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($/kW) @Y/!Y(#P"Y @($/kW) @Y/!Y(#Q"Y @($/ton) QG,Y(#R"  Y  QWet 9/!V)$S 9Ѐ>400 9/!V)$T 9100250 9/!V)$U" 928 9/!V)$V" 92050 9/!V)$W" 9200500 QG,V)$X"    Q  9/!P*%Y 9Ѐ<400 9/!P*%Z 9X1  2501,500 9/!P*%[" 9820 9/!P*%\" 950200 9/!P*%]" 95005,000 QG,P*%^"    QSprayDry 9/!1+&_ 9Ѐ>200 9/!1+&` 940150 9/!1+&a" 9410 9/!1+&b" 92050 9/!1+&c" 9150300 XYG,1+&d"    X @Y/!,b'eY @Ѐ<200 @Y/!,b'fY @1501,500 @Y/!,b'g"Y @10300 @Y/!,b'h"Y @50500 @Y/!,b'i"Y @5004,000<20,b'j"   Y <  a(EIA,2002;EPA,2000;Srivastava,2001) ,7(j   bAssumescapacityfactor>80% -)k ' $( .)l 6      TheoryofOperation:   TheFDGorSO2scrubbingprocesstypicallyusesacalciumorsodiumbasedalkalinereagent.Thereagent j isinjectedinthefluegasinaspraytowerordirectlyintotheduct.TheSO2isabsorbed,neutralizedand/or G oxidizedbythealkalinereagentintoasolidcompound,eithercalciumorsodiumsulfate.Thesolidisremovedfromthewastegasstreamusingdownstreamequipment.Scrubbersareclassifiedas oncethroughor regenerable,basedonhowthesolidsgeneratedbytheprocessarehandled.Oncethroughsystemseitherdisposeofthespentsorbentasawasteorutilizeitasabyproduct.   Regenerablesystemsrecyclethesorbentbackintothesystem.Atthepresenttime,regenerableprocesseshavehighercoststhanonce-throughprocesses;however,regenerableprocessesmightbechosenifspaceordisposaloptionsarelimitedandmarketsforbyproducts(gypsum)areavailable(Cooper,2002).In1998,approximately3%ofFDGsystemsinstalledintheUSwereregenerable.Bothtypesofsystems,oncethroughandregenerable,canbefurthercategorizedaswet,dry,orsemidry.Eachoftheseprocessesisdescribedinthefollowingsections.  WetSystems  ] 0  Inawetscrubbersystem,fluegasisductedtoaspraytowerwhereanaqueousslurryofsorbentisinjectedintothefluegas.Toprovidegoodcontactbetweenthewastegasandsorbent,thenozzlesandinjectionlocationsaredesignedtooptimizethesizeanddensityofslurrydropletsformedbythesystem.Aportionofthewaterintheslurryisevaporatedandthewastegasstreambecomessaturatedwithwatervapor.Sulfurdioxidedissolvesintotheslurrydropletswhereitreactswiththealkalineparticulates.Theslurryfallstothebottomoftheabsorberwhereitiscollected.Treatedfluegaspassesthroughamisteliminatorbeforeexitingtheabsorberwhichremovesanyentrainedslurrydroplets.TheabsorbereffluentissenttoareactiontankwheretheSO2alkalireactioniscompletedforminganeutralsalt.Ina "r regenerablesystem,thespentslurryisrecycledbacktotheabsorber.Oncethroughsystemsdewaterthespentslurryfordisposaloruseasabyproduct. (#(# 0  Typicalsorbentmaterialislimestone,orlime.Limestoneisveryinexpensivebutcontrolefficienciesforlimestonesystemsarelimitedtoapproximately90%.Limeiseasiertomanageonsiteandhascontrolefficienciesupto95%butissignificantlymorecostly(Cooper2002).Proprietarysorbentswithreactivityenhancingadditivesprovidecontrolefficienciesgreaterthan95%butareverycostly.Electricalutilitiesstorelargevolumesoflimestoneorlimeonsiteandpreparethesorbentforinjection,butthisisgenerallynotcosteffectiveforsmallerindustrialapplications. (#(# 0  Thevolumeratioofreagentslurrytowastegasisreferredtoastheliquidtogasratio(L/G).TheL/GratiodeterminestheamountofreagentavailableforreactionwithSO2.HigherL/Gratiosresultinhighercontrol ~% & efficiencies.HigherL/GalsoincreasesoxidationoftheSO2,whichresultsinadecreaseoftheformation [&!' ofscaleintheabsorber.O&Mcostsareadirectfunctionofreagentusage,soincreasingtheL/Gincreasesannualcosts.L/Gratiosareapproximately1:1forwetscrubbersandareexpressedasgallonsofslurryper1000ft3offluegas(litersofslurry/1000Nm3offluegas).