rock. These estimates are made during investigation and mapping activities in the field. They
are expressed as ranges that include the estimating accuracy as well as the range of values for a component.
- Measurements or estimates of fragments less than strongly cemented are made prior to any rolling or crushing of
the sample.
- Rock Fragments Greater Than 10 Inches (250 mm)
- Definition.—“Rock fragments greater than
10 inches” is the percent by weight of the horizon occupied
by rock fragments greater than 10 inches (250 mm) in
diameter. Although the upper limit is undefined, for
practical purposes it generally is no larger than a pedon,
up to 10 meters square. For nonspherical material, the
intermediate dimension is used for the 250 mm (10 inch)
measurement. For example, a flat-shaped rock fragment that
is 100 mm x 250 mm x 380 mm has an intermediate dimension of
250 mm and is not counted as greater than 250 mm. A
flat-shaped rock fragment that is 100 mm x 275 mm x 380 mm
has an intermediate dimension of 275 mm and is counted as
greater than 250 mm.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and representative values
in the Component Horizon Table in the NASIS
database as whole number percentages
for each horizon, as appropriate.
- Rock Fragments 3 to 10 Inches (75 to 250 mm)
- Definition.—“Rock fragments 3 to 10 inches” is the percent by weight of the horizon
occupied by rock fragments 3 to 10 inches (75 to 250 mm) in
diameter.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values in the Component Horizon Table in the NASIS
database as whole number percentages
for each horizon, as appropriate.
- Fragment Kind
- Definition.—“Fragment kind” is the lithology or composition of the 2 mm or larger fraction
of the soil (20 mm or larger for wood fragments).
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate fragment
kind name for the record of fragments populated in the
Component Horizon Fragments Table in the NASIS
database. The class names appear in a choice list and can
also be viewed in the NASIS
data dictionary.
- Fragment Roundness
- Definition.—“Fragment roundness” is an expression of the sharpness of edges and corners
of fragments.
- Significance.—The roundness of fragments impacts water infiltration, root penetration,
and macropore space.
- Classes.—The fragment roundness classes are:
Roundness Class |
Definition |
Very angular |
Strongly developed faces with very sharp,
broken edges. |
Angular |
Strongly developed faces with sharp edges (Soil Survey Manual (SSM)). |
Subangular |
Detectable flat faces with slightly rounded
corners. |
Subrounded |
Detectable flat faces with well-rounded
corners (SSM). |
Rounded |
Flat faces absent or nearly absent with all
corners rounded (SSM). |
Well-rounded |
Flat faces absent with all corners rounded. |
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate
fragment roundness class name for the record of fragments
populated in the Component Horizon Fragments Table in the NASIS
database.
- Fragment Hardness
- Definition.—“Fragment hardness” is
equivalent to the “rupture resistance cemented” of a
fragment of specified size that has been air dried and then
submerged in water.
- Measurements.—Measurements are made using the procedures and classes of cementation
that are listed with the rupture resistance classes in the Soil Survey Manual. Classes are described for
block-like specimens about 25-30 mm on edge, which are air dried and then submerged in water for at least
1 hour. The specimen is compressed between an extended thumb and forefinger, between both hands, or between
a foot and a nonresilient flat surface. If the specimen resists compression, a weight is dropped onto it
from progressively greater heights until it ruptures. Failure is considered at the initial detection of
deformation or rupture. Stress applied in the hand should be over a 1-second period. The tactile sense of
the class limits may be learned by applying force to top-loading scales and sensing the pressure through the
tips of the fingers or through the ball of the foot. Postal scales may be used for the resistance range
that is testable with the fingers. A bathroom scale may be used for the higher rupture resistance range.
- Significance.—The hardness of a fragment is significant where the
rupture resistance class is
strongly cemented or higher. These classes can impede or restrict the movement of soil water vertically
through the soil profile and have a direct impact on the quality and quantity of ground water and surface
water.
- Classes.—The fragment hardness (rupture resistance)
classes are—
- Extremely weakly cemented
- Very weakly cemented
- Weakly cemented
- Strongly cemented
- Very strongly cemented
- Indurated
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate
class namefor each record of fragments populated in the
Component Horizon Fragments Table in the NASIS
database. Choose the term without the word “cemented” (i.e.,
choose “moderately” to represent the moderately cemented
class).
- Fragment Shape
- Definition.—“Fragment shape” is a description of the overall shape of the fragment.
- Significance.—Fragment shape is important for fragments that are too large to be
called channers or flagstones.
- Classes.—The fragment shape classes are flat and nonflat.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate fragment
shape class name for each record of fragments populated in
the Component Horizon Fragments Table in the NASIS
database.
- Fragment Size
- Definition.—“Fragment size” is based on the multiaxial dimensions of the
fragment.
- Significance.—The size of fragments is significant to the use and management of the
soil. Fragment size is used as a criterion in naming map units. It affects equipment use, excavation,
construction, and recreational uses.
- Classes.—Classes of fragment size are
subdivided as flat or nonflat based on the shape of the
fragments (described above).
- Flat fragment classes are:
Flat Fragment Class |
Length of Fragment (mm) |
Channers |
2-150 |
Flagstones |
150-380 |
Stones |
380-600 |
Boulders |
≥600 |
- Nonflat fragment classes are:
NonFlat Fragment Class |
Diameter (mm) |
Gravel |
2-75 |
fine gravel |
2-5 |
medium gravel |
5-20 |
coarse gravel |
20-75 |
Cobbles |
75-250 |
Stones |
250-600 |
Boulders |
≥600 |
- Gravel is a collection of fragments having a diameter
ranging from 2 to 75 mm. Individual fragments in this
size range are properly referred to as pebbles, not
“gravels.” For fragments that are less than strongly cemented, “para” is added as a prefix to the above terms
(e.g., paracobbles or fine paragravel).
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values of each size class populated in the
Component Horizon Fragments Table in the NASIS
database. The range of valid entries is from 2 to 3,000
millimeters, and only whole numbers (integers) are
allowed.
- Fragment Volume
- Definition.—“Fragment volume” is the volume percentage of the horizon occupied by the 2 mm
or larger fraction (20 mm or larger for wood fragments) on a
whole soil base.
- Significance.—The volume occupied by the 2 mm or larger fraction is important
in selecting texture modifiers (i.e., gravelly, very gravelly, extremely paragravelly).
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the percent volume present of each
size class and kind of fragment populated in the Component
Horizon Fragments Table in the NASIS
database. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 100
percent, and only whole numbers (integers) are allowed.
618.28 Free Iron Oxides
- Definition.—“Free iron oxides” are secondary iron oxides, such as goethite, hematite, ferrihydrite, lepidocrocite, and maghemite. These forms of iron may occur as discrete particles, as coatings on
other soil particles, or as cementing agents between soil mineral grains.
They consist of iron extracted by
dithionite-citrate from the fine-earth fraction.
- Significance.—The amount of iron that is extractable by dithionite-citrate is used in the ferritic, ferruginous, parasesquic, and sesquic mineralogy
classes defined in Soil Taxonomy. The ratio of dithionite-citrate
(free) iron to total iron in a soil is a measure of the degree of soil weathering. Free iron oxides are important
in the soil processes of podzolization and laterization and play a significant role in the phosphorous fixation
ability of soils.
- Measurement.— Free iron oxides are measured as the amount extracted by
a solution of sodium dithionite and sodium-citrate
using a method outlined in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual,
Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
- Entries.—Enter high, low, and representative
values as percentages for each horizon for which data is available.
The range of valid entries is from 0 to 100 percent, and hundredths
(two decimal places) are allowed.
618.29 Frost Action, Potential
- Definition.—“Potential frost action” is a rating
of the susceptibility of the soil to upward
or lateral movement by the formation of segregated ice lenses. It rates the potential for frost heave and the
subsequent loss of soil strength when the ground thaws.
- Classes.—Classes are used in regions where frost action is a potential problem.
Refer to Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.84 for more information. The classes are low, moderate, and high and are defined as follows:
Potential Frost Action Class |
Definition |
Low |
Soils are rarely susceptible to the formation of ice lenses. |
Moderate |
Soils are susceptible to the formation of ice lenses, which results in frost heave and subsequent
loss of soil strength. |
High |
Soils are highly susceptible to the formation of ice lenses, which results in frost heave and
subsequent loss of soil strength. |
- Significance.—Damage from frost action results from the formation of segregated ice crystals
and ice lenses in the soil and the subsequent loss of soil strength when the ground thaws. Frost heave damages
highway and airfield pavements. It is less of a problem for dwellings and buildings that have footings which extend
below the depth of frost penetration. In cold climates, unheated structures that have concrete or asphalt floors
can be damaged by frost heave. Driveways, patios, and sidewalks can heave and crack. The thawing of the ice causes
a collapse of surface elevation and produces free-water perches on the still-frozen soil below. Soil strength is
reduced. Backslopes and side slopes of cuts and fills can slough during thawing. Seedlings and young plants of
clover, alfalfa, wheat, and oats can be raised out of the soil or have their root systems damaged by frost heave.
- Estimates
- Freezing temperatures, soil moisture, and susceptible soils are needed for the
formation of segregated ice lenses. Ice crystals begin to form in the large pores first. Water in small pores
or water that was adsorbed on soil particles freezes at lower temperatures. This supercooled water is strongly
attracted to the ice crystals, moves toward them, and freezes on contact with them. The resulting ice lens continues
to grow in width and thickness until all available water that can be transported by capillary has been added to the
ice lens and a further supply cannot be made available because of the energy requirements.
- Soil temperatures must drop below 0° C for frost action to occur. Generally, the more slowly and deeply the frost
penetrates, the thicker the ice lenses are and the greater the resulting frost heave is.
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.85 is a
map that shows the design freezing index values in the continental United States. The values are the number of degree
days below 0° C for the coldest year in a period of 10 years. The values indicate duration and intensity of freezing
temperatures. The 250 isoline is the approximate boundary below
which frost action ceases to be a problem. Except on the West Coast,
the frost action boundary corresponds closely to the functional
boundary between the mesic and thermic soil temperature regimes as
defined in Soil Taxonomy. More information is provided in the U.S. Army Engineer School,
Student Reference, 1967, Soil
Engineering, Section I, Volume II, Chapters VI-IX, Fort Belvoir, Virginia.
- Water necessary for the formation of ice lenses may come from a high water table or from infiltration at the
surface. Capillary water in voids and adsorbed water on particles also contribute to ice lens formation but, unless
this water is connected to a source of free water, the amount generally is insufficient to produce significant ice
segregation and frost heave.
- The potential intensity of ice segregation is dependent to a large degree on the effective soil pore size and
soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, which are related to soil texture. Ice lenses form in soils in which the
pores are fine enough to hold quantities of water under tension but coarse enough to transmit water to the freezing
front. Soils that have a high content of silt and very fine sand have this capacity to the greatest degree and hence
have the highest potential for ice segregation. Clayey soils hold large quantities of water but have such slow
saturated hydraulic conductivity that segregated ice lenses are not formed unless the freezing front is slow moving.
However, sandy soils have large pores and hold less water under lower tension. As a result, freezing is more rapid
and the large pores permit ice masses to grow from pore to pore, entombing the soil particles. Thus, in coarse grained
soils, segregated ice lenses are not formed and less displacement can be expected.
- Estimates of potential frost action generally are made for soils in mesic or colder temperature regimes.
Exceptions are on the West Coast, where the mesic-thermic temperature line crosses below the 250 isoline, as displayed
in Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.85, and along the East Coast, where the soil climate is moderated by the ocean. Mesic soils that have
a design freezing index of less than 250 degree days should not be rated because frost action is not likely to occur.
The estimates are based on bare soil that is not covered by insulating vegetation or snow. They are also based on
the moisture regime of the natural soil. The ratings can be related to manmade modifications of drainage or to
irrigation systems on an onsite basis. Frost action estimates are made for the whole soil to the depth of frost
penetration, to bedrock, or to a depth of 2 meters (6.6 feet), whichever is shallowest.
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.84 is a guide for making potential frost action estimates.
It uses the soil moisture regimes and taxonomic family particle-size
classes as defined in Soil Taxonomy.
- Entries.—Enter one of the following classes for
the whole soil: low, moderate, or high. If frost action is not a
problem, enter “none.”
618.30 Gypsum
- Definition.—“Gypsum” is the percent, by weight, of hydrated calcium sulfates in the <20 mm
fraction of soil.
- Significance.—Gypsum is partially soluble in water and can be dissolved and removed by water.
Soils with more than 10 percent gypsum may collapse if the gypsum is removed by percolating water. Gypsum is
corrosive to concrete. Corrosion of concrete is most likely to occur in soils that are more than about 1 percent
gypsum when wetting and drying occurs.
- Measurement.— Gypsum percentage is measured by
a method that uses precipitation in acetone as outlined in Soil Survey Investigations
Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values to represent the range in gypsum content as a
weight percent of the soil fraction less than 20 mm in size. Round
values to the nearest 5 percent for layers that are more than 5
percent gypsum and to the nearest 1 percent for layers that are less
than 5 percent gypsum (for example, 0-1, 1-5, 5-10). If the horizon
does not have gypsum, enter “0.” The range of valid entries is from
0 to 120 percent, and only whole numbers (integers) are allowed.
618.31 Horizon Depth to Bottom
- Definition.—“Horizon depth to bottom” is the distance from the top of the soil to the base of
the soil horizon.
- Measurement.— Distance is measured from the top of the soil, which is defined as the top of
the mineral soil, or, for soil with “O” horizons, the top of any “O” layer that is at least
slightly decomposed.
For soils that are covered by 80 percent or more rock or pararock fragments, the top of the soil is the surface of
the fragments. See pages 63-64 in the Soil Survey Manual for a complete discussion. Measurement should be estimated
to a depth of 200 cm for most soils and to a depth at least 25 cm below a lithic contact if the contact is above
175 cm. For soils, including those that have a root-restricting contact such as a paralithic contact, the lowest
horizon bottom should extend to a depth of at least 25 cm below the contact or to a depth of 200 cm, whichever is
shallower.
- Entries.—Horizon depth to bottom values used
to populate component data in
NASIS
are not specific to any one point but rather are a reflection of
commonly observed values based on field observations and are
intended to model the component as it occurs throughout the map
unit. Enter the high, low, and representative values in whole centimeters. The high value
represents either the greatest depth to which the base of the horizon extends or, for horizons extending beyond the
limit of field observation, is the depth to which observation was made (usually no more than 200 cm but at least
150 cm).
618.32 Horizon Depth to Top
- Definition.—“Horizon depth to top” is the distance from the top of the soil to the upper
boundary of the soil horizon.
- Measurement.— Distance is measured from the top of the soil, which is defined as the top of
the mineral soil, or, for soils with “O” horizons, the top of any “O” layer that is at least
slightly decomposed.
For soils that are covered by 80 percent or more rock or pararock fragments, the top of the soil is the surface of
the fragments. See pages 63-64 in the Soil Survey Manual for a complete discussion.
- Entries.—Horizon depth to top values used to
populate component data in
NASIS
are not specific to any one point but rather are a reflection of
commonly observed values based on field observations and are
intended to model the component as it occurs throughout the map
unit. Enter the high, low, and representative values in whole
centimeters. See Section 618.33, “Horizon
Designation,” for a discussion as to how to list E/B and E and Bt
type horizons.
618.33 Horizon Designation
- Definition.—“Horizon designation” is a concatenation of three kinds of symbols used in various
combinations to identify layers of soil that reflect the investigator’s interpretations of genetic relationships
among layers within a soil.
- Significance.—Soils vary widely in the degree to which horizons are expressed. The range is
from little or no expression to strong expression. Layers of different kinds are identified by symbols. Designations
are provided for layers that have been changed by soil formation and for those that have not. Designations are
assigned after comparison of the observed properties of the layer with properties inferred for the material before
it was affected by soil formation. Designations of genetic horizons express a qualitative judgment about the kind
of changes that are believed to have taken place. A more detailed discussion can be reviewed in
the latest edition of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy and in the Soil Survey
Manual, Chapter 3. Horizon designations shown in field pedon
descriptions (point data) represent a specific location on the
landscape. Horizon designations used to populate component data in NASIS
are not specific to any one point but rather are a reflection of
commonly observed horizon sequences based on field observations and
are intended to model the component as it occurs throughout the map
unit so that accurate interpretations can be derived.
