2010 National DNA Day Online Chatroom Transcript

The 2010 National DNA Day Moderated Chat was held on Friday, April 23rd, 2010 from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. Eastern. NHGRI Director Eric Green, M.D., Ph.D. and genomics experts from across the institute and around the nation took questions from students, teachers and the general public on topics ranging from basic genomic research, to the genetic basis of disease, to ethical questions about genetic privacy.

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Why do you love DNA so much?!      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. For many reasons - at the atomic levels, DNA is an aesthetically beautiful molecule. At the phenotypic level, genetics is solvable, and in some cases predictable, much like math. At the intellectual level, DNA is a mystery and a puzzle that I enjoy trying to solve. And finally, at the medical level, I think DNA is going to help us all be healthier and stay healthier. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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Do cloned animals have the same DNA sequence?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. yes, cloned animals are a genetic copy of the original animal. However, these cloned animals often do not function the same or live as long, which provides evidence that other factors modify and affect the expression of even identical DNA sequences. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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How do you use the Human Genome Project?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I make regular use of the ELSI (ethical legal and social implications) research that was initiated as part of the HGP in order to determine the most effective policy solutions. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

Sandy Woo, M.S., has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions.

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What was your major in college? How much would you say a person with your major could do in the biotech field?      Jean McEwen, J.D., Ph.D.: I currently manage a portfolio of grants regarding the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomics research, focusing on law, genetic variation, and social policy. I also oversee the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) component of the 1000 Genomes Project, the Human Microbiome Project, and various other large genomics research projects. I majored in Philosophy, which is a great background for anyone who is interested in dealing with the ethical issues raised by advances in genetics research, as I do. (I am now a program director in the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications program at NHGRI.) If you are interested in working in the biotechnology industry as a researcher, it will be important to take lots of courses in the basic sciences and in math, and you will probably eventually need a graduate degree. However, there are lots of opportunities to do other types of work within the biotech field even with just a bachelor's degree. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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Is it possible to have trisomy 21 and trisomy 13?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. This would be expected to be very rare; I am not aware of any known cases. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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How frustrating is it to sit here and answer all of these questions??      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Actually it's really enjoyable to answer earnest questions from students across the country, but frustrating sometimes to answer the ones that are asked without much forethought. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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why is DNA formed as double helix??      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. DNA is a spiral for a number of reasons that have to do with what it is made of. Strands pair up to keep the parts that like water (the hydrophillic sugars and phosphates) on the outside and the parts that don't like water (the hydrophobic bases) on the inside. But there are still holes that water can get through! So the DNA twists into a spiral to minimize the water's contact with the hydrophobic bases. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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Do you know why so many people can look alike that are not related?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. Well, I'm not sure these people look exactly alike - they may have some similar features. They may share similar DNA sequences for these particular features even if they are not related. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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What is the pay scale for a career like yours?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. An entry level policy analyst with a BSc starts at about $45K and salaries go up from there with education and experience. Flint Northern High School in MI (10th grade student)

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How many cells are in the human body? Does it vary by person?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. Estimates are that there are somewhere between 10 and 100 trillion cells in a human body. And it does vary between people. A baby has many fewer cells than an adult. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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Can DNA affect your IQ level?      Judy Miller, M.S.: I retired several years ago from my position as genetic counselor after establishing a new program in cancer genetic at Carle Clinic in Urbana, IL. Prior to that, I worked for many years in a setting where I practiced genetic counseling where I worked with patients in all areas of genetics: pediatrics, prenatal, adult genetics, and metabolic. I participated in this chat room last year and enjoyed it very much! The specific version of a certain gene that a person has, or if a person is missing one copy of a certain gene(s), is associated with the person's IQ. This is most apparent in some individuals with a chromosomal abnormality (often, missing a copy of a gene) as certain abnormalities are associated with mental impairment or a lower IQ. However, we also know that a person's environment (starting before birth, and continuing as a child develops) can affect the person's IQ, either negatively or positively. That is, DNA can affect but does not determine IQ. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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How can DNA help diagnose a disease?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    There are a number of diseases that are caused by mutations in the DNA. Some examples include cystic fibrosis and sickel cell disease. So, in some cases DNA testing can help identify a disease. It is advised that people seeking genetic testing meet with a genetic counselor and/or geneticist to discuss their options. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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How long does it take DNA to multiply?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. Bacteria can copy about 1000 nucleotides per second. Eukaryotes like us are pokier, we can only do about 50 per second. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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I LOVE DNA DAY!! Why isn't DNA in our lives the other 364 days of the year?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Oh, but it is! Read Scientific American, or the scientific journals Science or Nature, check out our webpage at genome.gov or just think about your cells dividing (all that mitosis)! Ravi Jaggernauth in NJ (5th grade student)

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What kind of microscope do you need to view DNA?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. Chromosomes, the spiraling strands of DNA that package the series of chemical bits called genes, are easily visible through a strong enough microscope if the right stain is used. But to see individual DNA molecules, scientists use electron, scanning tunneling and atomic force microscopes. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Can cloning be used to create a super-hero like Spiderman?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Not just yet. Right now, the only way to is to get bitten by a radioactive spider. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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Where does most of your DNA comes from?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    You get about half of your DNA from your mother and half of it from your father. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Were you a strictly science kid in highschool?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. No, absolutely not. Of course, Science was one of my favorite subjects, but I also enjoyed English and Art for example. St. Mark's School in MA (7th grade student)

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Has there ever been a succesful "splicing" together of two different organisms' DNA?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Sure! And this was one of the concerns in the early days of recombinant DNA experiments (the 1970's). Genes coding for human proteins could be spliced into bacteria, so they could be produced to be used as drugs. Note that this isn't 'wholesale' splicing of two organisms' entire genomes, but instead just splicing of a gene or two from one organism into another. These experiments are done routinely, to better understand how biology works, and to produce useful products for pharmaceuticals. Companies and universities have panels that review experiments that have been proposed, to try to maintain ethics oversight. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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What are the genetic causes of diabetes?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. It depends whether you are talking about type 1 or type 2 diabetes, although both types have genetic influences. Some examples of genes that are involved in type 1 diabetes are in the HLA family (HLA-DR3, HLA-DR7 are examples). For type 2 diabetes, the answer is less clear. Genes are still being discovered and are likely to have small effects. Some examples of type 2 diabetes genes that have been identified are TCF7L2 and PPARG. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Where does most of your DNA come from -- your mom or your dad?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    You get about half of it from your mother and half of it from your father. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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How could one verify that SNPS are real and not just sequencing errors?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Good question, and one that people doing these experiments spend lots of time on. The simple answer is that you look at the data you collected very carefully, and then do additional experiments that use a different method to validate the sequencing results. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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If asthma is a genetic disorder, is it possible for you to be the only one in your family with asthma?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. Yes - for disorders such as asthma, which may be caused by multiple genetic and environmental factors, it is possible that you were the only one in your family with the combination of these factors that cause asthma. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Human genome project is over. But what approaches we can use to incorporate ethnic group genome studies in this Human genome project?      Jean McEwen, J.D., Ph.D.: I currently manage a portfolio of grants regarding the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomics research, focusing on law, genetic variation, and social policy. I also oversee the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) component of the 1000 Genomes Project, the Human Microbiome Project, and various other large genomics research projects. The International HapMap Project, a project that followed on the heels of the Human Genome Project, was designed to look at patterns of genetic variation in several major world populations across the world. Currently, another large international project, called the 1000 Genomes Project, is underway; this project is looking at genetic variation in an even larger number of populations with ancestry from various parts of Africa, various parts of Europe, South and East Asia, and some parts of the Americas. Although all people's DNA is the same across the vast majority of the genome, there are differences among populations in how frequently some variations occur. So understanding these differences is important to understand patterns of disease in different populations. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