(B$*(#(# 0  Oxidationoftheslurrysorbentcausesgypsum(calciumsulfate)scaletoformintheabsorber. Limestone +&- forcedoxidation(LSFO)isanewerprocessbasedonwetlimestonescrubbingwhichreducesscale.InLSFO,airisaddedtothereactiontankwhichoxidizesthespentslurrytogypsum.Thegypsumisremovedfromthereactiontankpriortotheslurrybeingrecycledtotheabsorber.Therecycleslurryhas  .p)0 80 8 8  alowerconcentrationofgypsumandscaleformationintheabsorberissignificantlyreduced.Gypsumcanbecommerciallysold,eliminatingtheneedforlandfillingofthewasteproduct(Srivastava,2001).Inadditiontoscalecontrol,thelargersizegypsumcrystalsformedinLSFOsettleanddewatermoreefficiently,reducingthesizeofthebyproducthandlingequipment(EPA,2002).However,LSFOrequiresadditionalblowerswhichincreasethecapitalandannualcostsofthesystem. (#(# 0  Wetlimestonescrubbinghashighcapitalandoperatingcostduetothehandlingofliquidreagentandwaste.Nonetheless,itisthepreferredprocessforcoalfiredelectricutilitypowerplantsburningcoalduetothelowcostoflimestoneandSO2controlefficienciesfrom90%upto98%(Schnelle,2002). (#(#    SemiDrySystems  R   0  Semidrysystems,orspraydryers,injectanaqueoussorbentslurrysimilartoawetsystem,however,theslurryhasahighersorbentconcentration.Asthehotfluegasmixeswiththeslurrysolution,waterfromtheslurryisevaporated.ThewaterthatremainsonthesolidsorbentenhancesthereactionwithSO2.   Theprocessformsadrywasteproductwhichiscollectedwithastandardparticulatematter(PM)collectiondevicesuchasabaghouseorESP.Thewasteproductcanbedisposed,soldasabyproductorrecycledtotheslurry. (#(# 0  Variouscalciumandsodiumbasedreagentscanbeutilizedassorbent.Spraydryscrubberstypicallyinjectlimesinceitismorereactivethanlimestoneandlessexpensivethansodiumbasedreagents.Thereagentslurryisinjectedthroughrotaryatomizersordualfluidnozzlestocreateafinerdropletspraythanwetscrubbersystems(Srivastava,2000). (#(# 0  Theperformanceofalimespraydryscrubberismoresensitivetooperatingconditions.A closeapproachtoadiabaticsaturationtemperatureisrequiredtomaximizetheremovalofSO2.However, E excessmoisturecausesthewetsolidstodepositontheabsorberanddownstreamequipment.Theoptimumtemperatureis10 Cto15 C(20 Fto50 F)belowsaturationtemperature(Srivastava,2000).LowerL/Gratios,approximately1:3,mustbeutilizeddotothelimitationonfluegasmoisture(Schnelle,2002).FluegaswithhighSO2concentrationsortemperaturesreducetheperformanceofthescrubber   (Schnelle,2002). (#(# 0  SO2controlefficienciesforspraydryscrubbersareslightlylowerthanwetsystems,between80%and P   90%duetoitslowerreactivityandL/Gratios.Applicationofasinglespraydryabsorberislimitedtocombustionunitslessthan200MW(2,000MMBtu/hr)(IEA,2001).Largercombustionunitsrequiremultipleabsorbersystems.Thecapitalandoperatingcostforspraydryscrubbersarelowerthanforwetscrubbingbecauseequipmentforhandlingwetwasteproductsisnotrequired.Inaddition,carbonsteelcanbeusedtomanufacturetheabsorbersincethefluegasislesshumid.Typicallyapplicationsincludeelectricutilityunitsburninglowtomediumsulfurcoal,industrialboilers,andmunicipalwasteincineratorsthatrequire80%SO2controlefficiency(Schnelle,2002).[&!'(#(#    Drysystems  (e#) 0  Drysorbentinjectionsystems,pneumaticallyinjectpowderedsorbentdirectlyintothefurnace,theeconomizer,ordownstreamductwork.Thedrywasteproductisremovedusingparticulatecontrolequipmentsuchasabaghouseorelectrostaticprecipitator(ESP).ThefluegasisgenerallycooledpriortotheenteringthePMcontroldevice.WatercanbeinjectedupstreamoftheabsorbertoenhanceSO2 f,'. removal(Srivastava,2001). (#(#    .p)0 0  Furnaceinjectionrequiresfluegastemperaturesbetween950 Cto1000 C(1740 Fto1830 F)inorder todecomposethesorbentintoporoussolidswithhighsurfacearea(Srivastava2001).Injectionintotheeconomizerrequirestemperaturesof500 Cto570 C(930 Fto1060 