- Entries.—Enter combinations of symbols to reflect master
horizons and their vertical subdivisions. Commonly occurring master
horizon sequences, identified in field pedon descriptions (e.g.,
A-Bt1-Bt2-Btk-2Bk-2C), are used for soil components in
NASIS. Generalized horizon layer designations (e.g.,
H1-H2-H3 etc.) may be used instead of genetic horizon designations.
Users of generalized horizon layer designations must be cognizant of
the fact that certain master horizon designations such as O, Cr, and
R, are still required entries in
NASIS
for proper soil interpretations.
- It is not possible to include all master horizon
sequences observed in individual pedon descriptions when populating
the interpretive horizons of soil components. For example, if
an Ap horizon is present and the former E horizon is incorporated
into the Ap horizon, a sequence of Ap-E should not be used because
the horizons would not normally occur together. Judgment is required
when determining how much detail is required to represent the
component adequately for interpretations. Care must be taken to
maintain important differences between generic horizons whose range in
properties are specified separately on the official series
descriptions. Some general guidance follows. Master horizons (i.e.,
O, A, E, B) represent unique sets of pedogenic processes and
therefore should not be combined when aggregating data, even if
their basic properties are similar.
- Transitional horizons, such as EB and BC, should be recorded if they are commonly more than about 10
cm thick. After applying careful judgment, some horizons may be
combined in order to avoid overly complex horizon sequences
representing map unit components. Keep in mind, however, that once
combined, any useful information gained by their separation is lost.
Transitional horizons thinner than about 10 cm may be combined with an
adjacent master horizon if they are not considered important to the
interpretation of the component. Master horizon subdivisions showing
genetic variations not deemed significant to interpretations may be
combined. For example, a horizon sequence of Bt1-Bt2-Bt3, based
solely on color variation and having no other significant
differences, may be combined and shown simply as Bt. Master horizon
subdivisions showing genetic variations that are deemed significant
to interpretations should not be combined. For example, a horizon
sequence of Bt-Btx-BC should not be combined. Do not combine
horizons that straddle the criteria break to a diagnostic horizon.
For example, a Bk1 with insufficient calcium carbonate content to
qualify as a calcic horizon should not be combined with a Bk2 that
is a calcic horizon. Enter only what the documentation can support.
- Combination horizons (E and Bt, B/E, E/B, etc.) should be entered as
two separate horizon records, such as one for the E part of the
horizon and the second for the Bt part of the horizon. Both records
would have the same horizon depths and horizon designations
assigned. Soil property data elements would be populated for each
part to describe the characteristics of that part of the horizon.
- Allowable codes are listed in the
NASIS
data dictionary (see Part 618, Subpart
B, Exhibits, Section 618.82 for the Web address of the current
version). The rules for use of horizon designations are in the
latest edition of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy and in the Soil Survey Manual,
Chapter 3.
618.34 Horizon Thickness
- Definition.—“Horizon thickness” is a measurement from the top to bottom of a soil horizon
throughout its areal extent.
- Measurement.— Soil horizon thickness varies on a cyclical basis. Measurements should be made
to record the range in thickness as it normally occurs in the soil.
- Entries.—Horizon Depth to Bottom values used
to populate component data in NASIS
are not specific to any one point but rather are a reflection of
commonly observed values based on field observations and are
intended to model the component as it occurs throughout the map
unit. Enter the high, low, and representative values in whole centimeters. The minimum
allowable entry is 1 cm. For horizons extending beyond the limit of field observation, thickness is only
populated to the depth at which an observation was made.
618.35 Hydrologic Group
- Definition
- The complete definition and official criteria for hydrologic
soil groups are available online at (Title
210, National Engineering Handbook, Part 630, Chapter 7, “Hydrologic
Soil Groups”).
- “Hydrologic group” is a group of soils having similar runoff potential under similar storm and cover conditions.
Soil properties that influence runoff potential are those that influence the minimum rate of infiltration for a bare
soil after prolonged wetting and when not frozen. These properties are depth to a seasonal high water table, saturated hydraulic conductivity after prolonged wetting, and depth to a layer with a very slow water transmission
rate. Changes in soil properties caused by land management or climate changes also cause the hydrologic soil group
to change. The influence of ground cover is treated independently.
- Classes.—The soils in the United States are placed into four groups, A, B, C, and D, and three
dual classes, A/D, B/D, and C/D.
- Significance.—Hydrologic groups are used in
equations that estimate runoff from rainfall. These estimates are
needed for solving hydrologic problems that arise in planning
watershed-protection and flood-prevention projects and for planning
or designing structures for the use, control, and disposal of water.
- Measurements.—The original classifications assigned to soils were based on the use of
rainfall-runoff data from small watersheds and infiltrometer plots. From these data, relationships between soil
properties and hydrologic groups were established.
- Estimates.— Assignment of soils to hydrologic groups is based on the relationship between soil
properties and hydrologic groups. Wetness characteristics, water transmission after prolonged wetting, and depth to
very slowly permeable layers are properties used in estimating hydrologic groups.
- Entries.—Enter the soil hydrologic group, such as A, B, C, D, A/D, B/D, or C/D.
618.36 Landform
- Definition.—“Landform” is any physical, recognizable form or feature of the earth’s surface
having a characteristic shape and produced by natural causes.
- Significance.—Geographic order suggests natural relationships. Running water, with weathering
and gravitation, commonly sculptures landforms within a landscape. Over the ages, earthy material
is removed
from some landforms and deposited on others. Landforms are interrelated. An entire area has unity through the
interrelationships of its landform.
- Each landform may have one kind of soil present or several. Climate, vegetation, and time of exposure
to weathering of the parent materials are commonly about the same throughout the extent of the landform,
depending on the relief of the area. Position on the landform may have influenced the soil-water
relationships, microclimate, and vegetation.
- The proper identification of the landform is an important part of understanding the formative history of
the soil and the materials from which the soil formed. This aids in the development of the soil mapping model
and in the transfer of information between areas.
- Landform terms are also used as phase criteria for separating mapping components or phases of a soil
taxon.
- Classes.—The allowable list of landform terms
is included in the NASIS data dictionary.
Definitions of the terms are included in Part 629 of this handbook.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class name for
the landforms on which each map unit component occurs. A
representative value (term) may be indicated. It is possible to
indicate the presence of one landform occurring on another landform
(e.g., a dune on a flood plain).
618.37 Linear Extensibility Percent
- Definition.—“Linear extensibility percent” is the linear expression of the volume difference
of natural soil fabric at 1/3-bar or 1/10-bar water content and oven dryness. The volume change is reported as
percent change for the whole soil.
- Classes.—Shrink-swell classes are based on the change in length of an unconfined clod as
moisture content is decreased from a moist to a dry state. If this change is expressed as a percent, the value
used is LEP, linear extensibility percent. If it is expressed as a fraction, the value used is COLE, coefficient
of linear extensibility. The shrink-swell classes are defined as follows:
Shrink-Swell Class |
LEP |
COLE |
Low |
<3 |
<0.03 |
Moderate |
3-6 |
0.03-0.06 |
High |
6-9 |
0.06-0.09 |
Very High |
≥9 |
≥0.09 |
- Significance.—If the shrink-swell potential is rated moderate to very high, shrinking and
swelling can damage buildings, roads, and other structures. The high degree of shrinkage associated with high and
very high shrink-swell potentials can damage plant roots.
- Measurement.— Coefficient of linear extensibility is measured directly as the change in clod
dimension from moist to dry conditions and is expressed as a percentage of the volume change to the dry length:
COLE = (moist length - dry length)/dry length
When expressed as LEP (linear extensibility percent):
LEP = COLE x 100
Linear extensibility may be determined by any of the following methods:
- For the core method of measurement, select a sample core from a wet or moist soil. Carefully measure
the wet length of the cores and set the core upright in a dry place. If the core shrinks in a symmetrical
shape without excessive cracking or crumbling, its length can be measured and linear extensibility percent
calculated. If the core crumbles or cracks, measurements cannot be accurately determined by this method.
- In the coated clod method of measurement, shrink-swell potential can be estimated from the bulk density
of soil measured when moist and when dry. The coated clod method is widely used and is the most versatile
procedure for determining the bulk density of coherent soils. Procedures and calculations are given in Soil
Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004,
USDA, NRCS.
- Linear extensibility percent can be calculated from bulk density moist (Dbm) and bulk density dry (Dbd)
using the following formula:
LEP = 100 [(Dbd/Dbm)1/3 -1] [1-(Volume % > 2 mm/100)]
This equation is used to simplify the determination of shrink-swell potential
classes. The classes
are as follows:
Dbd/Dbm |
Shrink-Swell Potential |
< 1.10 |
Low |
1.10 - 1.20 |
Moderate |
1.20 - 1.30 |
High |
≥ 1.30 |
Very High |
- Estimates.— Field estimates of shrink-swell potential can be made by observing desiccation
cracks, slickensides, gilgai, soil creep, and leaning utility poles. Shrink-swell potential correlates closely
with the kind and amount of clay. The greatest shrink-swell potential occurs in soils that have high amounts of
2:1 lattice clays, such as clay minerals in the smectite group. Illitic clays are intermediate, and kaolinitic clays are least affected by
volume change as the content in moisture changes.
- Entries.—Enter the low, high, and
representative linear extensibility percent values. The high and low
values correspond to the high and low limits of the appropriate
class. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 30 percent, and
tenths (one decimal place) are allowed.
618.38 Liquid Limit
- Definition.—“Liquid limit” is the water content
of the soil material, which passes a no. 40 sieve, at the change
between the liquid and plastic states.
- Significance.—The plasticity chart, given in ASTM
Designation D 2487, is a plot of liquid limit (LL)
versus plasticity index (PI) and is used in classifying soil in the Unified
soil classification system. The
liquid limit is also a criterion for classifying soil in the AASHTO
classification system, as shown in Part
618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.83. Generally, the amount of clay- and silt-size particles, the organic matter content, and the type of
minerals determine the liquid limit. Soils that have a high liquid limit have the capacity to hold a lot of
water while maintaining a plastic or semisolid state.
- Measurement.— Tests are made on thoroughly puddled soil material that has passed a
no. 40
(425 mm) sieve and is expressed on a dry weight basis, according to ASTM
Designation D 4318. This procedure requires
the use of a liquid limit device, a special tool designed to standardize the arbitrary boundary between a liquid
and plastic state of a soil. Estimates of liquid limit are made on soils during soil survey investigations and
mapping activities. The liquid limit is usually inferred from clay mineralogy and clay content. If soils are
tested later in the laboratory, adjustments are made to the field estimates as needed. Generally, experienced
personnel can estimate these values with a reasonable degree of accuracy.
- Estimates.—The formula in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.86 is used in the NASIS
database
to provide default calculated values if no measurements are available.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values as a range for each horizon. The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 400 percent, and tenths (one decimal
place) are allowed. However, entries should be rounded to the
nearest 10 percent unless they represent measured values. Enter “0”
for nonplastic soils. The liquid limit for organic soil material is
not defined and is assigned “null.” A NASIS calculation is available and can be viewed
in Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.102.
618.39 Organic Matter
- Definition.—“Organic matter percent” is the weight of decomposed plant and animal residue
and expressed as a weight percentage of the soil material less than 2 mm in diameter.
- Significance
- Organic matter influences the physical and chemical properties of soils far
more than the proportion to the small quantities present would suggest. The organic fraction influences plant
growth through its influence on soil properties. It encourages granulation and good tilth, increases porosity
and lowers bulk density, promotes water infiltration, reduces plasticity and cohesion, and increases the available
water capacity. It has a high capacity to adsorb and exchange
cations and is important to pesticide binding. It furnishes
energy to micro-organisms in the soil. As it decomposes, it releases nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur. The
distribution of organic carbon according to depth indicates different episodes of soil deposition or soil formation.
- Soils that are very high in organic matter have poor engineering properties and subside upon drying.
- Measurement.— Laboratory measurements are made
using a dry combustion method to determine percent total carbon. For
an estimate of organic carbon in calcareous soils, the carbon
present in carbonate compounds, such as CaCO3, must be calculated
and then subtracted from the total carbon. This is done using the
equation: percent organic carbon = percent total carbon - [% <2 mm
CaCO3 x 0.12]. The results are given as the percent of organic
carbon in dry soil. To convert the figures for organic carbon to
those for organic matter, multiply the organic carbon percentage by
1.724. The detailed procedures are outlined in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual,
Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
- Estimates.— Color and “feel” are the major properties used to estimate the amount of organic
matter. Color comparisons in areas of similar materials can be made against laboratory data so that a soil
scientist can make estimates. In general, black or dark colors indicate high amounts of organic matter. The
contrast of color between the A horizon and subsurface horizons is also a good indicator.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the range in organic matter in each
horizon. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 100 percent and
hundredths (two decimal places) are allowed.
618.40 Parent Material, Kind, Modifier, and
Origin
Parent material is the unconsolidated material, mineral or organic,
from which the soil develops. The soil surveyor considers parent
material in developing a model to be used for soil mapping. Soil
scientists and specialists in other disciplines use parent material data
to help interpret soil boundaries and project performance of the
material below the soil. Many soil properties relate to parent material.
Among these properties are proportions of sand, silt, and clay; chemical
content; bulk density; structure; and the kinds and amounts of
fragments. These properties affect interpretations and may be criteria
used to separate soil series. Soil properties and landscape information
infer parent material. Three data elements – parent material kind,
parent material modifier, and parent material origin – describe parent
material.
- Parent Material Kind
- Definition.—“Parent material kind” is a term describing the general physical, chemical,
and mineralogical composition of the material, mineral or organic, from which the soil develops. Mode of
deposition, weathering, or both may be implied or implicit.
- Classes.—The list of allowable entries
is included in the NASIS data dictionary.
Definitions of many of these terms are included in
part 629 of this handbook.
- Entries.—Enter the applicable class names for each map unit component. Multiple
entries are permissible. Multiple rows of parent materials may also be indicated for a single component,
such as loess over till over residuum.
- Parent Material Modifier
- Definition.—“Parent material modifier” is the general description of the texture of
the parent material. Class limits correspond to those of
the general texture defined in
the Soil Survey Manual
and the family category particle-size classes defined in Soil Taxonomy.
- Classes.—The classes of parent material modifiers are as
follows:
- Clayey
- Coarse-loamy
- Coarse-silty
- Fine-loamy
- Fine-silty
- Gravelly
- Loamy
- Sandy
- Sandy and gravelly
- Sandy and silty
- Silty
- Silty and clayey
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class name to modify the corresponding
row of
parent material kind.
- Parent Material Origin
- Definition.—“Parent material origin” is the type of bedrock from which the parent
material is derived.
- Classes.—The allowable class names are included in the NASIS data dictionary and are
the same as for the “bedrock kind” data element.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate parent material origin
class names that correspond to each parent material kind.
Although this data element is intended to be used when
“residuum” is the chosen parent material kind, it may also
be used with other kinds of parent material.
618.41 Particle Density
- Definition.—“Particle density” is the mass per unit of volume of the solid soil particle,
either mineral or organic. Also known as specific gravity.
- Significance.—Particle density is used in the calculation of weight and volume for
soil (porosity). The relationship between bulk density, percent pore space, and the rate of sedimentation of
solid particles in a liquid depends on particle density. The term “particle density” indicates wet particle
density or specific gravity.
- Measurement.—The standard methods of
measurement for particle density are: the ASTM standard test method
for specific gravity of soils, ASTM
Designation D 854-92, which uses soil materials passing a no. 4
sieve; the method described by Blake and Hartge in Methods of Soil
Analysis, Part 1, Agronomy 9; or the method for volcanic soils
described by Bielders and others in Soil Science Society of America
Journal 54, pages 822-826.