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What is going on today with DNA research and what are DNA scientists currently working on?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Your question is too much to answer with just the space in this chatroom. You can look at genome.gov or other NIH websites, look at the scientific literature http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ or read the popular press. Major topics include epigenomics and the genetics of common disease. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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Why do genetic disorders occur?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    Genetic disorders happen because of variations or mutations in the genetic material -- the DNA. If the DNA sequence of a gene has a variation that alters the function of that gene, then a genetic disease can occur. For example, a mutation in a gene called LDLR can cause people to have very high levels of cholesterol and develop heart disease at an earlier age. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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How do you think genetic variation will change over the next future generations?      Renee Jones, M.S., C.G.C.: I primarily work with patients who have questions or concerns about prenatal genetic testing opportunities. I also see patients who have a strong family history of cancer and may want more information about cancer genetic testing. Family history of genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis or spinal muscular atrophy can lead patients to consult with me regarding their risks during a current or future pregnancy for these conditions. While we know that changes in DNA can be passed on to future generations, 'genetic variation' is a tough concept to specifically address. We frequently measure the incidence of disease among discrete populations (such as ethnic groups) and we observe higher levels of some genetic diseases among groups who have less genetic variation. Populations who do not move geographically over many years and who reproduce with each other may have a higher incidence of genetic disease. In recent years we have seen greater mobility of individuals throughout the world and our 'genetic variation' may be increasing, which might lead to different health outcomes. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Can cloning be helpful toward humans or other animals?      Della Brown White, Ph.D.: I examine social and cultural factors that may influence participation in genetics research among minority populations. There is great debate on whether cloning, particularly in regards to using embryo cells as part of this technology. However, there are many who see cloning as a way to improve health for many people. For example, therapeutic cloning could be used to create organs that could be used by patients who need them instead of having to wait on organ donor lists. Shikellamy High School in PA (9th grade student)

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If I want to do a PhD thesis on the Human Microbiome, which is the best NIH institution for that?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Probably NHGRI, NIAID, NIDDK or NIDCR. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

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Does a person's educational background determine if they would have Alzheimer's in the future?      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. no, major risk factors include age, family history and heredity Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

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Recent studies have shown that heteroplasmies occur in 10-20% of humans in their mitochondrial DNA. Will this new information increase the likelihood of scientists revising the dating method that uses counting mutations in the mitochondrial DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. It certainly seem that mitochondrial dating will have to be re-examined. you should become a scientist and help answer your question! Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

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Through what process are introns stripped from mRNA during gene expression? I suspect that it is related to codons. but I'm not sure.      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Splicing is the process that happens in the nucleus, to remove the intron and join together the exons on either side of the removed intron. Splicing involves complexes of RNA and proteins that recognize the junctions and carry out the reactions. Codons come into play later, in the cytoplasm, where the ribosome translates the mRNAs; each codon codes for a particular amino acid. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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How similar is human DNA to plant DNA?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. The basic structure of DNA (ie, double helix) is shared among all living organisms. The code or sequence of DNA (instructions for our cells) is different. Even so, our DNA is likely more similar to plants than different. For example, we share approximately 60% of our DNA with a banana plant. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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What is a cell?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. The cell is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing - the functional unit of life. Brownsville Area High School in PA (5th grade student)

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Can two syndromes mix to make another disorder? ex. trisome 13&14.      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. No, not typically. Occasionally individuals can have both Down syndrome (a chromosomal disorder) and cystic fibrosis (a single gene disorder). Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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Is there any way to cure a genetic disorder before the baby is born?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. In rare cases (ADA-deficiency is one example), gene therapy can be used as a treatment. However, this usually occurs after the baby is born. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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Is it hard being a scientists and working with genetics ?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. Genetics is a challenging field as it quickly changes and new information is always being discovered. However, this also means that my job is never boring! East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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What are the most common mutations in the most recent generation ?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    The most common inherited condition in the population is Hemochromatosis, which is caused by mutations in the HFE gene. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

791	Who discovered DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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Do your genes determine how long you will live?      Renee Jones, M.S., C.G.C.: I primarily work with patients who have questions or concerns about prenatal genetic testing opportunities. I also see patients who have a strong family history of cancer and may want more information about cancer genetic testing. Family history of genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis or spinal muscular atrophy can lead patients to consult with me regarding their risks during a current or future pregnancy for these conditions. It is likely that genes contribute to how long a given person may live, but obviously many factors play into the absence of disease. Structures called telomeres are found on the ends of chromosomes and these structures have been shown to shorten as a person ages. There is on-going research to try to identify factors (such as exercise) that might keep telomeres longer, despite biological aging. So while genes may play a role in your ultimate lifespan, they do not pre-determine who will be healthy. Just because your grandmother lived to be 100 doesn't mean that you are guaranteed a long healthy life!! Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Who started DNA day?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Congress and President Bush declared DNA day in 2003, but the idea came from NHGRI. We certainly started the chatroom! Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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Can you alter a fetus's genes while in the womb to control the eye color?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. Although there are some rare instances where gene therapy is used early in life (ADA deficiency is one example), changing eye color is not one of them. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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what are the affects if you have a delition of Chromosome 17 Q 12?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. As genetics providers, we would look up the genes in that region and examine the person. The clinical work is to try to match physical characteristics with the genes in a region. Some deletions do not result in noticeable effects. Shikellamy High School in PA ()