F)(Srivastava2001).Ductinjectionrequiresthedispersionofafinesorbentsprayintothefluegasdownstreamoftheairpreheater.Theinjectionmustoccuratfluegastemperaturesbetween150 Cto180 C(300 Fto350 F)(Joseph,1998). (#(# 0  Drysorbentsystemstypicallyusecalciumandsodiumbasedalkalinereagents.Anumberofproprietaryreagentsarealsoavailable.Atypicalinjectionsystemusesseveralinjectionlancesprotrudingfromthefurnaceorductwalls.InjectionofwaterdownstreamofthesorbentinjectionincreasesSO2removalby   thesorbent. (#(# 0  AnevendistributionofsorbentacrossthereactorandadequateresidencetimeatthepropertemperaturearecriticalforhighSO2removalrates(Srivastava2001).Fluegasmustbekept10 Cto15 C(20 Fto  \  50 F)belowsaturationtemperaturetominimizedepositsontheabsorberanddownstreamequipment. (#(# 0  Dryscrubbershavesignificantlylowercapitalandannualcoststhanwetsystemsbecausetheyaresimpler,demandlesswaterandwastedisposalislesscomplex.Dryinjectionsystemsinstalleasilyanduselessspace,therefore,theyaregoodcandidatesretrofitapplications.SO2removalefficienciesare ] significantlylowerthanwetsystems,between50%and60%forcalciumbasedsorbents.Sodiumbaseddrysorbentinjectionintotheductcanachieveupto80%controlefficiencies(Srivastava2001).DrysorbentinjectionisviewedasanemergingSO2controltechnologyformediumtosmallindustrialboiler D applications.Newerapplicationsofdrysorbentinjectiononsmallcoalfiredindustrialboilershaveachievedgreaterthan90%SO2controlefficiencies.(#(# t7 b b')DTU_`a(\x8sbAdvantages:  h  '3     '3a2\3  0    HighSO2removalefficiencies,from50%upto98%.'3ab݌"r(#(# Ќ   '3     '3b2\3  0    Productsofreactionmaybereusable'3bc݌O(#(# Ќ   '3     '3c2\3  0    Difficultyofretrofitismoderatetolow'3cc݌,(#(# Ќ   '3     '3d2\3  0    Inexpensiveandreadilyavailablereagents  '3dd݌ (#(# Ќ  & Q Disadvantages:    '3   0  '3e2\3  0(#(#  HighcapitalandO&Mcosts'3e f݌P  (#(# Ќ   '3   0  '3f2\3  0(#(#  Scalinganddepositofwetsolidsonabsorberanddownstreamequipment'3ff݌-!}!(#(# Ќ  'Qe '3     '3g2\3  0    Wetsystemsgenerateawetwasteproductandmayresultinavisibleplume'3g h݌ "Z"(#(# Ќ   '3     '3h2\3  0    CannotbeusedforwastegasSO2concentrationsgreaterthan2,000ppm'3hi݌"7#(#(# Ќ   '3   0  '3i2\3  0(#(#  DisposalofwasteproductssignificantlyincreasesO&Mcosts'3i(j݌#$(#(# Ќ  0   (#(#  References:  ~% & Cooper,2002.Cooper,C.D.andAlley,F.C.AirPollutionControl:ADesignApproach.WavelandPress, 8'"( Inc.ProspectHeights,IL,2002. EPA,2000.SrivastavaRaviK.ControllingSO2Emissions:AReviewofTechnologies.USEnvironmental )%+ ProtectionAgency,OfficeofResearchandDevelopment.EPA/600/R00/093.Washington,D.C.2002.4(O  5  http://www.epa.gov/ordntrnt/ORD/WebPubs/so2/index.html6lOl:  7 OmԀ +&- FETC,1996.ElectricUtilityEngineersFGDManual,Volume1:FGDProcessDesign.Departmentof C-(/ Energy,FederalEnergyTechnologyCenter.Morgantown,WV,1996. .M*1 .    IEA,2001. CoalResearch,SorbentInjectionSystemsforSO2Control,CleanCoalTechnologies  Database.4(+O  5  http://ww.ieacoal.org.uk/CCTdatabase/sorbing.htm.6hoO|o:  7nuo  Joseph,1998.Joseph,G.T.andBeachler,D.S. ScrubberSystemsOperationReviewAPTICourse.DevelopedbyNorthCarolinaStateUniversityunderEPACooperativeAssistanceAgreement.Raleigh,N.C1998.Schenelle,2002.Schenelle,K.B.JrandBrown,C.A.AirPollutionControlTechnologyHandbook.CRC   PressLLC.BocaRaton,FL.2002.Smith2001.Smith,Douglas. SO2Controls:CostofScrubbersdownto$100/kW.PowerEngineering, R   September,2001.Srivastava,2001.SrivastavaR.K.,andW.Josewicz.. FlueGasDesulfurization:TheStateoftheArt.AirandWasteManagementAssoc.,51:16761688,2001.EIA,2002.EIA-767Database;AnnualSteam-ElectricPlantOperationandDesignData,2001.EnergyInformationAdministration,DepartmentofEnergy.November26,2002.4(O  5  http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/eia767.html6sOs:  7s