- Estimates
- Particle density is often assumed to be 2.65 g cm-3; however, many minerals
and material of various origins exhibit particle densities less than or greater than this
standard. Particle density
(Dp) may be calculated using the extractable iron and the organic carbon percentages in the following formula:
- OC is the organic carbon percentage and Fe is the percent extractable iron determined by
dithionite-citrate extraction, or by an equivalent method. The particle density of the organic matter (Dp1) is assumed
to be 1.4 g cm-3, that of the minerals from which the extractable iron originates (Dp2) is assumed to be
4.2 g cm-3, and that of the material exclusive of the organic matter and the minerals contributing to
the extractable Fe (Dp3) is assumed to be 2.65 g cm-3.
- Entries.—Enter the representative value for the
horizon. The range of valid entries is from 0.01 to 5 g cm-3,
and hundredths (two decimal places) are allowed.
618.42 Particle Size
- Definition.—“Particle size” is the effective diameter of a particle as measured by sedimentation,
sieving, or micrometric methods. Particle sizes are expressed as classes with specific effective diameter class
limits. The broad classes are clay, silt, and sand, ranging from the smaller to the larger of the less than 2 mm
mineral soil fraction. It includes fragments of weathered or poorly consolidated fragments that disperse to particles
less than 2 mm.
- Significance.—The physical behavior of a soil is influenced by the size and percentage
composition of the size classes. Particle size is important for most soil interpretations, for determination of
soil hydrologic qualities, and for soil classification.
- Measurement.— Particle size is measured by sieving and sedimentation. The method used is
method 3A1, which is outlined in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual,
Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS. A NASIS calculation is
available and can be viewed in Part
618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.103.
- Classes.—The USDA uses the following size separates for
the <2 mm mineral material:
USDA Particle
Size Separates |
Size (mm) |
Clay, total |
<0.002 |
Silt, total |
0.002-0.05 |
Silt, fine |
0.002-0.02 |
Silt, coarse |
0.02-0.05 |
Sand, total |
0.05-2.00 |
Very fine sand |
0.05-0.10 |
Fine sand |
0.10-0.25 |
Medium sand |
0.25-0.50 |
Coarse sand |
0.50-1.00 |
Very coarse sand |
1.00-2.00 |
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.87 compares the USDA system with the AASHTO and Unified
soil classification systems and shows the
U.S. standard sieve sizes.
- Clay Percentage
- Definition.—“Total clay percentage” is the weight percentage of the mineral particles less
than 0.002 mm in equivalent diameter in the less-than-2-mm soil fraction. Most of the material is in one of
three groups of clay minerals or in a mixture of these clay minerals. The groups are kaolinite, smectite, and
hydrous mica, the best known member of which is illite.
- Significance.—Physical and chemical activities of a soil are related to the kind and
amount of clay minerals. Clay particles may have thousands of times more surface area per gram than silt
particles and nearly a million times more surface area than very coarse sand particles. Thus, clay particles
are the most chemically and physically active part of mineral soil.
- Clay mineralogy and clay percentage have a strong influence on engineering properties and the
behavior of soil material when it is used as construction or foundation material. They influence
linear extensibility, compressibility, bearing strength, and saturated hydraulic conductivity.
- The kind and amount of clay influence plant growth indirectly by affecting available water capacity,
water intake rate, aeration, cation-exchange capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, erodibility,
and workability. Up to a certain point, an increase in the amount of clay in the subsoil is desirable.
Clay can increase the amount of water and nutrients stored in that zone. By slightly slowing the rate
of water movement, it can reduce the rate of nutrient loss through leaching. If the amount of clay is
great, it can impede water and air movement, restrict root penetration, increase runoff and, on sloping
land, result in increased erosion.
- Clay particles are removed by percolating water from surface and subsurface horizons and deposited
in the subsoil horizons. The amount of clay accumulation and its location in the profile provide clues
for the soil scientist about soil genesis. Irregular clay distribution as related to depth may indicate
lithologic discontinuities, especially if accompanied by irregular sand distribution.
- Measurement.— Clay content is measured in the laboratory by the pipette or hydrometer
methods after the air-dry soil is pretreated to remove organic matter and soluble salts. Field estimates of
clay content are made by manual methods. The way a wet soil ribbons
(develops a long continuous ribbon)
when pressed between the thumb and fingers gives a good idea of the amount of clay present. Excessive amounts
of sodium can toughen the soil, making the soil feel more clayey. Care should be taken not to overestimate the
amount of clay in sodic soils. Accuracy depends largely on frequent and attentive observation. Texture
reference samples determined in the laboratory are used by soil scientists to calibrate the feel of soils with
various percentages of clay.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and representative values
of the clay total separate as a percent of the material less
than 2 mm in size for each horizon. Enter a “0” if the
amount is not significant, as in organic layers or in some
andic soil materials. The range of valid entries is from 0
to 100 percent and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed.
The representative value chosen should equate to a valid
clay total content for the representative texture class
posted for each horizon.
- Sand Percentage
- Definition.—“Sand percentage” is the weight percentage of the mineral particles less than
2 mm and greater than or equal to 0.05 mm in equivalent diameter in the less than 2 mm soil fraction. The
sand separates recognized are very coarse, coarse, medium, fine, very fine, and total. Respective size limits
are shown in Section 618.42(D) above. Much of the sand fraction is composed of fragments of rocks and
primary minerals, especially quartz. Therefore, the sand fraction is quite chemically inactive.
- Significance.—Physical properties of the soil are influenced by the amounts of total
sand and of the various sand fractions present in the soil. Sand particles, because of their size, have a
direct impact on the porosity of the soil. This impact influences other properties, such as saturated hydraulic
conductivity, available water capacity, water intake rates, aeration, and compressibility related to plant
growth and engineering uses.
- Measurement.— Sand content is measured in the laboratory by the wet sieving method and
then fractionated by dry sieving. Field estimates are made by manual methods. The degree of grittiness in
a wet soil sample, when worked between the thumb and forefinger, gives an estimate of the sand content. The
size of sand grains may be observed with the naked eye or with the aid of a hand lens.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative value of the sand total separate and each
sand size separate (sand very coarse separate, sand coarse
separate, sand medium separate, sand fine separate, and sand
very fine separate) as a percent of the material less than 2
mm in size for each horizon. The sum of the representative
values for the five sand size fractions must equal the
representative value for the sand total separate. The range
of valid entries is from 0 to 100 percent and tenths (one
decimal place) are allowed. Enter a “0” if the amount is not
significant, as in organic layers or in some andic soil
materials. The representative values chosen should equate to
a valid sand total content and sand size fraction content
for the representative texture class posted for each
horizon.
- Silt Percentage
- Definition.—“Silt percentage” is the weight percentage of the mineral particles greater
than or equal to 0.002 mm but less than 0.05 mm in the less than 2 mm soil fraction. The silt separates
recognized are fine, coarse, and total. The respective size limits are listed in paragraph 618.42(D) above.
The silt separate is dominated by primary minerals, especially quartz, and therefore has a low chemical
activity.
- Significance.—The silt separate possesses some plasticity, cohesiveness, and absorption,
but to a much lesser degree than the clay separate. Silt particles act to slow water and air movement through
the soil by filling voids between sand grains. A very high content of silt in a soil may be physically
undesirable for some uses unless supplemented by adequate amounts of sand, clay, and organic matter.
- Measurement
- The silt content is measured in the laboratory in two phases. The
fine silt is measured using the pipette method on the suspension remaining from the wet sieving process.
Aliquots of the diluted suspension are removed at predetermined intervals based on Stokes Law. The aliquots
are then dried and weighed. The coarse silt fraction is the difference between 100 percent and the sum of the
sand, clay, and fine silt percentages.
- The silt content may be estimated in the field using the ribbon test as described for clay. The content of
silt is usually estimated by first estimating the clay and sand portions and then subtracting that number from
100 percent. Silt tends to give the soil a smooth feel.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative value of the silt total separate and each
silt size separate (silt coarse separate and silt fine
separate) as a percent of the material less than 2 mm in
size for each horizon. The sum of the representative values
for the two silt size fractions must equal the
representative value for the silt total separate. The range
of valid entries is from 0 to 100 percent, and tenths (one
decimal place) are allowed. Enter a “0” if the amount is not
significant, as in organic layers or in some andic soil
materials. The representative value chosen should equate to
a valid silt total content for the representative texture
class posted for each horizon.
618.43 Percent Passing Sieves
- Definition.—The percent passing sieve numbers 4, 10, 40, and 200 is the weight of material
that passes through these sieves, based on the material less than 3 inches (75 mm) in size
and expressed as a percentage.
- Significance.—Data for the percent passing sieves are used to classify the soil in the
engineering classifications and to make judgments on soil properties and performance. Many soil characteristics
are influenced by the depth distribution of grain sizes for the soil as well as
the soil’s mode of deposition, stress
history, density, and other features.
- Measurement.— Measurements involve sieve analysis for the determination of grain size
distribution of that portion of the soil having particle diameters between 3 inches and 0.074 mm (no. 200 sieve).
ASTM
Designations D 422, C 136, and C 117 are applicable procedures. Measurements are
made on most benchmark soils and other representative soils in survey areas.
- Estimates
- Estimates of the content of sand, silt, clay, and rock fragments that are made for
soils during soil survey investigations and mapping activities are used to estimate percent passing sieves. If
samples are tested later in a laboratory, adjustments are made to the field estimates as needed. Generally,
experienced personnel can estimate these values with a high degree of accuracy. Estimates for percent passing
sieves can be made from soil texture using the following general guidance:
- Percent passing #200 = clay + silt + 1/2 very fine sand.
- Percent passing #40 = 1/2 very fine sand + fine sand + 1/2 medium sand + percent passing #200.
- The percent passing #10 equals the less-than-2-mm fraction, and
soil texture is based on the less than 2 mm fraction. Since sieves
represent the less-than-3-inch fraction, the #40 and #200 sieve
estimates must be adjusted when the percent passing #10 is less than
100 percent. The percent passing #40 and #200 that is determined by
texture must be adjusted by multiplying the percent passing #40 and
percent passing #200 by the percent passing #10. Pararock fragments
are not cemented strongly enough to be retained on sieves. They are
crushed and estimated into percent passing sieves.
ASTM
procedures use a roller crusher as a pretreatment of the soil
material prior to sieving. Field estimates should try to replicate
this procedure.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values to represent the range of percent passing each
sieve size for each horizon. The range includes the estimating
accuracy as well as the range of values for a soil. The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 100 percent, and tenths (one decimal
place) are allowed.
A NASIS calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.104.
618.44 Plasticity Index
- Definition.—The plasticity index is the numerical difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit. It is the range of water content in which a soil exhibits the characteristics of a plastic solid.
The plastic limit is the water content that corresponds to an arbitrary limit between the plastic and semisolid
states of a soil.
- Significance.—The plasticity index, when used in connection with the liquid limit, serves as
a measure of the plasticity characteristics of a soil. The plasticity chart, given in ASTM
Designation D 2487, is a plot of the
liquid limit (LL) versus the plasticity index (PI) and is used in classifying soil in the Unified
soil classification
system. The plasticity index is also a criterion for classifying soil in the AASHTO
classification system, as shown
in Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.83. Soils that have a high plasticity index have a wide range of moisture content in which the soil
performs as a plastic material. Highly and moderately plastic clays have large PI values.
- Measurements.—Tests are made on that portion of the soil having particles passing the
no. 40,
(425 micrometer) sieve, according to ASTM
Designation D 423. Measurements are made on most benchmark soils and
on other representative soils in survey areas. Estimates of
plasticity index are made on all soils during soil survey
investigations and mapping activities. The plasticity index is
usually not estimated directly: a position on the plasticity chart
in ASTM
Designation D 2487 is estimated and the plasticity index is
determined from the chart. If soils are later tested in the
laboratory, adjustments are made to the field procedures as needed.
Generally, experienced personnel can estimate these values with a
reasonable degree of accuracy. Estimates are expressed in ranges
that include the estimating accuracy as well as the range of values
from one location to another within the map unit.
- Estimates.—The formula in Part 618,
Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.86 is used in the NASIS
database
to provide default calculated values if no measurements are available.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values to represent the range of plasticity index for
each horizon. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 130 percent,
and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed. However, entries should
be rounded to the nearest 5 percent unless they represent measured
values. Enter “0” for nonplastic soils. The plasticity index for
organic soil material is not defined and is assigned “null.”
A NASIS calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.102.
618.45 Ponding Depth, Duration Class,
Frequency Class, and Month
- Ponding is standing water in a closed depression. The water is removed only by deep percolation, transpiration,
evaporation, or by a combination of these processes. Ponding of soils is classified according to depth, frequency,
duration, and the beginning and ending months in which standing water is observed.
- Ponding Depth
- Definition.—“Ponding depth” is the depth of
the surface water that is ponding on the soil.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the ponding depth, in centimeters, for the map unit component. The range of valid entries
is from 0 to 185 cm, and only whole numbers (integers) are
allowed.
- Ponding Duration Class
- Definition.—“Ponding duration class” is the average duration, or length of time, of the ponding occurrence.
- Classes.—The ponding duration classes are:
Ponding Duration Class |
Duration of the Ponding Occurrence |
Very brief |
4 to 48 hours |
Brief |
2 to 7 days |
Long |
7 to 30 days |
Very long |
> 30 days |
- Entries.—Enter very brief, brief,
long, or very long for the map unit component. Only use
entries if ponding frequency (defined below) occurs more
often than rare.
- Ponding Frequency Class
- Definition.—“Ponding frequency class” is the number of times ponding occurs over a
period of time.
- Classes.—The ponding frequency classes are:
Ponding Frequency Class |
Definition |
None |
No reasonable possibility of ponding; near 0 percent chance of ponding in any year. |
Rare |
Ponding is unlikely but possible under unusual weather conditions; nearly 0 to 5 percent
chance of ponding in any year or nearly 0 to 5 times in 100 years. |
Occasional |
Ponding is expected infrequently under usual weather conditions; 5 to 50 percent chance of
ponding in any year or nearly 5 to 50 times in 100 years. |
Frequent |
Ponding is likely to occur under usual weather conditions; more than
a 50 percent chance in any
year (i.e., 50 times in 100 years). |
- Entries.—Enter none, rare,
occasional, or frequent as appropriate for the map unit
component.
- Ponding Month
- Definition.—“Ponding month” is the calendar months in which ponding is expected.
- Classes.—The time of year when ponding is likely to occur is expressed in months for
the expected beginning to expected end of the ponding period. The time period expressed includes two-thirds
to three-fourths of the occurrences.
- Entries.—Enter the name of each month of the year in which ponding is expected.
- Significance.—The susceptibility of soils to ponding is important for homes, building sites, and
sanitary facilities. Time and duration of the ponding are critical factors
in determining plant species. Ponding during
the dormant season has few if any harmful effects on plant growth or mortality and may even improve growth.
- Estimates.— Generally, estimates of ponding frequency and duration can be made for each soil.
Where the natural infiltration, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and surface and subsurface drainage of soils is
altered, ponding studies are needed to reflect present ponding characteristics.
- Evidence of ponding events should be gathered during soil survey fieldwork. High water lines and other
signs of maximum water height are recorded. Other records may also exist.
- Certain landform features are subject to ponding. These features are characteristics of closed drainage
systems and include potholes, playas, sloughs, and backswamps. Most of these features are recognizable when
correlating features on aerial photographs with ground observations. Different kinds of vegetation and soils
are normally associated with these geomorphic features.
- The vegetation that grows in ponded areas may furnish clues to past ponding and indicate the potential
for ponding in the future. Generally, native vegetation in ponded areas consists of obligate and facultative
wet hydrophytes. Some plant species are intolerant of ponding and do not grow in areas that are ponded.
- The soil provides clues to past ponding, but characteristics
vary according to climate and soil conditions. Some of the clues
(alone or in any combination) are—
- A dark surface horizon or layer overlying a gleyed
subsoil.
- Many prominent redoximorphic features that have low
value and chroma.
- Capillary transport and concentrations of carbonates or
sulfates, or both, in the upper soil horizons.
- Dark colors and high levels of organic matter throughout
the profile.