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How much $ does a genetic counselor get?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    There is a lot of variability in the salaries of genetic counselors, depending on their number of years in practice, area of specialty, and where they practice. In general, salaries range from 60K to 100K. For more information go to NSGC.org East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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What is the percentage of babies born with a mutation?      Judy Miller, M.S.: I retired several years ago from my position as genetic counselor after establishing a new program in cancer genetic at Carle Clinic in Urbana, IL. Prior to that, I worked for many years in a setting where I practiced genetic counseling where I worked with patients in all areas of genetics: pediatrics, prenatal, adult genetics, and metabolic. I participated in this chat room last year and enjoyed it very much! We ALL have mutations! In most cases, the mutation is only in one copy of a pair of genes and the other copy of gene works fine and the person does not know they have a mutation. In most cases, mutations are inherited from a parent, but we may not be aware of a mutation that is new in the person (neither parent had the mutation) because the effects of the mutation may be small. The percentage of babies born with a mutation that has a major impact on their health in some time in their life is much smaller, perhaps around 10%. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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What is the hardest field in genetics?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I think the hardest part of genetics is functional understanding. Funding genes is relatively straightforward compared to trying to figure out their functional significance. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Can personality be effected by dna?      Jean McEwen, J.D., Ph.D.: I currently manage a portfolio of grants regarding the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomics research, focusing on law, genetic variation, and social policy. I also oversee the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) component of the 1000 Genomes Project, the Human Microbiome Project, and various other large genomics research projects. There are many aspects of personality that are almost certainly influenced by genetics. But we already know that people's early childhood experiences and many other aspects of their social and cultural environments also play an enormous role. We are learning that all human traits - especially those related to behavior - are very complex, and result from a complicated interaction between genetic and environmental factors that we are only just now beginning to appreciate. We will need lots more research in order to understand these interactions more fully. And there will probably always be some degree of mystery involved in understanding all the different components that contribute to how our individual personalities develop. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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What is the difference between between a 3' and 5' end?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. DNA has polarity. Kind of like your head is different from your toes (at least I hope so!). Remember that each nucleotide consists of a base, a sugar and a phosphate? In a DNA strand the base is "exposed" on the 5' end and the -OH group on the sugar is exposed on the 3' end. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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How does a mutation in DNA happen?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. A mutation simply means a change, a difference. As you may know, DNA replicates or copies itself constantly. In this process, mistakes (kind of like spelling errors) can occur but our bodies typically will correct them. Sometimes, external or environmental factors (ie, radiation exposure) will cause a mutation as well. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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Can DNA mutate people so badly that they turn into zombie like monsters?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Not in my experience. Generally mutations during an individual's lifetime tend to result in diseases like cancer. Once we cure all cancers, perhaps zombies are something we will need to become concerned about. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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How is Abe Vigoda still alive? Is there something special about his DNA? He was like 75 years old in the Godfather and that was back in 1972.      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. http://www.abevigoda.com/ Ravi Jaggernauth in NJ (10th grade student)

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How much DNA is found in a single cell?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. About 2 x 3 billion basepairs, on average in a human cell, unless it's a gamete. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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How similar are people at the DNA level?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. Human beings are 99.9% identical in their DNA. Amazing to think that the remaining 0.1% can influence how different we all are! St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

806

What is the most chromosomes that someone can have?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. Most of us have 46 chromosomes. Children with Down syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome have 47 chromosomes (one extra). There are rare disorders that involve additional extra copies of X or Y chromosomes. So it would be possible to have 2-4 extra chromosomes. Babies born with extra sets of chromosomes (23 extra) typically die in the newborn period. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

807

Jeff Schloss, can I give you $1000 or less to sequence my genome?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. I wish I could answer yes, but we can't do that yet. Maybe a few years from now I'll be able to point you to a lab that can do this for you. Have you thought about what you'd do with the info, if I'd answered yes? Ricky Waivers in NJ (12th grade student)

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Will scientists ever be able to extract a fingerprint from a sample of DNA?      Jean McEwen, J.D., Ph.D.: I currently manage a portfolio of grants regarding the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomics research, focusing on law, genetic variation, and social policy. I also oversee the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) component of the 1000 Genomes Project, the Human Microbiome Project, and various other large genomics research projects. Scientists can already extract genetic "fingerprints" from DNA, and these genetic "fingerprints" have already been used to solve many crimes (by comparing biological samples left at crime scenes to blood or other biological samples known to have come from a suspect). These kinds of genetic "fingerprints" have also been used to exonerate some innocent people who otherwise might have been wrongly convicted. But the "old fashioned" kind of fingerprints that you have in your fingers cannot be extracted from DNA. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

809

WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF RARE MUTATIONS?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. There are some very rare mutations out there where only one person so far has been found with it. Some less rare examples include homocystinuria and beta-ketothiolase deficiency which are found in 1 in 100,000 people. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

810

I have type 2 diabetes, does that mean my children will inherit it?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. Type 2 diabetes is thought to be caused by multiple factors, both genetic and environmental. So just because you have type 2 diabetes doesn't necessarily mean your kids will have it, although they may be at higher risk. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

811

Why is it that other species cannot reproduce with each other?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Organisms function with two copies of each gene, that's why trisomies result in relatively strong phenotypes. Two different species will each contribute 1/2 of a genome to an offspring, but these will be so different, that a viable result is not possible. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

812

Are syndromes like Down Syndrome genetic?      Angela Filose, M.S.: Angela Filose, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I work as a genetic counselor with prenatal, pediatric and hereditary cancer patients. I help evaluate patients for genetic conditions in themselves or their babies, and help guide them through information. Down syndrome is genetic, because it involves the genetic material-- the chromosomes. Remember that all of our genes are packaged into chromosomes, found in all of our cells. A child that has Down syndrome in almost all cases has an extra copy of the 21st chromosome. (This helps explain the technical name for Down syndrome, trisomy 21.) However, Down syndrome usually is not inherited through the generations of the family. Usually Down syndrome happens out of the blue, as a sporadic error in that pregnancy. In this way it is different from inherited genetic conditions, like cystic fibrosis. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

813

How many generations can DNA affect?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    DNA is passed from generation to generation. We typically share about 50% of our DNA with first degree relatives (parents, siblings), about 25% with second degree relatives (grandparents, uncles/aunts), and so on. So DNA and changes in the DNA can affect generations that are very far apart! East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

814

what is the smallest chromosome ever seen by scientists?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. In humans, Chromosome 21 is the smallest. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

815

Is it fun to work with DNA on a daily basis?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. The best part of being a scientist is making a discovery and being the only person on the planet to know that one special thing about nature. DNA is a big part of getting to those results and on the day to day, it can be very satisfying. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

816

Can your chromosomes change in your DNA after birth?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. Yes DNA can definitely change after birth. It happens pretty commonly and it doesn't usually cause any problems. Sometimes though it can lead to cancer. And in cancers, you can get big changes in the chromosomes of your cancer cells too. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

817

We have previously been taught "one gene, one protein" but after the genome was mapped it was found that there are far less genes than proteins in the body. How can this be?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. There are fewer ;) genes than proteins because the RNA that a gene produces can be spliced in different ways. For example, in one type of cell in the body, exons 1, 2 and 3 from a particular gene could end up in the mRNA, while in a different cell type, exons 1, 2 and 4 would be spliced together to form the RNA. Those two cells would therefore produce two different proteins from the same gene! Jess M. Licher in NJ (11th grade student)

818

Is it possibele for a woman to have twins that have 2 different fathers?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. This is not common, but it is possible for a woman to give birth to two babies with different fathers - technically, they are not called twins, though. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