618.46 Pores
- “Pore space” is a general term for voids in the soil material. The term includes matrix, nonmatrix, and interstructural
pore space. For water movement at low suction and conditions of satiation, the nonmatrix and interstructural porosity
have particular importance.
- Matrix Pores.—Matrix pores are formed by the agents that control the packing of the primary
soil particles (i.e., primary packing voids). These pores are usually smaller than nonmatrix pores. Additionally, their aggregate volume and
size can change markedly according to water state for soil horizons or layers with high extensibility.
- Nonmatrix Pores.—Nonmatrix pores are
relatively large voids that are expected to be present both when the soil
is moderately moist or wetter as well as in drier states. The voids
are not bounded by the planes that delimit structural units. Nonmatrix pores may be formed by roots, animals, the action of
compressed air, and other agents. The size of the distribution of
nonmatrix pores usually bears no relationship to the particle-size
distribution and the related matrix pore-size distribution.
- Interstructural Pores.—Interstructural pores are delimited by structural units. Inferences as
to the interstructural porosity may be obtained from the structure description. Commonly, interstructural pores are
at least crudely planar.
- Nonmatrix pores are described by quantity, size, shape, and vertical continuity
(generally in that order).
- Pore Quantity
- Definition.—“Pore quantity” is defined by
classes that pertain to the number of a selected size of
pores per unit area of undisturbed soils. The unit area that
is evaluated varies according to the size class of the
pores: 1 cm2 for very fine and fine pores, 1 dm2 for medium
and coarse pores, and 1 m2 for very coarse pores.
- Classes.—The pore quantity classes are:
Pore Quantity Class |
Number of Pores per Unit Area |
Few |
< 1 |
Common |
≥ 1-5 |
Many |
≥ 5 |
- Entries.—Enter pore quantity as pores/area. Enter the high, low, and representative
values as whole numbers between 0 and 99 for the horizon.
- Pore Size
- Definition.—“Pore size” is the average diameter of the pore.
- Classes.—The pore size classes are:
Pore Size Class |
Pore Size (mm) |
Very fine |
< 1 |
Fine |
1 - <2 |
Medium |
2 - <5 |
Coarse |
5 - <10 |
Very coarse |
≥ 10 |
-
Entries.—Enter a single class or
classes for the horizon.
- Pore Shape
- Definition.—“Pore shape” is a
description of the multiarial shape of the pore. The shapes
of nonmatrix pores are dendritic tubular (approximately
cylindrical, elongated, and branching), irregular
(nonconnected cavities or chambers), tubular (approximately
cylindrical and elongated), or vesicular (approximately
spherical or elliptical). The primary packing voids between
soil particles or rock fragments are referred to as
interstitial pores.
- Classes.—The pore shape classes are:
- Dendritic tubular
- Interstitial
- Irregular
- Tubular
- Vesicular
- Entries.—Enter one of the classes
from the pore shape list for the horizon.
- Vertical Continuity
- Definition.—“Vertical continuity” is the average vertical distance through which the
minimum pore diameter exceeds 0.5 mm when the soil layer is moist or wetter.
- Classes.—The vertical continuity classes are:
Vertical Continuity Class |
Vertical Distance (cm) |
Low |
< 1 |
Moderate |
1 - <10 |
High |
≥ 10 |
- Entries.—Enter one of the vertical continuity classes.
618.47 Reaction, Soil (pH)
- Definition.—“Soil reaction” is a numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity
of a soil.
- Classes.—The descriptive terms for reaction and their respective ranges in pH are:
Reaction Class |
Range in pH |
Ultra acid |
1.8-3.4 |
Extremely acid |
3.5-4.4 |
Very strongly acid |
4.5-5.0 |
Strongly acid |
5.1-5.5 |
Moderately acid |
5.6-6.0 |
Slightly acid |
6.1-6.5 |
Neutral |
6.6-7.3 |
Slightly alkaline |
7.4-7.8 |
Moderately alkaline |
7.9-8.4 |
Strongly alkaline |
8.5-9.0 |
Very strongly alkaline |
9.1-11.0 |
- Significance
- A principal value of soil pH
is the information it provides about associated soil
characteristics. Two examples are phosphorus availability and base
saturation. Soils that have a pH of approximately 6 or 7 generally
have the most ready availability of plant nutrients. Strongly acid
or more acid soils have low extractable calcium and magnesium; a
high solubility of aluminum, iron, and boron, and a low solubility
of molybdenum. In addition, these soils may possibly have organic
toxins and generally have a low availability of nitrogen and
phosphorus. At the other extreme are alkaline soils. Calcium,
magnesium, and molybdenum are abundant where there is little or no
toxic aluminum and nitrogen is readily available. If pH is above
7.9, the soils may have an inadequate availability of iron,
manganese, copper, zinc, and especially phosphorus and boron.
- Soil reaction is one of several properties used as a general
indicator of soil corrosivity or the soil’s susceptibility to
dispersion. In general, soils that are either highly alkaline or
highly acid are likely to be corrosive to steel. Soils that have pH
<5.5 are likely to be corrosive to concrete. Soils that have pH >8.5
are likely to be highly dispersible and may have a piping problem.
- Measurement.—The most common soil laboratory measurement of pH
is the 1:1 water method. In this method, a crushed and sieved soil
sample is mixed with an equal amount of water and a measurement is
made of the suspension using a pH meter. Another method, used for
mineral and organic soils, is the 0.01M calcium chloride method. In NASIS,
these two methods are shown as separate data elements.
- The pH values derived from water suspension are affected by field applications of fertilizer or other
salts in the soil, the content of carbon dioxide in the soil, and
the moisture content at the time of
sampling. The 0.01M calcium chloride method reduces these influences.
- The laboratory methods are described in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory
Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
- Estimates.— A variety of field test kits are available for determination of pH in the field.
The methods include a water-soluble dye, which is mixed with soil and thus produces a color that is compared with a
chart; a dye-impregnated paper, which changes color according to differences in pH; and portable glass electrodes.
Each State office can recommend a suitable pH method for the soils in the
State. If requested, the Soil Survey
Laboratory makes suggestions for suitable methods for field measurements and furnishes NRCS soil scientists with
the proper chemicals.
- Entries.—Soil reaction (pH) is time and moisture dependent, and
water pH can vary up to a whole unit during the growing season. The
range of pH should reflect the variations. The 1:1 water method
generally is used with mineral soils. Organic soils are measured in
a 1:2 0.01 M calcium chloride solution. Separate entries are made
for pH 1:1 water and pH 1:2 0.01 M calcium chloride, depending on
whether the horizon is mineral or organic. Enter the high, low, and
representative values of the appropriate estimated pH range for each
horizon. The high and low values must correspond with the class
limits, such as1.8-3.4, 3.5-4.4, 4.5-5.0, 5.1-5.5, 5.6-6.0, 6.1-6.5,
6.6-7.3, 7.4-7.8, 7.9-8.4, 8.5-9.0, and 9.1-11.0, or a combination
of classes, such as 4.5-5.5, must be entered.
618.48 Restriction Kind, Depth, Thickness,
and Hardness
- Restriction Kind
- Definition.—“Restriction kind” is the type of nearly
continuous layer that has one or more physical, chemical, or
thermal properties that significantly reduce the movement of
water and air through the soil or that otherwise provide an
unfavorable root environment. Bedrock (e.g., limestone),
cemented horizons (e.g., duripan), densic material (e.g.,
dense till), frozen horizons or layers (e.g., permanent
ground ice), and horizontally oriented, human-manufactured
materials (e.g., concrete) are examples of layers that are
kinds of restrictions.
- Significance.—Restrictive layers limit plant growth by
restricting the limits of the rooting zone. They also impede
or restrict the movement of soil water vertically through
the soil profile and have a direct impact on the quality and
quantity of ground water and surface water. Restrictions are
important for both soil interpretations and soil
classification.
- Measurement.—Identify and describe restrictive soil
layers in the field. Observe, measure, and record the
restriction kind along with their depth, thickness, and
hardness (defined below). When describing pedons, identify
types or kinds of restrictions by suffix symbols, such as
"d," "f," "m," "r," "v," or "x," or by the master layers “M”
or "R." Use measurements or observations made throughout the
extent of occurrence of a soil as a basis for estimates of
restriction kind.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate choice for the kind of
restrictive horizon or layer from the following list—
- Abrupt textural change
- Bedrock, densic
- Bedrock, lithic
- Bedrock, paralithic
- Cemented horizon
- Densic material
- Duripan
- Fragipan
- Human-manufactured materials
- Natric
- Ortstein
- Permafrost
- Petrocalcic
- Petroferric
- Petrogypsic
- Placic
- Plinthite
- Salic
- Strongly contrasting textural stratification
- Sulfuric
- Restriction Depth
- Definition.—“Restriction depth” is the vertical distance
from the soil surface to the upper and lower boundaries of
the restriction.
- Measurement.—Use measurements or observations made
throughout the extent of occurrence of a soil as a basis for
estimates of restriction depth.
- Entries.—Restriction depth values used to populate
component data in NASIS
are not specific to any one point. They are a reflection of
commonly observed values based on field observations and are
intended to model the component as it occurs throughout the
map unit. Enter the high, low, and representative values for
the top and bottom restriction depths in centimeters using
whole numbers (integers).
- Restriction Thickness
- Definition.—“Restriction thickness” is the distance from
the top to the bottom of a restrictive layer.
- Significance.—Restriction thickness has a significant
impact on the ease of mechanical excavation.
- Measurement.—Use observations made throughout the extent
of occurrence of a soil as a basis for estimates of
restriction thickness.
- Entries.—Restriction thickness values used to populate
component data in NASIS
are not specific to any one point. They are a reflection of
commonly observed values based on field observations and are
intended to model the component as it occurs throughout the
map unit. Enter the high, low, and representative values for
the thickness in centimeters. The range of valid entries is
from 1 to 999, and only whole numbers (integers) are
allowed.
- Restriction Hardness
- Definition.—“Restriction hardness” is the rupture
resistance cemented of an air-dried, then submerged
block-like specimen of mineral material. Ice is not
applicable.
- Significance.—Restriction hardness has a significant
impact on the ease of mechanical excavation. Use excavation
difficulty classes (defined above) to evaluate the
relationships of restriction layers to excavations.
- Measurement.—Use observations made throughout the extent
of occurrence of a soil as a basis for estimates of
restriction hardness. For measurements of the restriction
hardness, use the procedures and classes of cementation
listed with the rupture resistance classes. Classes are
described for like specimens about 25-30 mm on edge that are
air-dried and then submerged in water for at least 1 hour.
Compress the specimen between extended thumb and forefinger,
between both hands, or between the foot and a nonresilient
flat surface. If the specimen resists compression, drop a
weight onto it from progressively greater heights until it
ruptures. Failure is the point of the initial detection of
deformation or rupture. Stress applied in the hand should be
over a 1-second period. Learn the tactile sense of the class
limits by applying force to top-loading scales and sensing
the pressure through the tips of the fingers or through the
ball of the foot. Use postal scales for the resistance range
that is testable with the fingers. Use a bathroom scale for
the higher rupture resistance range.
- Classes.—Restriction hardness is rated using the
following classes and operation descriptions:
Restriction Hardness (Rupture
Resistance) Class |
Operation Description |
Noncemented |
Fails under very slight force
applied slowly between thumb and forefinger
(<8N). |
Extremely weakly cemented |
Fails under slight force
applied slowly between thumb and forefinger (8
to 20N). |
Very weakly cemented |
Fails under moderate force
applied slowly between thumb and forefinger (20
to 40N). |
Weakly cemented |
Fails under strong force
applied slowly between thumb and forefinger
(about 80N maximum force can be applied) (40 to
80N). |
Moderately cemented |
Cannot be failed between thumb
and forefinger but can be failed between both
hands or by placing specimen on a nonresilient
surface and applying gentle force underfoot (80
to 160N). |
Strongly cemented |
Cannot be failed in hands but
can be failed underfoot by full body weight
(about 800N) applied slowly (160 to 800N). |
Very strongly cemented |
Cannot be failed underfoot by
full body weight but can be failed by <3J blow
(800N to 3J). |
Indurated |
Cannot be failed by blow of 3J
(≥ 3J). |
Both force (Newtons, N) and energy (joules, J) are employed. The number of Newtons is 10 times the
kilograms of force. One joule is the energy delivered by dropping a 1 kg weight a distance of 10 cm.
618.49 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
- Definition.—“Saturated hydraulic conductivity” is
the ease with which pores of a saturated soil transmit water.
Formally, it is the proportionality coefficient that expresses the
relationship of the rate of water movement to hydraulic gradient in
Darcy's Law (a law that describes the rate of water movement through
porous media). It is expressed in micrometers per second. To convert
micrometers per second to inches per hour, multiply micrometers per
second by 0.1417. The historical definition of “saturated hydraulic
conductivity” is the amount of water that would move vertically
through a unit area of saturated soil in unit time under unit
hydraulic gradient.
- Significance.—Saturated hydraulic conductivity is used in soil interpretations. It is also
known as Ksat.
- Measurement.—Means of measurement, such as the
Amoozemeter and double ring infiltrometers, provide some basis for
estimation of saturated hydraulic conductivity. No method has been
accepted as a standard. Since measurements are difficult to make and
are only available for relatively few soils, estimates of saturated
hydraulic conductivity are based on soil properties.
- Estimates.— The soil properties that affect saturated hydraulic conductivity are distribution,
continuity, size, and shape of pores. Since the pore geometry of a soil is not readily observable or measurable,
observable properties related to pore geometry are used to make estimates of saturated hydraulic conductivity. These
properties are texture, structure, pore size, density, organic matter
content, and mineralogy.
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.88 provides a guide for
estimating saturated hydraulic conductivity according to soil
texture and bulk density or according to specified overriding
conditions.
- In making estimates, the soil characteristic that exerts the greatest control for many soils is
texture.
- The general relationships shown in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.88 are adjusted up or down depending on bulk density. Structure,
pore size, organic matter content, clay mineralogy, and other
features observed within the soil profile, such as
consistency, dry layers in wet seasons, root mats or absence of roots, and evidence of perched water levels
or standing water, are good field indicators for adjusting estimates.
- (3) Water movement through bedrock for layers designated
as R and Cr can be estimated from the guide in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.89 of this handbook.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and representative values of saturated hydraulic conductivity
for each horizon. The range of valid entries is 0 to 705 µm s-1,
and four
decimal places are allowed.
618.50 Slope Aspect
- Definition.—“Slope aspect” is the direction toward which the surface of the soil faces.
- Significance.—Slope aspect may affect soil temperature, evapotranspiration, winds received,
and snow accumulation.
- Measurement.— Slope aspect is measured clockwise from true north as an angle between 0 and 360
degrees.
- Entries.—Enter the slope aspect
counterclockwise, slope aspect clockwise, and slope aspect
representative for the map unit component. The range of valid
entries is from a minimum of 0 degrees to a maximum of 360 degrees.
Record values to the nearest whole number (integer).
- Slope aspect counterclockwise is one end of the range in characteristics for the slope
aspect of a component. This end of the range is expressed in degrees measured clockwise from true north,
but in the direction counterclockwise from the representative slope aspect.
- Slope aspect clockwise is one end of the range in characteristics for the slope aspect
of a component. This end of the range is expressed in degrees measure clockwise from true north, and in the
direction clockwise from the representative slope aspect.
- Slope aspect representative is the common, typical, or expected direction toward which
the surface of the soil faces, measured in degrees clockwise from true north.
618.51 Slope Gradient
- Definition.—“Slope gradient” is the difference in elevation between two points and is expressed
as a percentage of the distance between those points. For example, a difference in elevation of 1 meter over a
horizontal distance of 100 meters is a slope of 1 percent.
- Significance.—Slope gradient influences the retention and movement of water, the potential for
soil slippage and accelerated erosion, the ease with which machinery can be used, soil-water states, and the
engineering uses of the soil.
- Measurement.— Slope gradient is usually measured with a hand level or clinometer. The range
is determined by summarizing data from several sightings.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values to represent the range of slope gradient as a
percentage for the map unit component. The range of valid entries is
from 0 to 999 percent, and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed
but should only be used for values less than 1 percent.
618.52 Slope Length, USLE
- Definition.—“Slope length” is the horizontal distance from the origin of overland flow to the
point where either the slope gradient decreases enough that deposition begins or runoff becomes concentrated in a
defined channel. Refer to Agriculture Handbook 703.
- Significance.—Slope length has considerable control over runoff and potential accelerated
water erosion. Slope length is combined with slope gradient in erosion prediction equations to account for the
effect of topography on erosion.
- Measurement
- Slope length is measured from the
point of origin of overland flow to the point where the slope
gradient decreases enough that deposition begins or runoff becomes
concentrated in a defined channel. In cropland, defined channels are
usually ephemeral gullies or, in rare instances where they are near
a field edge, are a classic gully or stream. Surface runoff will
usually concentrate in less than 400 feet (120 meters), although
longer slope lengths of up to 1000 feet are occasionally found. The
maximum distance allowed in erosion equations is 1000 feet (305
meters). Conversion to the horizontal distance is made in the
conversion process within the equation model.
- Assume no support
practices. Ignore practices such as terraces or diversions. Slope
length is best determined by pacing or measuring in the field. Do
not use contour maps to estimate slope lengths unless contour
intervals are 1 foot or less. Slope lengths estimated from contour
maps are usually too long because most maps do not have the detail
needed to indicate all ephemeral gullies and concentrated flow areas
that end the slope lengths. Refer to figures 4-1 through 4-10 within
Agriculture Handbook 703 for more landscape guidance.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the range for each map unit component.
Enter a whole number that represents the slope length in meters,
from the point of origin of overland flow to the point of deposition
or concentrated flow, of the slope on which the component lies. The
slope length may be fully encompassed within one map unit or may
cross several map units. The minimum value is 0, and the maximum
value used in erosion equations is 305 meters. The NASIS
database allows valid entries from 0 to 4000 meters.
618.53 Sodium Adsorption Ratio
- Definition.—“Sodium adsorption ratio” (SAR) is a measure of the amount of sodium (Na+) relative to
calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) in the water extracted from
a saturated soil paste. It is the ratio of the Na
concentration divided by the square root of one-half of the Ca + Mg concentration. SAR is calculated from the
equation:
SAR = Na+ / [(Ca2+ + Mg2+)/2]0.5
- Significance.—Soils that have values for sodium adsorption ratio of 13 or more may have an
increased dispersion of organic matter and clay particles, reduced saturated hydraulic conductivity and aeration,
and a general degradation of soil structure.
- Measurement.— The concentration of Na, Ca, and Mg ions is measured in a water extract from
a saturated soil paste. The method is described in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey
Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
The sodium adsorption ratio is then calculated from the molar
concentrations of the three cations using the equation shown above
in Section 618.53 (A).
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the range of sodium adsorption ratio for
each horizon. Enter “0” where SAR is negligible. The range of valid
entries is from 0 to 9999, and tenths (one decimal place) are
allowed.
618.54 Soil Erodibility Factors, USLE, RUSLE2
- Definition.—Soil erodibility factors (Kw) and (Kf)
quantify soil detachment by runoff and raindrop impact. These
erodibility factors are indexes used to predict the long-term
average soil loss from sheet and rill erosion under crop systems and
conservation techniques. Factor Kw applies to the whole soil and
factor Kf applies only to the fine-earth (less than 2.0 mm)
fraction. The procedure for determining the Kf factor is outlined in
Agriculture Handbook 703, Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A Guide
to Conservation Planning With the Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE), USDA, Agricultural Research Service, 1997. The K
factors for soils in Hawaii and the Pacific Basin were extrapolated
from local research. The nomograph, shown in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.91, was not
used to determine K factors for soils in Hawaii.
- Classes.—Experimentally measured Kw factors
vary from 0.02 to 0.69. For soil interpretations, the factors are
grouped into 14 classes. The classes are identified by a
representative class value as follows: 0.02, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.17,
0.20, 0.24, 0.28, 0.32, 0.37, 0.43, 0.49, 0.55, and 0.64.
- Significance.—Soil erodibility factors Kw or Kf are used in
the erosion prediction equations USLE
and RUSLE. Soil properties that influence rainfall erosion are those that affect—
- Infiltration rate, movement
of water through the soil, and water storage capacity.
- Dispersion, detachability, abrasion,
and mobility by rainfall and runoff. Some of the most important properties are texture, organic matter content,
structure size class, and the saturated hydraulic conductivity of
the subsoil.
- Estimates
- The Kw factor is measured by applying a series of simulated rainstorms on freshly
tilled plots. Direct measurement of K factors is both costly and time consuming and
is conducted only for a few
selected soils.
- Reliable estimates of Kf factor are obtained from the soil erodibility nomograph,
which is presented on page 11 of Agriculture Handbook 537 and reproduced in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.91, or by using the soil erodibility equation. The nomograph integrates the
relationship between the Kf factor and the following five soil properties:
- Percent silt plus very fine sand
- Percent sand greater than 0.10 mm
- Organic matter content
- Soil structure
- Saturated hydraulic conductivity
- The soil erodibility equation which follows also provides an estimate of Kf. K factor = {2.1
x M1.14 X 10-4 x (12-a)+3.25 x (b-2)+2.5
x (c-3)}/100 where: M = (percent si + percent vfs) X (100 - percent clay).
Example: For a soil with 29.0% silt, 12.3% very fine sand, and 36% clay M = (29.0+12.3)
x (100-36) = 2,643.20. a = percent organic matter (0, 1, 2, 3, or 4). Use worse case
organic matter content assuming long-term cultivation. b = soil structure code (1, = very fine granular, 2, = fine granular, 3, = med or coarse granular, or 4 = blocky, platy,
or massive) c = profile saturated hydraulic conductivity code (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6). Use the layer with the lowest Ksat
rv (representative value) in
the permeability control section. The permeability control section is the zone from the top of the mineral soil layer
being evaluated to a depth of 50 cm below the top of that soil layer but
should not exceed a profile depth of 200 cm. The
permeability control section guarantees that a specific zone is only considered relative to the mineral soil layer
being evaluated. Include the permeability of any bedrock or other non-soil layers in the permeability control
section. Note that the codes were initially established using the 1951
Soil Survey Manual. The codes correspond to
the following saturated hydraulic conductivity ranges:
Profile permeability
class code |
Permeability class
of 1951 |
Saturated hydraulic conductivity
range μm/sec |
Saturated hydraulic conductivity
classes 1993 |
6 |
Very slow |
<0.30 |
very low or mod. low |
5 |
Slow |
0.30 to <1.20 |
mod. low |
4 |
Slow or mod. |
1.20 to <4.80 |
mod. high |
3 |
Moderate |
4.80 to <15.00 |
mod. high or high |
2 |
Mod. or rapid |
15.00 to <30.00 |
high |
1 |
Rapid |
≥30.00 |
high or very high |
- The accuracy of the nomograph and equation has been
demonstrated for a large number of soils in the United States.
However, the nomograph and the equation may not be applicable to
some soils having properties that are uniquely different from
those used in developing the nomograph. For example, the
nomograph does not accurately predict Kf factors for certain
Oxisols in Puerto Rico or the Hawaiian Islands; some soils with
andic properties, organic soil materials, or low activity clays;
and some calcareous or micaceous soils. In these cases, Kf
factors are estimated using the best information at hand and
knowledge of the potential for rainfall erosion. See Agriculture
Handbook 703 for more information.
- When using the nomograph and the equation, care should be
taken to select an organic matter percentage that is most
representative of the horizon being considered, assuming
long-term cultivation. It is acceptable to use linear
interpolations between plotted lines on the nomograph and values
in hundredths (two decimal places) for organic matter content in
the equation. For horizons that have organic matter content
greater than 4 percent, use the 4 percent curve in the nomograph
and exactly 4 percent in the equation.
- Rock or pararock fragments are not taken into account in the
nomograph or the soil erodibility equation. If fragments are
substantial, they have an armoring effect. Pararock fragments
are assumed to break down with cultivation or other manipulation
and so are not used in determining Kw factors. If a soil has
mixtures of rock and pararock fragments, the Kw factor should
reflect the degree of protection afforded only by the rock
fragments. Guidelines for determining Kw factors are as follows:
- First use the soil erodibility nomograph shown in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.91 or the soil
erodibility equation shown above to determine the Kf
factor for the soil material less than 2 mm in diameter.
- Then use the table in Part
618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.92 to convert the Kf value of the soil
fraction less than 2 mm in diameter, which is derived from
either the nomograph in Part
618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.91 or from the soil erodibility equation, to
a Kw factor adjusted for the total volume of rock fragments.
The Kw factor is adjusted only when the total content of
rock fragment values in the layer, by volume, is equal to or
greater than 15 percent. If total rock fragment content, by
volume, is less than 15 percent, the Kw factor equals the Kf
factor. In practice, the representative values (rv’s) for
rock fragment volume, as populated in the
NASIS
Horizon Fragments Table, are summed for each size fraction
to compute the total rock fragment content for the layer.
- If the soil on site contains more or less rock fragments
than the mean of the range reported, adjustments can be made
in Kf by using Part 618, Subpart
B, Exhibits, Section 618.92.
Select the estimates of total rock fragment volume
percentages, and then use Part
618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.92. Enter
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.92 in line with the rock fragment volume
percentage and find, in the appropriate line, the nearest
value to the Kf factor. Within that column, read the Kw
factor on the line with the percentage of rock fragments of
the soil for which you are making the estimate. Round the
K factor displayed in the table to the closest acceptable K
factor class entry, as shown below. This is the new Kw
factor adjusted for rock fragments on site.
- Entries.—Enter the coordinated values for Kw and Kf
factor classes for each horizon posted, except organic
horizons.
- The acceptable entries for Kw and Kf classes are 0.02, 0.05,
0.10, 0.15, 0.17, 0.20, 0.24, 0.28, 0.32, 0.37, 0.43, 0.49, 0.55,
and 0.64. Use the comparison reports and calculation script in
NASIS
for help in populating Kf and Kw factors. Use the reports to print
or export the currently stored values for Kf and Kw factor classes
for each component in a selected set for comparison with the
computed Kf and Kw factor classes using the calculation script
formulas. The comparison reports give a preview of the results of
the K factor calculations and should be used before the decision is
made to run the calculation and save the new data.
- Soil horizons that do not have rock fragments are assigned equal
Kw and Kf factors. In horizons where total rock fragments are 15
percent or more, by volume, the Kw factor is always less than the Kf
factor. For example:
Depth (in) |
USDA Texture |
Kw |
Kf |
0-5 |
GR-L |
0.20 |
0.32 |
0-5 |
L |
0.32 |
0.32 |
0-5 |
GRV-L |
0.10 |
0.32 |
0-46 |
CL |
0.28 |
0.28 |
46-60 |
SL |
0.20 |
0.20 |
- Soils that have similar properties and erosivity should be grouped in similar K
factor classes.
618.55 Soil Erodibility Factors for WEPP
- Soil erodibility factors for
WEPP include
interrill erodibility (Ki), rill erodibility (Kr), and critical
hydraulic shear stress (Tc). These erodibility factors for the
WEPP erosion model quantify the susceptibility of soil
detachment by water. These erodibility factors predict the long-term average soil loss which results from sheet
and rill erosion under various alternative combinations of crop systems and conservation techniques.
- The Ki, Kr, and Tc factors are used in a continuous simulation computer model which predicts
soil loss and deposition on a hillslope. Reference NSERL Report No. 9,
USDA,
Agricultural Research Service, National Erosion Research
Laboratory, August 1994, documentation version 94.7. This procedure does not include data for
soils with highly weathered material (e.g., oxic horizons) and
those with andic soil properties. These factors are quantitative and calculated using experimental equations. They are different than
the soil erodibility factors used in
USLE
and RUSLE.
- Interrill erodibility (Ki)
- Definition.—“Interrill erodibility (Ki)”
is the susceptibility of detachment and transport of soil
particles by water. It is the susceptibility of the soil to
movement to a rill carrying runoff.
- Significance.—Interrill erodibility (Ki)
is a measure of sediment delivery rate to rills as a
function of rainfall intensity. The Ki values for soil need
to be adjusted if factors that influence the resistance of
soil to detachment occur. These factors include live and
dead root biomass, soil freezing and thawing, and mechanical
and livestock compaction.
- Measurement.— Interrill erodibility (Ki) measurements
are determined from rainfall simulation experiments. These experiments require
the use of specialized equipment and specialized measurement techniques in a research setting.
- Calculations.—Use the following equations:
- For cropland soils with 30 percent or more sand:
Ki = 2,728,000 + 192,100
x (% very fine sand)
Where:
Very fine sand must be less than or equal to 40 percent; if very fine sand is greater, use 40 percent.
- For cropland soils with less than 30 percent sand:
Ki = 6,054,000 - 55,130
x (% clay)
Where:
Clay must not exceed 50 percent; if clay is greater, use 50 percent.
- Entries.—The computer generates entry values using the above formulas. Allowable
Ki values range from 2,000,000 to 11,000,000.
- Rill erodibility (Kr)
- Definition.—“Rill erodibility (Kr)” is a measure of the susceptibility of a soil to detachment by flowing water.
As rill erodibility (Kr) increases, rill erosion rates increase.
- Significance.—Rill erodibility (Kr) is often defined as the soil detachment per unit increase in shear stress of clear water flow.
The rate of soil detachment in rills varies because of a number of factors, including soil disturbance by tillage, living root biomass, incorporated residue, fragments, soil consolidation, freezing and thawing, and wheel and livestock compaction.
- Measurement.— Rill erodibility (Kr)
measurements are determined by rainfall simulation and flow
simulation experiments. These experiments require the use of
specialized equipment and specialized measurement techniques
in a research setting.
- Calculations.—Use the following equations:
- For cropland soils with 30 percent or more sand:
Kr = 0.00197 + 0.00030
x (% very fine sand) + 0.03863 x EXP(-1.84
x ORGMAT)
Where:
Organic matter (ORGMAT) is the organic matter in the surface soil (assuming that organic matter equals
1.724 times organic carbon content). Organic matter must exceed 0.35 percent; if less, use 0.35
percent. Very fine sand must be less than or equal to 40 percent; if greater, use
40 percent.
- For cropland soils with less than 30 percent sand:
Kr
= 0.0069 + 0.134 x EXP(-0.20 x % Clay)
Where: Clay must be 10 percent or greater; if less, use 10 percent.
- Entries.—The computer generates the value by using the above formulas. Allowable
Kr values range from 0.002 to 0.045 s/m.
- Critical shear stress (Tc)
- Definition.—“Critical shear stress (Tc)” is the hydraulic shear that must be exceeded before rill erosion can occur.
- Significance. Critical shear stress (Tc)
is important in the rill detachment equation. It is the
shear stress below which no soil detachment occurs. Critical
shear stress (Tc) is the shear intercept on a plot of
detachment by clear water versus shear stress in rills.
- Measurements.—Critical shear stress (Tc) is derived
from a specialized research project.
- Calculations.—Use the following equations:
- For cropland soils with 30 percent or more sand:
Tc = 2.67 + 0.065
x (% clay) - 0.058 x (% very fine sand)
Where: Very fine sand must be less than or equal to 40 percent; if greater, use 40 percent.
- For cropland soils with less than 30 percent sand:
Tc = 3.5
- Entries.—No manual entry is needed. The value
is computer generated using the above formulas. Allowable Tc values range from 1
to 6 N/m2.
618.56 Soil Moisture Status
- Definition.—“Soil moisture status” is the mean monthly soil water state at a specified depth.
- Classes.—The water state classes used in soil moisture status are dry, moist, and wet. These
classes are defined as follows:
Water State Class |
Definition |
Dry |
≥15 bar suction |
Moist |
<15 bar to ≥0.0 bar (moist plus nonsatiated wet) |
Wet |
<0.0 bar; free water present (satiated wet) |
- Significance.—Soil moisture status is a recording of the generalized water states for a soil
component. Soil moisture greatly influences vegetation response, root growth, excavation difficulty, albedo,
trafficability, construction, conductivity, soil chemical interactions, workability, chemical transport, strength,
shrinking and swelling, frost action, seed germination, and many other properties, qualities, and interpretations.