819

Why do some diseases, such as breast cancer, skip a generation?      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. It is not that they "skip" generations, but some genetic disorders do not express even if the gene is present. For example, for hereditary breast cancer genes like BRCA1&2, only 45% to 68% of people who carry the mutation have breast cancer in their lifetime. But, they can still pass the gene on to their children, who also could develop breast cancer, even if their parent did not. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

820	Do you like your field, working with DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I do. Understanding how we work is pretty magical. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

821

Do your genes determine if you are fat?      Judy Miller, M.S.: I retired several years ago from my position as genetic counselor after establishing a new program in cancer genetic at Carle Clinic in Urbana, IL. Prior to that, I worked for many years in a setting where I practiced genetic counseling where I worked with patients in all areas of genetics: pediatrics, prenatal, adult genetics, and metabolic. I participated in this chat room last year and enjoyed it very much! Obesity is a condition that can be described as multifactorial. This means that that the condition is often associated with an increased risk or susceptibility that is genetic AND other factors that must be present for the person to actually develop the condition. Most of the conditions that we think of such as obesity, heart conditions, many cancers, have a "multifactorial" cause - the presence of a particular gene will not determine for positive that the person will have the condition. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

822

Do twins share the same DNA?      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. Identical (monozygotic) twins share all of the same genes. Fraternal (dizygotic) only share about 50% of their genes, just like siblings. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

823

Will it ever be possible to eliminate all genetic disorders in humans?      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. No, because the rate of genetic mutation will not change, and there will always be the potential for new genetic mistakes (mutations) East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

824

Which branch of genetic research do you think will be the most influential in the next few years?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. One big area is going to be figuring out what makes you different from me. And the two of us different from a chimpanzee. This will be done by comparing the full genomes of lots of different people and lots of different chimps. Another big area will be using genetics to better understand evolution. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

825

Is there any solution to genetic disorders like night blindness, colour blindness?      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. No, there is no current treatment or cure for these disorders. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

826

What do you love most about DNA?!      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. I enjoy learning about the small changes in DNA and how it affects disease and development of individuals. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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Where can I go to get a karyotype of my genome?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. A karyotype is a map of chromosomes. It shows you how many and if all the genetic material seems to be present. You can have a blood sample turned into a karyotype as a medical test ordered by a physician that costs several hundred dollars. Sometimes school laboratories have exercises to create a karyotype of your own DNA. [Although there is a risk in doing this as you would not want to discover you had a chromosome change or difference at school.] Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

828

How is DNA used to solve crimes?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Right now, there are 13 hypervariable places in the genome that are sequenced from crime scene samples and convicted offenders. Information about this DNA is maintained in an FBI database that is searchable by law enforcement agencies. http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/html/codis1.htm East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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What happends when foreign DNA is injected into the body? Is it attacked by the immune system?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Enzymes in the body would probably digest the DNA. DNA is usually packaged in the nucleus or in the mitochondria; if it's other places -- where it doesn't belong -- it will likely be digested. Mt. Mianus High in NJ (11th grade student)

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What kind of experiments do you perform in order to study DNA?      Renee Jones, M.S., C.G.C.: I primarily work with patients who have questions or concerns about prenatal genetic testing opportunities. I also see patients who have a strong family history of cancer and may want more information about cancer genetic testing. Family history of genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis or spinal muscular atrophy can lead patients to consult with me regarding their risks during a current or future pregnancy for these conditions. There are lots of different experimental techniques used to study DNA. Cytogenetic laboratories grow cells and extract the intact chromosomes, often looking for whether a cell has the correct number of chromsomes. Looking at specific genes can require a variety of experimental approaches such as Southern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) experiments, or gene sequencing. Different genetic alterations require different laboratory experiments. Some genes have large rearrangements (deletions or duplications) which can be seen by a gel electorphoresis while single base pair changes can lead to clinical disease but need gene sequencing to idenify. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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How are linked genes similar to sex-linked genes?      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. Linked genes are genes that are inherited together with the other gene(s) because they are located on the same chromosome. Sex linked genes are located on the sex chromosome (X or Y). Expression of these alleles is related to the chromosomal sex of the individual. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

832

Can DNA be altered in humans to make humans faster and stronger?      Jean McEwen, J.D., Ph.D.: I currently manage a portfolio of grants regarding the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomics research, focusing on law, genetic variation, and social policy. I also oversee the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) component of the 1000 Genomes Project, the Human Microbiome Project, and various other large genomics research projects. No, this is not possible - at least not right now - and it is very unlikely that this will become possible anytime in the near future. Even if this type of "genetic enhancement" were someday to become possible, there are serious ethical questions about whether society should encourage these kinds of interventions. After all, faster and stronger is not necessarily "better"! East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

833

How common is pharmacogenetics (or personalized medicine) today, and is it becoming more common?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. Pharmacogenetics is relatively uncommon still. But there are a couple of classic examples where a genetic test is used to determine the likelihood that a patient will respond favorably to the administration of a drug. It will be used increasingly to identify patients who may have an adverse reaction to a treatment as well. Since you are in 11th grade personalized medicine will explode during your lifetime. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

834

What made you decide to be a scientist?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. I decided to become a scientist because the field is always changing and we are constantly discovering new things! It is very exciting! Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

835

Will there always be genetic disorders or will you be able to fix them before and at birth?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. Even if genetic diseases can be "fixed" for an individual at birth, the genetic content in that person's sperm or eggs has already been determined. So their own offspring will have the "old" genetic content. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

836

If an infant inherited a trisomy chromosome and it was detected whie the child was still in the mother's womb, could they do something that will prevent the child from having the trisomy?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. No, once the extra chromosome is present, it is in every cell in the body and cannot be removed. Unfortunately, the only choice a pregnant woman and her partner have is to continue the pregnancy or choose to have an abortion. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

837

How often is a baby born with a mutation?      Elizabeth Kramer, M.G.C., C.G.C., M.D.: I am the supervising prenatal genetic counselor at a busy perinatal practice. We see patients for a variety of indications, including abnormal ultrasounds or bloodwork, prenatal screening and testing and family history of genetic disease. This is a difficult question. 3-5% of all births have a congenital malformation(s). Not all of these malformation are genetic, but some are. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

838

What was the significance of cracking the human genome?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. The biggest deal for me was seeing the instructions for a human being written out in a simple four letter alphabet. In the future we'll be able to discover new medicines, figure out why we aren't chimps, and a whole lot of other things. It has also greatly sped up research because it is easy to compare results. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

839

What is it about genetics that intrests you so much?      Della Brown White, Ph.D.: I examine social and cultural factors that may influence participation in genetics research among minority populations. Genetics informs us about our uniqueness as individuals but also helps to inform us about how we are similar to other people. It helps makes our society diverse so that we are not all carbon copies of each other. I am particularly interested in how advances in genetics can be used to help improve health outcomes. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

840

What do you think about whole genome testing verses SNP testing? Is SNP testing relevant anymore?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. Great question! The whole genome testing approach works well for discovering new genes that may be associated with diseases. However, if you already know what SNP or gene you are looking for, it's probably cheaper to go the SNP testing route. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

841

How many disorders are due to irregular chromosomes?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    Many disorders are due to chromosomes that are "irregular" in the sense that they may be missing a piece, or have an additional piece, or have a piece that belongs to another chromosome. An example of this is a condition called 22q11 where a very small part of chromosome 22 is deleted or missing. Disorders can also be caused by too many or too few chromosomes. An example of this is Trisomy 21 which is caused by someone having 3 copies (instead of 2 copies) of chromosome number 21. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

842

Are genetically modified foods safe to eat? Are they safe for the environment?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. The answer is different for every GMO food, but in general they are extremely safe - they don't come to market without extensive testing. They can be safer for the environment, since some can decrease the use of pesticides necessary for their growth. East Haven High School in CT (9th grade student)

843

Hey Phyllis, could you please answer some serious questions? I am taking this really seriously and have actually put thought behind my questions.      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I answer the questions assigned to me by my editor in the spirit in which they were written. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

844

What determines phobias?      Jean McEwen, J.D., Ph.D.: I currently manage a portfolio of grants regarding the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomics research, focusing on law, genetic variation, and social policy. I also oversee the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) component of the 1000 Genomes Project, the Human Microbiome Project, and various other large genomics research projects. Probably lots of different factors contribute to the development of phobias - but no one factor "determines" whether someone develops one. Some people may be genetically predisposed to anxiety, which is associated with phobias. But anxiety, like all behavioral traits, is influenced by both genetic and non-genetic (environmental) factors. We need to do lots more research to learn about all the complex gene-environment interactions that are involved. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

845

What does RNA stand for?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

846

What are the new ways to treat cancer using genetics?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. There is a lot of really cool research being done right now with sequencing cancer tumor samples in projects such as The Cancer Genome Atlas. Soon this kind of genetics may influence what treatment cancer patients get. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

847

Why is everyone's DNA different?      Judy Miller, M.S.: I retired several years ago from my position as genetic counselor after establishing a new program in cancer genetic at Carle Clinic in Urbana, IL. Prior to that, I worked for many years in a setting where I practiced genetic counseling where I worked with patients in all areas of genetics: pediatrics, prenatal, adult genetics, and metabolic. I participated in this chat room last year and enjoyed it very much! The human genome has about 3 billion nucleotides, or letters. Even though our cells are very very good at copying the DNA accurately when new cells are made, occasional mistakes are made. If we accept that people's DNA - the "letters" in the DNA - are 99.9% the same, that means that about 3 million letters differ between people. Many of these differences are in parts of the genome that don't seem to make a difference so there is no evolutionary pressure for them to disappear. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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Generally before using laminar air flow we switch on UV light, is it possible that microbes getting resistant to UV light, according to evolution law?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Your question suggests that you know that bacteria can evolve to thrive in what we'd consider to be unbelievably harsh conditions, such as hot, salty vents under the sea, and in very acidic environments. There are bacteria that are quite resistant to radioactivity. So I think it's at least possible to evolve resistance to forms of radiation such as ultraviolet light. But I think that's unlikely to occur over the time periods involved, and with the species you use, in your experiments. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

849

How is it possible that normal-looking parents have an albino child?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. Albinism results from parents who each carry a gene mutation for the condition. They do not have the condition (the mutation is not expressed) but when they have a child, the child can inherit two copies of the mutation and be born affected. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Is it possible to split the fertilized egg of a pregnant woman in order for her to have twins?      Lucia Hindorff, Ph.D., M.P.H.: I am currently working with a number of investigators around the country on a program that is designed to take the most promising genetic variants from recent studies and learn more about them in large populations with extensive data. I hope to learn more about the different pathways that these variants are involved in and possibly identify some environmental factors that may modify disease associations. I am also one of the curators of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog, a summary of findings from published genome-wide association studies. You are right that splitting a fertilized egg is how twins occur, but I am not aware of any cases where this has been done by humans. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Do you experiment with human DNA?? if so.. are they living or do you use the DNA of pple who have passed??      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. I am a genetic counselor so I don't work in a lab with DNA. But at NHGRI there are many researchers who work with DNA. It is most often donated by research participants who are alive and consent to donate their DNA for research. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

National DNA Day - Haiku Contest Winners In honor of the 2010 DNA Day, National DNA Day held a Haiku contest on its Facebook page: www.facebook.com/DNAday. Today, we are proud to announce the winners.   1st Prize (Tie): Rebecca Kolberg Peas Out Monk in the garden yellow, green, round or wrinkled true seeds of knowledge Josephine Pino ubiquitous code our helical friend and foe reveal your secrets Both will receive a commemorative copy of the April 24, 2003 Nature journal featuring articles related to the sequencing of the human genome signed by NHGRI Director, Dr. Eric Green. 2nd Prize: Erica Stewart Obstinate helix If only you would tell me How to be human Erica will receive an NHGRI 19 oz. coffee mug signed by NHGRI Director, Dr. Eric Green. 3rd Prize: Kristen Tolson language of life, so simple yet so complex still an enigma Kristen will receive classroom set of National DNA Day pencils that change color as a result of body heat. Congratulations to you all. We will be contacting you via Facebook to ask you to send your mailing addresses to a designated email so we can deliver the prizes.

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Scientists are creating synthetic life at JCVI, is it right?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. According to their webpage, JCVI has a group working on synthetic biology. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

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How many chromosomes can someone be missing?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. Girls with Turner syndrome have only one X chromosome so one chromosome is missing. Missing more than one chromosome is not compatible with life. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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What is this day all about?      Amber Trivedi, M.S.: I work for "InformedDNA", which provides genetic counseling over the telephone. I provide cancer and reproductive genetic counseling, lead a team of other genetic counselors, and am involved in InformedDNA's business processes. National DNA Day, begun in April 2003, celebrates the successful completion of the Human Genome Project and the 50th anniversary of the discovery of DNA's double helix in 1953. Every year, National DNA Day offers an opportunity for students to connect with genetic professionals to learn more about genetic research and career options in the field. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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How did researchers originally dictate that there are 4 nucleotide bases? What kind of effect did this have on the scientific community's research?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. I am not sure how they originally figured out the four bases although they had by 1900. A key finding was in 1949 when Edwin Chargaff figured out that no matter the species, the amount of adenine (A) equals the amount of thymine (T) and the amount of guanine (G) equals the amount of cytosine (C). Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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How is the DNA sequence linked to evolution?      Renee Jones, M.S., C.G.C.: I primarily work with patients who have questions or concerns about prenatal genetic testing opportunities. I also see patients who have a strong family history of cancer and may want more information about cancer genetic testing. Family history of genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis or spinal muscular atrophy can lead patients to consult with me regarding their risks during a current or future pregnancy for these conditions. It is likely that the physical changes in a species that have been observed over many many years are caused by changes in the underlying DNA. Many researches look at genes in different species, trying to understand how that given information contibutes to the function of the species. We have found many genetic regions that are very similar across different species, and work is continuing to try to understand how genetic sequences contribute to an organism's function and evolution. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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Are there genes linked to whether an organism is a carnivore or herbivore?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Well, to the extent that so much about an organism's physiology is encoded in its DNA, yes. But if you're asking whether it's possible to change one gene, and switch between carnivore and herbivore, the answer's no. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