Soil moisture states are significant to soil taxonomic classification, wetland classification, and other
classification systems. The recording of soil moisture states helps to document the soil classification as well as
convey information useful for crop and land management models.
- Measurement
- Soil water status can be measured using tensiometers or moisture tension plates.
Soil water status also can be field estimated. Chapter 3 of the Soil Survey Manual provides more information. It is
important to note that the three water state classes and eight subclasses described in the
Soil Survey Manual are used to
describe the moisture state at a point in time for individual pedons (spatial and temporal point data), while the
water state classes discussed here are used to estimate the mean monthly aggregated moisture conditions for a map
unit component. As a consequence, only three classes are used and the definitions for the moist and wet classes are
modified from the definitions in the Soil Survey Manual. The wet class used here includes only the satiated wet class and
corresponds to a free water table. The moist class is expanded to include the nonsatiated wet class
given in the Soil Survey Manual.
- Dry is separated from moist at 15 bar suction. Wet satiated has a tension of 0.0 bar or less (zero or positive pore
pressure).
- Changes in natural patterns of water movement from dams and
levees are considered in evaluating and entering soil moisture
status. Infiltration, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and organic
matter, which affect soil moisture movement, are strongly impacted
by land cover and land use. Land use and land cover should be
considered as a mapping tool for separating map units or map unit
components. The difference in soil moisture status resulting from
differences in land use and land cover constitute a difference in
soil properties. However, conservation practices, such as irrigating
and fallowing the land, alter the soil moisture status but are not
considered in the map unit component data. Use-dependent databases
may allow entries for these altered states in the future. Permanent
installations, such as drainage ditches and tile, affect soil
moisture status, and the drained condition should be reflected in
the soil moisture status entries for map unit components that are
mapped as “drained.” Undrained areas are mapped as “undrained”
components, and the entries for soil moisture status reflect the
undrained condition.
- Irrigation and drainage canals are shown on soil maps; their effects on the soil should be shown in the properties
of the soils in mapping and in the property records. Soils that are now wet because of excessive irrigation and
leaking canals should be mapped, and their properties should reflect the current soil moisture status.
- Guiding Concepts
- The intent is to describe a mean moisture condition, by
month, for a soil component. Layer depths may or may not be
the same as horizon depths in the Component Horizon Table.
Layers define the zone having a specific soil moisture
state. If the soil is wet throughout 0 to 200 cm, then one
entry (“wet”) is made for 0 to 200 cm for that month.
- For frozen soils, enter the appropriate soil moisture
state that the soil would have if thawed. For example, if
the soil is frozen and then determined to be wet when
thawed, enter “wet.”
- The horizons can be subdivided or combined, as
appropriate, into layers for the various soil moisture
states as needed. Remember that these are monthly averages
for the extent of the component across the landscape.
- The entries are expected to come from the best estimates
that local knowledge can provide. If local knowledge is
supported by data, so much the better. The information as
aggregated data is not expected to be exact but should be
generalized and reflect an average condition.
- Entries for the representative values (rv) on distance
to the upper and lower boundary of the moisture layer should
reflect the soil moisture conditions expected in a normal
year, as defined in the latest edition of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy.
- Make entries for each month by layer. Enter the dominant
condition for the month. This is the condition that exists
for more than 15 days on the long-term average. The low and
high values represent the depth range within the component
for the normal year; they should not represent the extremes,
such as years of drought.
- If the depth to free water fluctuates during the month,
use the depth for the average between the high and low
levels.
- Entries.—Enter the soil moisture status as dry, moist, or wet
for each soil layer for each month. Enter only one soil moisture
state for a given layer. The number of layers depends upon the
number of changes of soil moisture status in the profile. Enter the
values for component soil moisture depth to top and depth to bottom
that represents the distance, in whole centimeters, from the soil
surface to the top and bottom respectively, of each soil layer for
each month. Part 618, Subpart B,
Exhibits, Section 618.97 contains examples of entries in a
worksheet format that graphs soil moisture status by month and
depth.
618.57 Soil Slippage Potential
- Definition.—“Soil slippage potential” is the hazard that a mass
of soil will slip when vegetation is removed, soil water is at or
near saturation, and other normal practices are applied. Conditions
that increase the hazard of slippage but are not considered in this
rating are undercutting lower portions or loading the upper parts of
a slope or altering the drainage or offsite water contribution to
the site, such as through irrigation. The publication Landslides
Investigation and Mitigation Special Report 247 (Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, 1996) provides additional
information on landscape slippage.
- Significance.—Slippage is an important consideration for engineering practices, such as
constructing roads and buildings, and for forestry practices.
- Estimates.— Soil slippage potential classes are estimated by observing slope; lithology, including
contrasting lithologies; strike and dip; surface drainage patterns; and occurrences of such features as slip scars
and slumps.
- Guides.—Use Part 618, Subpart B,
Exhibits, Section 618.96, "Key Landforms and Their
Susceptibility to Slippage," as a guide for rating the hazard of
slippage.
- Entries.—Enter one of the following soil
slippage potential classes for the component:
- High (unstable)
- Medium (moderately unstable)
- Low (slightly unstable to stable)
618.58 Soil Temperature
- Definition.—“Soil temperature” is the mean
monthly soil temperature at the specified depth (the average of the
daily high and daily low temperature for the month).
- Significance.—Soil temperature is important to many biological and physical processes that
occur in the soil. Plant germination and growth are closely related to soil temperature. Cold soil temperatures
effectively create a thermal pan in the soil. Roots cannot uptake moisture or nutrients below the threshold
temperatures specific to plant species. Chemical reactions are temperature sensitive. Pesticide breakdown,
residue breakdown, microbiological activity in the soil, and nutrient conversions relate to soil temperature. Soil
temperature gradients affect soil moisture and salt movement. Soil temperatures below freezing especially affect
soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, excavation difficulty, and construction techniques. Soil temperature is used
in soil classification and hydric soil determinations. Additional information is provided in
chapter 3 of the Soil
Survey Manual.
- Estimates.— Soil temperature according to depth can be estimated from measured soil temperatures
of the vicinity. Air temperature fluctuations, soil moisture, aspect, slope, color, snow cover, plant cover, and
residue cover affect soil temperature. Estimates of soil temperature should take these factors into account when
soil temperatures are extrapolated from one soil map unit component to another.
- Measurement.— Soil temperature can be measured by many types of thermometers, including mercury,
bimetallic, thermisters, and thermocouples. Many types of thermometers can be configured for remote, unattended
operation.
- Entries
- Enter soil temperature for the
component as the long-term monthly average of the mean daily soil
temperature at a specified depth for the month in question. The
long-term average is generally considered to be a 30-year average.
The range of valid entries is from -25 to 50 degrees Celsius, and
only whole numbers (integers) are allowed. The number of layers
populated depends upon the number of changes of soil temperature
status in the profile.
- Enter the value for soil temperature depth to top that represents the distance, in centimeters, from the soil
surface to the top of each soil temperature layer for each month. Enter the value for soil temperature depth to
bottom that represents the distance, in centimeters, from the soil surface to the bottom of each soil temperature
layer for each month.
618.59 Subsidence, Initial and Total
- Definition.—“Subsidence” is the decrease in surface elevation as a result of the drainage of wet
soils that have organic layers or semifluid, mineral layers. Initial subsidence is the decrease of surface elevation
that occurs within the first 3 years of the drainage of these wet soils. Total subsidence is the potential decrease
of surface elevation as a result of the drainage of these wet soils.
- Significance
- The susceptibility of soils to subsidence is an important consideration for
organic soils that are drained. If these soils are drained for community development, special foundations are needed
for buildings. Utility lines, sidewalks, and roads that lack special foundations may settle at different rates, thus
causing breakage, high maintenance costs, and inconvenience. If the soils are drained for farming, the long-term
effects of subsidence, the possible destruction of land if it subsides below the water table, and possible legal
implications where the soils are in wetlands must be considered.
- Subsidence as a result of drainage is attributed to the
following factors. The first three factors are responsible for the
initial subsidence that occurs rapidly, specifically within about 3
years after the water table is lowered.
- Shrinkage from drying
- Consolidation because of the loss of ground-water buoyancy.
- Compaction from tillage or manipulation
- Wind erosion
- Burning
- Biochemical oxidation
- After the initial subsidence, a degree of stability is reached
and the loss of elevation declines to a steady rate, primarily
because of oxidation. The oxidation and subsidence continue at this
slower rate until stopped by the water table or underlying mineral
material. The rate of subsidence depends on—
- Ground-water depth.
- Amount of organic matter.
- Kind of organic matter.
- Soil temperature.
- pH.
- Biochemical activity.
- Estimates
- A number of studies have been made to measure actual subsidence. Other useful
studies have measured the bulk density of organic soils after drainage. Based on these studies, some general
guidelines can be given for initial and total subsidence.
- Initial subsidence generally is about half of the depth to the lowered water table or to mineral soil, whichever
is shallower. It occurs within about 3 years after drainage. Total subsidence is the total depth to the water table
or the thickness of the organic layer, whichever is shallower. It is rarely reached, except where organic layers are
thin or where drainage systems have been installed for a long time.
- Measurement.— After organic soils have been drained and cultivated for a number of years, they
reach a nearly steady rate of subsidence that is reflected by the rather stable bulk density. Unpublished studies
by the Soil Survey Laboratory have shown that the bulk density of the organic component, such as that with the
percent mineral calculated out, stabilizes at around 0.27 g/cc for surface layers and 0.18 g/cc for subsurface layers.
These values can be used to calculate the amount of subsidence at some time in the future as compared to the thickness
of soil at the time of observation or measurement. The procedure is as follows:
- Sample the surface and subsurface layers for field
state bulk density. Methods are described in the Handbook of
Soil Survey Investigations Field Procedures, I 4-2, 1971,
USDA,
Soil Conservation Service, and in Soil Survey Investigations
Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual,
Version 4.0, November 2004,
USDA, NRCS.
- Calculate out the weight contribution of the mineral component to obtain the bulk density of the organic
component (DbOM). This manipulation allows bulk densities to be on a common base so that various layers can
be compared. The formula for the computation is as follows:
DbOM = Db (1 - percent mineral/100), where Db is the field state bulk density.
- Calculate the subsidence percent (SP) for surface and subsoil horizons as follows:
For surface horizons:
SP = 100 - [(DbOM/0.27) x 100]
For subsurface horizons:
SP = 100 - [(DbOM/0.18) x 100]
Where DbOM is obtained from step (2).
- Convert initial subsidence percent to depth of subsidence in inches as follows:
S = SPsur x Tsur + SPsub x Tsub
Where:
S = depth of subsidence in inches
SPsur = subsidence percent of the surface horizon
Tsur = thickness of the surface horizon
SPsub = subsidence percent of the subsurface horizon
Tsub = thickness of the subsurface horizon above the water table or the mineral soil, whichever is
shallower
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values that represent the range for initial and total
subsidence, in centimeters, for the map unit component. The range of
valid entries is from 0 to 999, and only whole numbers (integers)
are allowed. If subsidence is not a concern, enter “0.”
618.60 Sum of Bases
- Definition.—“Sum of bases” is the sum of the
basic cations calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium that are
extractable from the < 2 mm soil fraction using a solution of
ammonium acetate (NH4OAc, pH 7).
- Significance.—Sum of bases is important for soil classification
and for certain evaluations of soil nutrient availability or of the
effect of waste additions to the soil.
- Measurement.—Sum of bases is calculated from
the results of methods
outlined in Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey
Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
- Entries.—Enter the range of sum of bases as
milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq 100 g-1) of soil for the horizon.
The range of valid entries is from 0 to 30.0 and tenths (one decimal
place) are allowed.
618.61 Surface Fragments
- Definition.—“Surface fragments” are unattached,
cemented pieces of bedrock, bedrocklike material, durinodes,
concretions, nodules, or pedogenic horizons (e.g., petrocalcic
fragments) 2 mm or larger in diameter and woody material 20 mm or
larger in diameter that are exposed at the surface of the soil.
Surface fragments can be rock fragments, pararock fragments, or wood
fragments, as defined in Section 618.27. Vegetal
material other than wood fragments, whether live or dead, is not
included.
- Surface Fragment Cover Percent
- Definition.—“Surface fragment cover percent” is the percent of ground covered by
fragments 2 mm or larger in diameter (20 mm or larger in
diameter for wood fragments).
- Significance.—Fragments on the soil surface are used as map unit phase criteria
and greatly affect the use and management of the soil. They affect equipment use, erosion, excavation, and
construction. They act as a mulch, slowing evaporation and armoring the soil
against rainfall impact. They
also affect the heating and cooling of soils.
- Estimates.— An estimation of cover by surface fragments can be made visually without
quantitative measurement, by transect techniques, or by some combination of visual and quantitative measures.
Chapter 3 of the Soil Survey Manual provides more information.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the percent of the surface covered
by each size class and kind of fragment populated in the
Component Surface Fragments Table of the NASIS
database. The range of valid entries is from 0 to 100
percent, and hundredths (two decimal places) are allowed.
- Surface Fragment Kind
- Definition.—“Surface fragment kind” is the lithology/composition of the surface fragments
2mm or larger in diameter (20 mm or larger in diameter for
wood fragments).
- Significance.—Fragments vary according to their resistance to weathering. Consequently,
fragments of some lithologies are more suited than others for use as building stone, road building material,
or riprap to face dams and stream channels.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate fragment
kind name for the record of fragments populated in the
Component Surface Fragments Table in the NASIS
database. The class names are present in a choice list and
can also be viewed in the NASIS
data dictionary.
- Surface Fragment Size
- Definition.—“Surface fragment size” is the size based on the multiaxial dimensions of the
surface fragments.
- Significance.—The size of surface fragments is significant to the use and management of
the soil. The adjective form of fragment size is used as phase criteria for naming map units.
The size affects
equipment use, excavation, construction, and recreational uses.
- Classes
- Classes of surface fragment
size are subdivided based on the shape of the fragments
(described below).
Flat fragment classes are:
Flat fragment class |
Length of fragment (mm) |
Channers |
2-150 |
Flagstones |
150-380 |
Stones |
380-600 |
Boulders |
≥600 |
Nonflat fragment classes are:
Nonflat fragment class |
Diameter (mm) |
Gravel |
2-75 |
Fine gravel |
2-5 |
Medium gravel |
5-20 |
Coarse gravel |
20-75 |
Cobbles |
75-250 |
Stones |
250-600 |
Boulders |
≥600 |
- Gravel is a collection of fragments having a diameter
ranging from 2 to 75 mm. Individual fragments in this
size range are properly referred to as pebbles, not
“gravels.” For fragments that are less than strongly
cemented, “para” is added as a prefix to the above
terms, i.e., paracobbles or fine paragravel.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for each size class populated in the
Component Surface Fragments Table in the NASIS
database. Valid entries are 2 millimeters (mm) or larger,
and only whole numbers (integers) are allowed.
- Mean Distance Between Rocks
- Definition.—“Mean distance between rocks” is the average distance between surface stones, boulders,
or both, measured between edges.
- Significance.—The mean distance between rocks is a field clue for naming stony or
bouldery map units. The closer the distance, the more
equipment limitations there are for harvesting forestland or
soil cultivation.
- Estimates.— Table 3-12 of the Soil Survey Manual shows the distance between stones and
boulders if the diameter is 0.25 m, 0.6 m, or 1.2 m. This table should be used with caution because stones
and boulders are rarely equally spaced or have the same diameter.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the mean distance between rocks.
The range of valid entries is from 0 to 50 meters, and
hundredths (two decimal places) are allowed.
- Surface Fragment Roundness
- Definition.—“Surface fragment roundness” is an expression of the sharpness of edges and
corners of surface fragments.
- Classes.—The surface fragment roundness classes are:
Roundness class |
Definition |
Very angular |
Strongly developed faces with very sharp, broken
edges |
Angular |
Strongly developed faces with sharp edges (SSM) |
Subangular |
Detectable flat faces with slightly rounded corners |
Subrounded |
Detectable flat faces with well-rounded corners
(SSM) |
Rounded |
Flat faces absent or nearly absent with all
corners rounded (SSM) |
Well rounded |
Flat faces absent with all corners rounded |
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate surface
fragment roundness class name for the record of surface
fragments populated in the Component Surface Fragments Table in
the NASIS
database.
- Surface Fragment Hardness
- Definition.—“Surface fragment hardness”
is equivalent to the rupture resistance cemented of a
surface fragment of specified size that has been air-dried
and then submerged in water.
- Measurements.—Procedures and classes of cementation are listed with the rupture
resistance classes in the Soil Survey Manual. Classes are described for similar specimens about 25-30 mm on edge which are air-dried
and then submerged in water for at least 1 hour. The specimen is compressed between extended thumb and
forefinger, between both hands, or between the foot and a hard flat surface. If the specimen resists
compression, a weight is dropped onto it from progressively greater heights until it ruptures. Failure is
considered at the initial detection of deformation or rupture. Stress applied in the hand should be over a
1-second period. The tactile sense of the class limits may be learned by applying force to top-loading scales
and sensing the pressure through the tips of the fingers or through the ball of the foot. Postal scales may
be used for the resistance range that is testable with the fingers. A bathroom scale may be used for the
higher rupture resistance range.
- Significance.—The hardness of a
surface fragment is significant where the rupture resistance class is strongly cemented
or higher. These classes can impede or restrict the movement of soil water vertically through the soil
profile and have a direct impact on the quality and quantity of ground water and surface water.
- Classes.—The surface fragment hardness (rupture
resistance) classes are
the following:
- Extremely weakly cemented
- Very weakly cemented
- Weakly cemented
- Moderately cemented
- Strongly cemented
- Very strongly cemented
- Indurated
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate class
name for each record of surface fragments populated in the
Component Surface Fragments Table in the
NASIS
database. Choose the term without the word “cemented” (e.g.,
choose the “moderately” class to represent the moderately
cemented class).
- Surface Fragment Shape
- Definition.—“Surface fragment shape” is a description of the overall shape of the
surface fragment.
- Classes.—The surface fragment shape classes are “flat”
and “nonflat.”
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate surface
fragment shape class name for each record of surface
fragments populated in the Component Surface Fragments Table
in the NASIS
database.
618.62 T Factor
- Definition.—The “T factor” is the soil loss tolerance (in tons per acre). It is defined as the
maximum amount of erosion at which the quality of a soil as a medium for plant growth can be maintained. This
quality of the soil to be maintained is threefold in focus. It includes maintaining the surface soil as a
seedbed for plants, the atmosphere-soil interface to allow the entry of air and water into the soil and still
protect the underlying soil from wind and water erosion, and the total soil volume as a reservoir for water and
plant nutrients, which is preserved by minimizing soil loss. Erosion losses are estimated by
USLE
and RUSLE2.
- Classes.—The classes of T factors are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
- Significance.—Soil loss tolerances commonly serve as objectives for conservation planning on
farms. These objectives assist in the identification of cropping sequences and management systems that
can
maximize production and also sustain long-term productivity. T factors represent the goal for maximum annual soil
loss.
- Guidelines.—Conservation objectives for soil loss tolerance include maintaining a
suitable seedbed and nutrient supply in the surface soil, maintaining an adequate depth and quality of the
rooting zone, and minimizing unfavorable changes in water status throughout the soil. A single T factor is assigned
to each map unit component.
- Estimates.— The T factor is assigned to soils without respect to land use or cover. T factors
are assigned to compare soils and do not imply differences to vegetation response directly. Many of the factors
used to assign a T factor are also important to vegetation response, but the T factor is not assigned to imply
vegetation sensitivity to all vegetation. The general guideline given in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.93 is used to assign T factors
but more specific criteria are used to select limiting soil properties.
- Entries.—The estimated soil loss tolerance should be calculated from the soil properties and
qualities posted in the database for each map unit component based generally on the guideline given in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.93. Acceptable values are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
618.63 Taxonomic Family Temperature Class
- Definition
- The soil temperature classes are
part of the family categorical level as defined in Soil Taxonomy. They differ from “soil
temperature regimes,” (Data Element: taxonomic temp regime), in that
the cryic
temperature regime is divided between the frigid and isofrigid
classes based on differences in mean winter and mean summer soil
temperatures. Soil temperature classes are based on mean annual and mean seasonal soil temperatures
using the Celsius (centigrade) scale and taken either at a depth of 50 cm from the soil surface or at a lithic or
paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.
- For soil families in Gelisols, Gelic suborders, and Gelic great
groups the soil temperature classes, defined in terms of the mean
annual soil temperature, are as follows:
- Hypergelic: -10°C or lower
- Pergelic: -4°C to -10°C
- Subgelic: +1°C to -4°C
- For soil families that have a difference of 6°C or more between mean summer (June, July, and August in the northern
hemisphere) temperature and mean winter (December, January, and February in the northern hemisphere) temperature,
the soil temperature classes, defined in terms of the mean annual soil temperature, are as follows:
- Frigid: Lower than 8°C
- Mesic: 8°C to 15°C
- Thermic: 15°C to 22°C
- Hyperthermic: 22°C or higher
- For soil families that have a difference of less than 6°C between the mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures,
the soil temperature classes, defined in terms of the mean annual soil temperature, are as follows:
- Isofrigid: Lower than 8°C
- Isomesic: 8°C to 15°C
- Isothermic: 15°C to 22°C
- Isohyperthermic: 22°C or higher
- Significance.—All soils have a taxonomic soil temperature class. Soil temperature classes are
used as family differentiae in all the orders defined in Soil Taxonomy. The names are used as part of the family name unless
the criteria for a higher taxon carry the same limitation. The frigid or isofrigid class is implied in all cryic suborders and great groups, but the class is not used as part of the family name because it would be
redundant.
- Estimates.— Estimates of soil temperature classes are made with models that use climatic data
including mean annual and mean seasonal air temperatures, precipitation, and evapotranspiration. Some models include
snow cover, topographic, and vegetative inputs.
- Measurement.— The Celsius (centigrade) scale is the standard. It is assumed that the temperature
is that of a nonirrigated soil. The soil temperature classes are based on long-term averages of mean annual and mean
seasonal soil temperatures taken either at a depth of 50 cm from the soil surface or at a lithic or paralithic
contact, whichever is shallower.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate soil temperature class from the following list:
- Frigid
- Hypergelic
- Hyperthermic
- Isofrigid
- Isohyperthermic
- Isomesic
- Isothermic
- Mesic
- Pergelic
- Subgelic
- Thermic
- Not used
618.64 Taxonomic Moisture Class
- Definition.—Soil moisture classes refer to the
soil moisture regimes defined in Soil Taxonomy. Soil moisture
regimes are defined by the presence or absence either of ground
water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa, in the
soil or in specific horizons, by periods of the year.
- Significance.—All soils have a soil moisture
regime. Soil moisture regimes are used as differentiae in all the orders
defined in Soil Taxonomy. Data on the moisture regime are used for
making interpretations for cropland agriculture, correlating soils
to ecological sites, and determining suitability for wildlife
habitat. The moisture regime of some soils is not apparent in the
classification given in Soil Taxonomy. Ustolls and Xerolls, for
example, can have an aridic moisture regime. Some soils have
more than one moisture regime. An example is a soil that meets the
requirements of the aquic moisture regime in the wet season and also
meets the requirements of the ustic regime.
- Estimates.— Estimates of soil moisture regimes are made with models that use climatic data,
including mean annual and mean seasonal air temperatures, precipitation, and evapotranspiration. Some models include
topographic and vegetative inputs. The soil moisture control section, also defined in Soil Taxonomy, is used to
facilitate the estimation of soil moisture regimes. See Soil Survey
Technical Note 9 for more guidance:
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/technotes/.
- Measurement.— The soil moisture regimes are based on annual and seasonal soil moisture
measurements taken in the soil moisture control section. The soil should not be irrigated, fallowed, or
influenced by other moisture-altering practices.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate soil moisture regimes from the following list:
- Aquic
- Aridic (torric)
- Peraquic
- Perudic
- Udic
- Ustic
- Xeric
618.65 Taxonomic Moisture Subclass (Subclasses of
Soil Moisture Regimes)
- Definition.—Subclasses of soil moisture regimes are defined at the subgroup
categorical level in
Soil
Taxonomy. The criteria differ among the great groups. For example aquic, aridic, and udic are subclasses of the
soil moisture regime in Haplustalfs. A subclass is entered for all soils in a great group that meet the subclass
criteria, even if the subclass is not part of the taxonomic classification. For example, aquic, aridic, udic, or
typic should be used as a subclass of the soil moisture regime in Lithic Haplustalfs if the criteria are met.
- Significance.—Subclasses of soil moisture regimes are used at the subgroup
categorical level in all orders
in Soil Taxonomy except Histosols. They typically indicate an intergrade between two moisture regimes that affect the
use and management of the soil. The subclasses of soil moisture regimes are
used for making interpretations for
cropland agriculture, correlating soils to ecological sites, and
determining suitability for wildlife
habitat.
- Estimates.— Estimates of subclasses of soil moisture regimes are made with models that use
climatic data, including mean annual and mean seasonal air temperatures, precipitation, and evapotranspiration.
Some models include topographic and vegetative inputs. The soil moisture control section, also defined in
Soil
Taxonomy, is used to facilitate estimation of some subclasses of soil moisture regimes.
For more guidance, see Soil Survey Technical Note 9 (available
online at
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/technotes/).
- Measurement.— The subclasses of soil moisture regimes are based on annual and seasonal soil
moisture measurements taken in the soil moisture control section. The soil should not be irrigated, fallowed, or
influenced by other moisture-altering practices.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate subclass of soil moisture regimes from the following list:
- Aeric
- Anthraquic
- Aquic
- Aridic (torric)
- Oxyaquic
- Typic
- Udic
- Ustic
- Xeric
618.66 Taxonomic Temperature Regime (Soil
Temperature Regimes)
- Definition.—“Soil temperature regimes” refer to the temperature regimes as defined in
Soil Taxonomy.
- Significance.—Soil temperature regimes are used as differentiae above the family
categorical level in all
orders in Soil Taxonomy. (Soil temperature classes, defined above,
are used as family differentiae.) Soil temperature regimes greatly
affect the use and management of soils, particularly the
selection of adapted plants. Temperature regimes are used for making interpretations for
cropland agriculture, correlating soils to ecological sites, and
determining suitability for wildlife
habitat.
- Estimates.— Estimates of soil temperature regimes are made with models that use climatic data
including mean annual and mean seasonal air temperatures, precipitation, and evapotranspiration. Some models include
topographic and vegetative inputs.
- Measurement.— The soil temperature regime is based on mean annual and seasonal soil temperatures
using the Celsius (centigrade) scale and taken either at a depth of 50 cm from the soil surface or at a lithic or
paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate soil temperature regimes from the following list:
- Gelic
- Cryic
- Frigid
- Mesic
- Thermic
- Hyperthermic
- Isofrigid
- Isomesic
- Isothermic
- Isohyperthermic
618.67 Texture Class, Texture Modifier, and Terms
Used in Lieu of Texture
- Definition.—“Texture class” refers to the soil texture classification used by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture as defined in the Soil Survey Manual. Soil texture is the relative proportion, by weight, of the
particle separate classes finer than 2 mm in equivalent diameter. The material finer than 2 mm is the fine-earth
fraction. Material 2 mm or larger is rock or pararock fragments.
Click Interactive Online Soil Texture Calculator to enter the percent sand and clay, and let the calculator do the
rest.
- Significance.—Soil texture influences engineering works and plant growth and
indicates how soils formed. Soil texture has a strong influence on soil mechanics and the behavior of soil when
it is used as construction or foundation material. It influences such engineering properties as bearing strength,
compressibility, saturated hydraulic conductivity, shrink-swell potential, and compaction. Engineers are also
particularly interested in rock and pararock fragments. Soil texture influences plant growth by its affect on
aeration, the water intake rate, the available water capacity, the cation-exchange capacity, saturated hydraulic
conductivity, erodibility, and workability. Changes in texture as related to depth are indicators of how soils
formed. When texture is plotted with depth, smooth curves indicate translocation and accumulation. Irregular
changes in particle-size distribution, especially in the sand fraction, may indicate lithologic discontinuities,
specifically differences in parent material.
- Measurement.— USDA texture can be measured in the laboratory by determining the proportion of
the various size particles in a soil sample. The analytical procedure is called particle-size analysis or mechanical
analysis. Stone, gravel, and other material 2 mm or larger are sieved out of the sample and
thus are not considered in the
analysis of the sample. Their amounts are measured separately. Of the remaining material smaller than 2 mm, the
amount of the various sizes of sand is determined by sieving. The amount of silt and clay is determined by a
differential rate of settling in water. Either the pipette or hydrometer method is used for the silt and clay
analysis. Organic matter and dissolved mineral matter are removed in the pipette procedure but not in the hydrometer
procedure. The two procedures are generally very similar, but a few samples, especially those with high organic
matter or high soluble salts, exhibit wide discrepancies. The detailed procedures are outlined in Soil Survey
Investigations Report No. 42, Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Version 4.0, November 2004, USDA, NRCS.
- Estimates
- The determination of soil texture
for the less than 2 mm material is made in the
field mainly by feeling the soil with the fingers. The soil must be well moistened and rubbed vigorously between
the fingers for a proper determination of texture class by feel. This method requires skill and experience but
good accuracy can be obtained if the field soil scientist frequently checks his or her estimates against laboratory
results. Many
NRCS offices collect reference samples for this purpose. The content of particles larger than 2 mm
cannot be evaluated by feel. The content of the fragments is determined by estimating the proportion of the soil
volume that they occupy. Fragments in the soil are discussed in
Section 618.27.
- Each soil scientist must develop the ability to determine soil texture by feel for each genetic soil group
according to the standards established by particle-size analysis. Soil scientists must remember that soil horizons
that are in the same texture class but are in different subgroups or families may have a different feel. For
example, natric horizons generally feel higher in clay than “non-natric” horizons. Laboratory analysis generally
shows that the clay in natric horizons is less than the amount estimated from the field method. The scientist needs
to adjust judgment and not the size distribution standards.
- Entries.—Texture is displayed by the use of five data elements in NASIS: texture class,
texture modifier, texture modifier and class, stratified texture flag, and terms used in lieu of texture.
As many as four entries can be made for each horizon for each of these data elements. However, only one texture
for a surface horizon should be entered for each component. Only use multiple textures if they interpret the same
for the horizon. Only textures that represent complete horizons should be entered. A representative value is also
identified for each horizon. This choice should match the representative values of the various soil particle-size
separates posted elsewhere in the database.
- Texture Class
- Definition
- “Texture class” is an expression, based on the
USDA system of particle sizes,
for the relative portions of the various size groups of individual mineral soil grains less than 2 mm
equivalent diameter in a mass of soil.
- Each texture class has defined limits for each particle separate class of mineral particles less than 2 mm
in effective diameter. The basic texture classes, in the approximate order of increasing proportions of fine
particles, are sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay
loam, sandy clay, silty clay, and clay. The sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam classes may be further
subdivided into coarse, fine, or very fine. The basic
USDA texture classes are given graphically in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.87 as a percentage of sand, silt, and clay. The chart at the bottom of the figure shows the relationship
between the particle size and texture classes among the
AASHTO,
USDA, and Unified
soil classification
systems.
- Entries.—Enter the texture class for each horizon using
the list in Part 618, Subpart B,
Exhibits, Section 618.94.
- Terms Used in Lieu of Texture
- Definition.—“Terms used in lieu of
texture” are substitute terms applied to materials that do
not fit into a texture class because of high organic matter
content, high fragment content, high gypsum content,
cementation, or another reason. Examples include artifacts,
bedrock, gravel, and muck. Part
618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.94 provides a list of these terms and their
codes. Some of these terms may be modified with terms from
the list of texture modifiers, such as cemented, code CEM.