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How does gene therapy work? From what I understand, it is the process of removing the whole human genome and re-establishing a whole new genome for the patient?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Gene therapy is the insertion of specific genes into someone's cells to replace the gene or genes that are not working properly (when there is disease caused by a specify faulty gene). Since we have about 20,000-30,000 genes that make up our genome, and those genes are in (almost) every cell of our body- we cannot take every single gene and replace it with a new one. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

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Is DNA responsible for the way you play sports?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. DNA contributes to the development of your height and overall physical build. Most of ones ability to play and succeed at sports is due to commitment, training, hard work and attitude (psychology). So DNA is related but not responsible. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (10th grade student)

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Why is DNA day on April 23? Is there any significance to it, like Pi day is 3/14?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. April 25th is actually DNA day, but this year we're celebrating it today since the 25th is Sunday. 4/25 is the anniversary of the completion of the human genome and the publication of Watson and Crick's landmark paper on the structure of DNA. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (teacher)

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what does it mean if you don't look like either of your parents?      Barry Starr, Ph.D.: I run a program out of Stanford's Department of Genetics where I train science graduate students how to communicate science to the public. I do this by having the students run fun hands on genetics activities at The Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose and by having them answer people's genetics questions online at our Understanding Genetics website. Nothing much. Remember, recessive traits can hide out in someone's DNA. For example, someone with black hair could have a hidden red hair gene. If both parents have lots of these hidden recessive traits and they both happen to pass them down to their child, then the child might look very different. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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How common is inherited colon cancer?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    About 10 to 15% of all colon cancer is due to an inherited condition. One of the most common inherited conditions that prediposes people to colon cancer is Hereditary Non-Polyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC). Another one is Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP). St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

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What kind of sequencing technique is used to analysed 16S rRNA PCR product sequence?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Any of the sequencing methods can be used to analyze 16S rRNA PCR products. Depending how many experiments you have to do (how many different samples) you might choose some methods over others. But all of them will work. Ujjwal Jr. College, India (10th grade student)

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What are your "wildest dreams" for the future of genomics? These would be scenarios that are not within reach yet, something a little crazy.      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. All of us sequenced at birth, with our DNA stored in electronic medical records. Every prescription or treatment would be tailored to our DNA. That's science fiction now but possible in the future. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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Is working with DNA your regular job ?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. I'm a genetic counselor, and genetic counselors don't actually work with physical DNA. We meet with individuals and families to evaluate and interpret medical and family histories, talk to people about their potential risks for certain diseases, options for genetic testing, and interpretation of genetic (DNA) testing results. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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What kind of mutations are good for humans?      Barbara Biesecker, M.S.: Barb Biesecker directs the JHU/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program and has been doing genetic counseling for thirty years. Her primary interests are in achieving quality of life for those affected with a genetic condition or at risk. Some mutations can be protective. Mutations that can lead to cystic fibrosis (in two copies) are protective against dehydration due to illness such as malaria. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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If my mom is allergic to nuts does that make me or my children at risk for being alergic to nuts?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. If you have a close family member with a peanut allergy, then yes, you have a higher chance of having a peanut allergy yourself. But having a higher risk does not necessarily mean that you will definitely develop the allergy. Allergies are most likely caused by changes in several different genes in our bodies in combination with the environment. That means that we can't tell a person their exact risks to develop the allergy, we can only estimate the risk based on research studies. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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1. Do you think stem cells will be a reasonable, successful treatment for diseases that have physical deterioration as symptoms - like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Yes, some day it will. However, there are many technical hurdles to overcome before it will be a feasible treatment option for the general public. It's difficult to estimate when it will be available as a treatment. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

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Why do we still use SNPs when the whole human genome has been sequenced?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. While the majority of the human genome was sequenced (work remains on the centromeres and telomeres), we are still studying how the genome functions to affect human health and disease. That is where SNPs (which are found in the DNA between genes) are helpful as they serve as biological markers for scientists to locate genes associated with disease. In other words, scientists are still trying to "translate" the genome that it has been transcribed. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

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Why does diabetes occur more in African Americans ?      Della Brown White, Ph.D.: I examine social and cultural factors that may influence participation in genetics research among minority populations. Diabetes is a significant public health issue for which African Americans do suffer a greater proportion of the burden. There is on-going research being done to understand the role of behavioral, environmental and genetic factors in these disparities. Most likely there is some interaction between these factors that accounts for the excess burden of diabetes among African Americans. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Because of how complex the process of mutation is, and how small the chances of successful mutations that can be passed on, how probable is the theory of evolution?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. The answer is that it's very possible given enough generations - or in simple terms, enough time. Take the example of multi drug resistant bacteria - because their generation times are so short, the ones that have beneficial changes i.e.: the ones that are resistant to antibiotics survive and replicate, and gradually the whole population shifts. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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Is it necessary to clone PCR products before sequencing it. Especially when it is amplified from environmental DNA sample?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. No, for most experiments you shouldn't need to clone PCR products before you sequence them. PCR produces plenty of DNA for sequencing. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

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what is the best field to go into to study DNA??      Amber Trivedi, M.S.: I work for "InformedDNA", which provides genetic counseling over the telephone. I provide cancer and reproductive genetic counseling, lead a team of other genetic counselors, and am involved in InformedDNA's business processes. People who study DNA are in the field of genetics. Genetics has a vast number of different areas, so if you are interested in studying DNA and genetics you have many options. For example, some people are interested in science involving DNA, and they may study a subject in the field of Biology (like Biology, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, or Genetics) and work in a laboratory or do research. Others are interested in how changes in DNA may affect living organisms, like people, animals or plants. Those people may become doctors, genetic counselors, veterinarians, plant biologists, or many other fields. DNA and genetics affects so many things in the world that there is a nearly endless amount of options for people who want to study or work in these fields. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Why are we 99.9% alike?      Judy Miller, M.S.: I retired several years ago from my position as genetic counselor after establishing a new program in cancer genetic at Carle Clinic in Urbana, IL. Prior to that, I worked for many years in a setting where I practiced genetic counseling where I worked with patients in all areas of genetics: pediatrics, prenatal, adult genetics, and metabolic. I participated in this chat room last year and enjoyed it very much! Because the human genome has 3 billion nucleotides, or "letters," the 0.1% in which we differ means that we differ in about 3 million nucleotides, so we actually do differ by quite a bit. Most changes or mutations will have a deleterious effect - cause some kind of bad effect - on a person's health. The deleterious effect may be so severe that that the mutation is lethal (the individual will never develop or be born), or the person will never have children. Therefore, most mutations disappear, and the differences between us all don't increase with time. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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Why does your hair turn grey as you get older?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Melanin is the substance which gives hair color. Our genes control how and when melanin is produced. When hair grays, it is becuase those genes slow down or stop working to produce pigment for that specific hair follicle. East Haven High School in CT (9th grade student)

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Will there ever be a way to make it so no one will ever get cancer?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    Thanks for your question. Although we have made a lot of progress in the diagnosis and treatment of many cancers, we still have a long way to go before we can prevent cancers. Cancer happens because of genetic mutations that cells acquire over time. This is one of the reasons cancer tends to happen more frequently as people get older. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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How often is gene therapy used as a treatment and how safe has it proven to be?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Gene therapy is still in the experimental stages (clinical trials) and there is still a lot that needs to be studied and understood before a therapy like this can go into practice. Clinical trials will be able to closely monitor and assess the safety and efficacy. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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Are there any advantages of linear chromosomes over round chromosomes, and vice versa?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Round chromosomes are a little more stable, they don't have ends that can get nibbled away. Linear chromosomes are more effective for recombination. Lisa (teacher)

Jeff Schloss, Ph.D has entered the chatroom. Jeff is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology.

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How do you get a picture of an individual's chromosomes?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. Chromosomes are best studied when the cell division is in metaphase. To look at someone's chromosomes, we obtain a sample of blood. These cells are then cultured in a laboratoy. When the chromosomes are replicating and dividing, they can be seen under a microscope and a picture of them can be taken. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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what is the enzyme responsible for dna replication?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. DNA Polymerases are the family of enzymes responsible for DNA replication. DNA Polymerases are very accurate and have proof-reading ability! However, they can only extend an existing strand and not create a new one. A primer is needed to start a new strand. Elko High School in NV (11th grade student)

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What is the most recent genome that has been sequenced?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. There was a time when it would have been pretty easy to answer this question, but so many genomes are being sequenced now in so many labs that the question has little significance anymore. That's great, because it means we have the opportunity to learn so much about biology and human health!! Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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Is anti-social behavior genetic?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. While I'm not an expert in behavioral genetics, I do think that we might find that genetics does contribute to aspects of personality and behavior. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

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Why do we look similair to our parents?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. Your parents both contribute half of their genetic information to you (contained within the egg and sperm). Since you share 50% of each of your parents' genes, you will naturally share some of their features. Arabia Mountain Middle School in GA (9th grade student)

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Do scientists have the whole human genome translated yet?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. We have the sequence of the human genome, and understand some of what it means. Scientists are working hard to understand what all of it does. Eagle Pass High School in TX (12th grade student)

Angela Filose, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I work as a genetic counselor with prenatal, pediatric and hereditary cancer patients. I help evaluate patients for genetic conditions in themselves or their babies, and help guide them through information.

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Is Diabetes genetically linked?      Sandy Woo, M.S.: I provide genetic counseling (risk assessment, education, facilitating decisions) to families and individuals with or who are at risk for birth defects and genetic conditions. Diabetes definitely has a genetic link. If you have a family history of diabetes, you are at increased risk to have it too. However, other environmental factors, such as weight and diet can also contribute to the expression of disease. Both genetics and environmental factors influence the risk for diabetes. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Is obsessive compulsive disorder in your DNA if a parent has it?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Genes have been identified that are associated with compulsive disorder but your environment also plays a large role in determining whether or not you will develop the disorder. Understanding your family history is an important tool in assessing disease risk. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Can we get genetic diseases that other animals like dogs can get?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Yes, absolutely! In fact animals that have genetic diseases that have human equivalents provide an extremely valuable resource for researchers. For instance, it may be possible for an animal to be treated with a new medication to see if it is safe enough to use in humans. There are some genetic conditions that are unique to humans and dogs and other species. However, from a genetic point of view, most animals are more similar to one another than they are different. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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Why do some baby's eye color change after birth? In the case that a baby born with brown eyes that then change to blue, what would be their genotype for eye color?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Baby's eye color change after birth because of a substance in our bodies called melanin. The production of melanin continues to change even after we are born. That means that light eyes can sometimes get darker in the first few months of life. However, I don't think that you would see brown eyes turn to blue very often. As far as the genetics of eye color, brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are recessive. That means that you only need one "brown eye gene" to have brown eyes, but you need two "blue eye genes" to have blue eyes. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Does anyone know the purpose of introns?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. There are multiple ways to look at your question. One is that introns provide an opportunity for a particular gene to be spliced in several different ways, so that gene can produce different proteins in different cells or under different developmental circumstances. Another way is that they act as a substrate for evolution, allowing gene segments (that code for particular protein domains) to be re-used in evolution so that new protein functions can evolve. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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Can susceptability to addiction be attributed to genes?      Amber Trivedi, M.S.: I work for "InformedDNA", which provides genetic counseling over the telephone. I provide cancer and reproductive genetic counseling, lead a team of other genetic counselors, and am involved in InformedDNA's business processes. Some studies show that addictions (e.g. alcoholism) may run in families or certain ethnic groups. This makes us think that genes do play a role in susceptibility to addition. However, addiction is not controlled by a single gene. Rather it is influenced by several genetic and environmental factors. It is not clear whether people with a family history of addiction may be more susceptible because they share the same genes with their relatives, or because they share the same environmental influences with their relatives. Someone may be more susceptible to addiction if it runs in their family, but it does not mean that they will definitely develop addictions just because their relatives had addictions. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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In the future do you think it will be possible to pick the best genes and get rid of the ones you dislike to make your version of the perfect child?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I think that we have already started to select for certain traits through pre-implantation diagnosis. This is when embryos are screened for certain genetic diseases. As we learn what causes other traits, like physical appearance or intelligence, we might be able to pick them. I think key question then is, would we want to? Is our idea of "the best genes" really good? Would we sacrifice other good traits just so we would have our idea of perfection? East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Can DNA mutations actually help someone?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    The short answer to your question is "yes". A classic example of this include mutations that cause hemoglobin to sickle. People who are carriers for sickle cell have a survival advantage over people with normal hemoglobin in areas where malaria is endemic. That is because sickle hemoglobin impairs the growth and development of malaria. We hope that over time we will be able to find many other mutations that might be "protective" against other diseases. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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Can gene therapy ever cure a genetic disorder?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Yes. I think that is is a hope of many people that we could cure disease through genetic therapy. Many researchers are working on this. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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How many types of bacteria are there      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. Even though there are trillions of bacteria in the world, there are seven main groups, classified by their shape and the type of cell wall they possess. In addition, each bacteria has its own genome! Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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How does RFLP work in paternity testing?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) method is used to follow a particular sequence of DNA as it is passed on to other cells. This method can also measure recombination rates. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Have any genetic or environmental determinants been identified for laziness?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. This is something I haven't personally studied and I don't know of any scientfic data on this topic. However, it would seem that this is "multifactorial" meaning there are both genetic and environmental influences to this particular trait. G. Wass in MD (12th grade student)