For example, cemented diagnostic horizons such as duripans,
petrocalcic horizons, and petrogypsic horizons are coded CEM-MAT,
using the texture modifier “cemented” with the term in lieu
of texture “material.” The concatenated texture term for
such horizons in pedon descriptions is “cemented material.”
- Application
- The terms used in lieu of texture “highly decomposed
plant material,” “moderately decomposed plant material,” and
“slightly decomposed plant material” (codes HPM, MPM, and
SPM), should only be used to describe near surface horizons
composed of plant material in various stages of
decomposition that are saturated with water for less than 30
cumulative days in normal years and are not artificially
drained. The terms “muck,” “mucky peat,” and “peat” (codes
MUCK, MPT, and PEAT) should be used to describe histic
epipedons and organic horizons of any thickness that are
saturated with water for 30 or more cumulative days in
normal years or are artificially drained, including those in
Histels and Histosols, except for Folists.
- For soil materials with 40 percent or more, by weight,
gypsum in the fine-earth fraction, gypsum dominates the
physical and chemical properties of the soil and
particle-size classes are not meaningful. Two terms in lieu
of texture are used. “Coarse gypsum material” (code CGM) is
used for these materials where 50 percent or more of the
fine-earth fraction is comprised of particles ranging from
0.1 to 2.0 mm in diameter. “Fine gypsum material” (code FGM)
is applied to materials where less than 50 percent of the
fine-earth fraction is comprised of particles ranging from
0.1 to 2.0 mm in diameter.
- “Material,” which uses the code MAT, is generic and
requires the use of a texture modifier. Texture modifier
terms, such as “coprogenous,” “gypsiferous,” and “marly,”
are used to describe material.
- Entries.—Enter the term used in lieu of texture for each
horizon, if applicable, from the list in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.94.
- Texture Modifier
- Definition.—“Texture modifier” is a term used to denote the presence of a condition or
component other than sand, silt, or clay.
- Application.—Texture modifier terms may apply to both texture and terms used in lieu
of texture. Some may apply to both, others only apply to one or the other. Combinations of some texture
modifiers are allowed. A list of allowable texture modifier terms and their codes is given in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.94.
Some rules of application are given below.
- If the content of fragments equals 15 percent or more, by volume, texture modifiers are used. An
example is gravelly loam or parachannery loam. The
adjectives “very” and “extremely” are used when the
content of fragments equals 35 to less than 60 percent and 60 to less than 90 percent, by volume,
respectively.
- “Mucky” and “peaty” are used to modify near
surface horizons of mineral soils that are saturated
with water for 30 or more cumulative days in normal
years or are artificially drained. An example is
mucky loam. Excluding live roots, the horizon has an
organic carbon content (by weight) of one of the
following:
- 5 to < 12 percent if the mineral
fraction contains no clay
- 12 to < 18 percent if the mineral
fraction contains 60 percent or more clay
- [5 + (clay percentage multiplied by
0.12)) to < (12 + (clay percentage
multiplied by 0.10)] if the mineral fraction
contains less than 60 percent clay
- “Highly organic” is used to modify near surface horizons of mineral soils that are saturated with
water for less than 30 cumulative days in normal years and are not artificially drained. Excluding
live roots, the horizon has an organic carbon content (by weight) of
one of the following:
- 5 to < 20 percent if the mineral
fraction contains no clay
- 12 to < 20 percent if the mineral
fraction contains 60 percent or more clay
- [(5 + (clay percentage multiplied by
0.12)] to < 20 percent if the mineral
fraction contains less than 60 percent clay
- When modifying the texture of soils with greater than 15 percent, by volume, artifacts, the
following classes are used:
Less than 15 percent: |
No texture modifier terms are used. |
15 to < 35 percent: |
The adjectival term “artifactual” is
used as a modifier of the texture class,
such as “artifactual
loam.” |
35 to < 60 percent: |
The adjectival term “very artifactual” is used as a modifier of the
texture class, such as
“very artifactual loam.” |
60 percent or more: |
If enough fine earth is present to determine the texture class (approximately 10 percent
or more, by volume), the adjectival term “extremely artifactual” is used as a modifier of the
texture class, such as “extremely artifactual loam.” |
If there is too little fine earth to determine
the texture class (less than about 10 percent, by
volume) the term in lieu of texture “artifacts” is used.
In some instances, the soil may contain a combination of
both artifacts and rock fragments. In these cases, the rock
fragments and artifacts are described separately. Where
appropriate, compound texture modifiers can be used; the
modifier for artifacts comes before the modifier for rock
fragments. Examples are artifactual very gravelly sandy loam
and very artifactual channery mucky clay.
- Compound texture modifiers may be used. For
example, a term may be used to indicate the presence
of fragments and another used to indicate some
nonfragment condition. The term used to indicate
fragments should be listed first. Examples are very
gravelly mucky silt loam and paragravelly ashy loam.
- Texture modifiers, such as paragravelly and paracobbly, are used to identify the presence of
pararock fragments. The size, shape, and amounts of pararock fragments required for these terms
are the same as for rock fragments.
- When a horizon includes both rock and pararock fragments, use the following
rules for selecting
texture modifiers:
- Describe the individual kinds and amounts of rock and pararock fragments.
- Do not use a fragment texture modifier when the combined volume of rock and pararock
fragments is less than 15 percent.
- When the combined volume of rock and pararock fragments is more than 15 percent and the
volume of rock fragments is less than 15 percent, assign pararock fragment modifiers based on
the combined volume of fragments. For example, use paragravelly as a texture modifier for
soils with 10 percent rock and 10 percent pararock gravel-sized fragments.
- When the volume of rock fragments is 15 percent or greater, use the appropriate texture
modifier for rock fragments (see
Part 618,
Subpart B, Exhibits, Section 618.90), regardless of the volume of pararock fragments.
(Do not add the volume of rock and pararock
fragments to determine the texture modifier.)
- The definitions of the following four
compositional texture modifiers guide their usage:
- Hydrous.—Material that has andic soil properties and an undried 15 bar
(1500 kPa)water content of
100 percent or more of the dry weight.
- Medial.—Material that has andic soil properties and has a 15 bar
(1500 kPa) water content of less
than 100 percent on undried samples and of 12 percent or more on air-dried samples.
- Ashy.—Material that has andic soil
properties and is neither hydrous nor medial or
material that does not have andic soil
properties and the fine-earth fraction contains
30 percent or more particles 0.02 to 2.0 mm in
diameter, of which 5 percent or more is composed
of volcanic glass and the [(aluminum plus 1/2
iron percent by ammonium oxalate) times 60] plus
the volcanic glass percent is equal to or more
than 30.
- Gypsiferous.—Material that contains 15
to < 40 percent, by weight, gypsum.
- Woody, grassy, mossy, and herbaceous texture modifiers are only used to modify muck, peat, or
mucky peat terms (used for histic epipedons and organic horizons of any thickness that are saturated with
water for 30 or more cumulative days in normal years, or are artificially drained, including those
in Histels and Histosols, except for Folists). The
definitions of the following four compositional
texture modifiers guide their usage:
- Woody.—Any material that contains 15 percent
or more wood fragments larger than 2 cm in size
or organic soil materials other than SPM, MPM,
or HPM, that contain 15 percent or more fibers
that can be identified as wood origin and
contain more wood fibers than any other kind of
fiber.
- Grassy.—Organic soil material that contains more than 15 percent fibers that can be
identified as grass, sedges, cattails, and other grasslike plants and contains more grassy
fibers than any other kind of fiber.
- Mossy.—Organic soil material that contains more than 15 percent fibers that can be
identified as moss and contains more moss fibers than any other kind of fiber.
- Herbaceous.—Organic soil material that contains more than 15 percent fibers that can
be identified as herbaceous plants other than moss and grass or grasslike plants and more
of these fibers than any other kind of fiber.
- Some materials can be described by utilizing an apparent texture, even though they do not fit the
requirements of texture. These materials use a texture modifier.
An example is marly silt loam.
- Limnic materials have modifiers to texture to
connote the origin of the material. The three kinds
of limnic materials are coprogenous earth,
diatomaceous earth, and marl. These materials were
deposited in water by precipitation or through the
action of aquatic organisms or derived from plants
and organisms. Refer to the Keys to Soil Taxonomy
for the complete definitions and taxonomic criteria
of limnic materials. The following three
compositional texture modifiers are used with limnic
materials to indicate presence and origin without
respect to any set quantity of pellets, grains, or
particles:
- Coprogenous.—Soil material that is a limnic layer containing many very small (0.1
to 0.001 mm) fecal pellets.
- Diatomaceous.—Soil material that is a limnic layer composed of diatoms.
- Marly.—Soil material that is a limnic layer that is light colored and reacts with HCl
to evolve CO2.
- “Permanently frozen” is a term applied to a soil
layer in which the temperature is perennially at or
below 0 degrees C, whether its consistence is very
hard or loose.
- Entries.—Enter the applicable texture modifiers from the
list in Part 618, Subpart B,
Exhibits, Section 618.94.
Multiple texture modifiers are used in some horizons based
on the application rules for texture modifier presented
above. They must be assigned sequence numbers in the Horizon
Texture Modifier Table in the NASIS
database for the proper calculated result.
- Texture Modifier and Class
- Definition.—“Texture modifier and class”
is a concatenation of texture modifier and texture class or
texture modifier and a term used in lieu of texture. This data element indicates the full texture
term of the horizon. If texture modifiers are used,
they are attached to the texture class by a hyphen, for example, GR-SL. If a layer is stratified, enter SR
as a texture modifier and the end members of the textural range and connect them by hyphens, for example,
SR-C-L and SR-GR-S-GR-C.
- Entries.—Enter the appropriate texture
modifier and class for each horizon. These entries are
calculated in the Horizon Texture Group Table in the NASIS
database.
- Stratified Texture Flag
- Application.—A stratified texture flag
is used to identify stratified textures in the Horizon
Texture Group Table in the NASIS
database.
- Entries.—A Boolean flag is set to “yes”
by checking the box for the stratified texture flag. This
indicates that the textures that comprise a particular
record are stratified. The default entry is “no” and is
displayed by keeping the box for stratified texture flag
unchecked.
- Representative Indicator Flag
- Application.—A representative indicator flag is
used to identify one representative texture (comprised of texture
modifier and class) in the Horizon Texture Group Table in the NASIS
database.
- Entries.—A Boolean flag is set to “yes” by checking the box for
the representative indicator flag. This indicates that the texture
that comprises a record in the particular horizon texture group is
representative. It also indicates that the selected texture
validates the soil properties populated for the layer. The selected
texture record must be in agreement with the representative values for important soil properties such as
clay content, sand content, rock fragment content, and organic
matter content. The flag must be set even when only one texture
record is populated for a particular horizon (such as in surface
layers or bedrock layers). The default entry is “no” and is
displayed by keeping the box for representative indicator flag
unchecked. Only one texture record may be selected as representative
for a given horizon or layer.
618.68 Water, One-Tenth Bar
- Definition.—“Water, one-tenth bar” is the amount of soil water retained at a tension of 1/10 bar
(10 kPa),
expressed as a percentage of the whole soil on a volumetric basis.
- Significance.—Water retained at one-tenth bar is significant in the determination of soil
water-retention difference, which is used as the initial estimation of available water capacity for some soils.
- Measurement.—Measurement in the laboratory is
done on natural clods using a pressure desorption method.
Measurement for nonswelling soils, loamy sand or coarser soils, and
some sandy loams is also done using a a pressure desorption method
but sieved (< 2 mm) air-dry samples are used. Gravimetric water
contents are reported in laboratory measurements as a percentage of
the fine-earth (<2 mm) fraction. Conversion to a volumetric basis is
made using bulk density and rock fragment content.
- Entries.—Enter the low, high, and
representative values for the horizon. The range of valid entries is
from 0 to 100 percent, and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed. A NASIS
calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.105.
618.69 Water, One-Third Bar
- Definition.—Water, one-third bar” is the amount of soil water retained at a tension of 1/3 bar
(33 kPa),
expressed as a percentage of the whole soil on a volumetric basis.
- Significance.—Water retained at one-third bar is significant in the determination of soil
water-retention difference, which is used as the initial estimation of available water capacity for some soils.
- Measurement.—Measurement in the laboratory is
done on natural clods using a pressure desorption method.
Measurement for nonswelling soils, loamy sand or coarser soils, and
some sandy loams is also done using a pressure desorption method but
sieved (< 2 mm) air-dry samples are used. Gravimetric water contents
are reported in laboratory measurements as a percentage of the
fine-earth (< 2 mm) fraction. Conversion to a volumetric basis is
made using bulk density and rock fragment content.
- Entries.—Enter the low, high, and
representative values for the horizon. The range of valid entries is
from 0 to 100 percent, and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed. A NASIS
calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.105.
618.70 Water, 15 Bar
- Definition.—“Water, 15 bar” is the amount of soil water retained at a tension of 15 bars
(1500 kPa),
expressed as a percentage of the whole soil on a volumetric basis.
- Significance.—Water retained at 15 bar is
significant in the determination of soil water-retention difference,
which is used as the initial estimation of available water capacity
for some soils. Water retained at 15 bar is an estimation of the
wilting point.
- Measurement.—Measurement in the laboratory is
done on sieved (< 2 mm) air-dry samples using a pressure desorption
method. Gravimetric water contents are reported in laboratory
measurements as a percentage of the fine-earth (< 2 mm) fraction.
Conversion to a volumetric basis is made using bulk density and rock
fragment content.
- Entries.—Enter the low, high, and
representative values for the horizon. The range of valid entries is
from 0 to 100 percent, and tenths (one decimal place) are allowed. A NASIS
calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.105.
618.71 Water, Satiated
- Definition.—“Water, satiated” is the estimated volumetric soil water content at or near zero bar
tension, expressed as a percentage of the whole soil.
- Significance.—Water, satiated, represents the total possible water content of the soil,
including the amount in excess of field capacity, and is used to estimate the amount of water available for
leaching and translocation. Satiated water content approximates the water content
at saturated conditions. It is used in such resource assessment
tools as Soil Hydrology, Water Budgets, Leaching, and
Nutrient/Pesticide Loading models.
- Estimation.—The values are derived by the following formula:
Satiated water % = total porosity % - entrapped air % Where:
Total porosity % = 100(1-bulk density moist/particle density).
Assume approximately 3% entrapped air.
- Entries.—Enter the high, low, and
representative values for the horizon. The range of valid entries is
from 0 to 100 percent, and only whole numbers (integers) are
allowed. A NASIS
calculation is available and can be viewed in
Part 618, Subpart B, Exhibits, Section
618.105.
618.72 Wind Erodibility Group and Index
- Definition.—A wind erodibility group (WEG) is a grouping of soils that have similar properties
affecting their resistance to soil blowing in cultivated areas. The groups indicate the susceptibility to blowing.
The wind erodibility index (I), used in the wind erosion equation, is assigned using the wind erodibility groups.
- Significance.—There is a close correlation
between soil blowing and the size and durability of surface clodiness, fragments, organic matter, and the calcareous reaction.
The soil properties that are most important with respect to soil
blowing are listed below.
Soil moisture and the presence of frozen soil also influence soil
blowing.
- Soil texture class
- Organic matter content
- Carbonates in the fine-earth fraction as determined by effervescence
class
- Rock and pararock fragment content
- Mineralogy
- Estimates.— Soils are placed into wind erodibility groups on the basis of the properties of the
soil surface layer. Subpart B, Exhibits,
Section 618.95 lists the wind erodibility index assigned to the wind erodibility groups. The
wind erodibility index values are assigned because the dry soil aggregates are very use-dependent on crop management
factors.
- Entries.—Enter the wind erodibility group and wind erodibility index values for surface layers
only. The range of valid entries for wind erodibility group data is 1, 2, 3, 4, 4L, 5, 6, 7, and 8. The lowest valid
entry for wind erodibility index data is 0, and the highest is 310. The index values should correspond exactly to
their wind erodibility group.
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