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When will people be able to make designer babies?? :) Like be able to choose the genetic traits to give to the baby or animal.      Lakshmi Warrier, M.S., C.G.C.: I work as a Genetic Counselor with the Cancer Risk Program at the Helen Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center at UC San Francisco Medical Center. Work responsibilities pimarily focus on working wth families with breast, ovarian and other cancers at the Breast Care Clinic, research recruitment, and education. I answered a similar question just a moment ago. I've copied that answer here: I think that we have already started to select for certain traits through pre-implantation diagnosis. This is when embryos are screened for certain genetic diseases. As we learn what causes other traits, like physical appearance or intelligence, we might be able to pick them. I think key question then is, would we want to? Is our idea of "the best genes" really good? Would we sacrifice other good traits just so we would have our idea of perfection? McClesky Middle School in GA (7th grade student)

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Why is it that asian people all look the same?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Because they have similar DNA. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

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What happens if gene expression is interrupted?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. The answer probably depends a lot on how/why it was interrupted. If gene expression is turned off for any extended period the cells will die. If there's some sort of shock to the cells that briefly interrupts gene expression the cells would probably recover. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

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By looking at someone's DNA, can you figure out that person's personality?      Karla Matteson, Ph.D.: I direct a molecular laboratory, teach med students, grad students and residents about genetics and genetic testing, administer a 25 person genetic center with clinical and laboratory activities. Some DNA based studies have looked at certain personality traits, such as risk taking. These studies have found some genes involved in brain signaling pathways that may have influence on these personality traits. But in general your personality is thought to be due to a mixture of influences from your personal experiences and from some genetic influences. This is called a multifactorial trait Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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Can personality and basis of behavior be encoded in a persons DNA?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. i think so. Scientists are learning more and more about how behavior is affected by different genetic sequences. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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Does DNA really have color or do they only show it in pictures?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. The colors come from the dyes that scientists attach to the DNA molecules so we can see it. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

907

Is it possible for two people with good eyesight to have a child with bad eyesight?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. It is possible but a mixture of genetics and environmental influences (i.e. eyestrain or vitamin A deficiency) can play a role in developing a need to use corrective lenses. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

908

HOW MANY CHROMOSOMES DO I HAVE ?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. More than likely you have 46 chromosomes - that's the number we would expect. But some people have an extra chromosome and some people are missing a chromosome. Usually if someone has a different number of chromosomes, we will know. They may look a little different than their family or may have some problems with the way their body functions. Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Depending on the organism, there can be one or more than 50. They can be linear or circular. And it is within those large pieces where all of the genes reside. Wantagh High School in NY (5th grade student)

909

What would happen if one of the strands from the double helix happened to not be there?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Each strand of the double helix has to pair with the other strand in order for the DNA to function properly. If one strand was missing, DNA wouldn't be able to do its job! Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

910

How does a mutation in DNA happen?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. Mutations in DNA can happen in a few different ways. They can be caused from errors that occur during DNA replication or meiosis. They can also become mutated from chemicals, viruses, or radiation. They can even be induced by the organism itself! Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

911

Have you found any genetic markers for psychological diseases?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. There are some genetic changes in DNA that are found to be associated with psychological diseases. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

912

Who discovered genetic disorders?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. A long time ago, a man named Gregor Mendel figured out that traits and characteristics can be passed on from one generation to another generation. He did this using pea plants. So much research has been done since then and so now we know that our mother and father pass their DNA on to us. And we pass our DNA on to our kids. There isn't any one person though that discovered genetic disorders. Each disorder is discovered by a different person or group of people. The discovery of a disorder is usually based on a person noticing that a group of people seem to have the same symptoms. Then they will name the disorder and try to find out how it runs in the family. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D has entered the chatroom. Laura is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes. She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases).

914

What do you see future cures to microorganisms, as the number of antibiotic bacteria increases?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. That is a great question but I don't have that much expertise in microbiology. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

915

Can DNA contain memories of our past ancestors, since animals have natural instinct?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. DNA can't contain memories, but it can predispose us to certain behaviors that makes us more fit (or safe) - for example being scared of the dark is probably helpful if you're not at the top of the food chain. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

916

Isit possible yet to genetically make food, such as an oversized chicken egg?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. It is possible to genetically modify foods, such as by making some produce more resistant to infections, or even different colors. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

917

If someone has one blue eye and one brown eye, is this codominance or a mutation?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. For an 9th grader, you have had some great genetics education. Good work! So, as you may know, co-dominance describes a condition where two traits can both be seen in the same individual. An example is where a white flower and a red flower are crossed to make a pink flower. This term is fairly seldom used for humans, but it could be. A mutation in humans is where the DNA has a change that causes a phenotype (for instance a disease or change in eye color). So, DNA changes (mutations) can cause eye color changes. Usually, they are not co-dominant but epistatic (one, say brown, replaces another, say blue). Different eye colors in the same person can be caused by other mechanisms like mosaicism (differences in the genes between two parts of the body) and some medical conditions like Waardenburg syndrome. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

918

Which cells don't have DNA in it? Why not?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Your mature red blood cells don't have DNA. As they are developing (they're called reticulocytes when they're immature) they have nuclei, of course, because they do all the things any other kind of cell has to do. But as they crank out a huge quantity of hemoglobin and become very specialized, these cells lose their nuclei. Then they only live for a few weeks. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

919	Can crossing over happen between more than 2 chromosomes?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. Homologous recombination occurs between two chromosomes. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

920

How long have humans been studying genetics?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I think Mendel and his peas are generally credited with the first study of genetics, but farmers selecting for desirable traits in livestock were in reality working in genetics. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

921

What DNA in Kryptonite affects Superman????      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Clearly it is the Lex Luther gene on chromosome 99. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

922

Besides identical twins, can two people have the same DNA sequence?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. No two people share the same DNA sequence besides identical twins. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

923

Can zombies exist if DNA gets mutated enough?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. If I have the definition of a zombie right, then no, because zombies are already dead. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

924

We're learning about genetic disorders in class. Is it possible that one day genetic disorders can be bred out of human beings entirely?      Amber Trivedi, M.S.: I work for "InformedDNA", which provides genetic counseling over the telephone. I provide cancer and reproductive genetic counseling, lead a team of other genetic counselors, and am involved in InformedDNA's business processes. Yes, if science keeps moving in the direction it's going, it's possible that genetic disorders may almost completely disappear from the human race (genetic mutations can occur by random chance even when there is no family history, so they can't be completely eliminated). However in order to get to that point, humans will have to exert control over their genes and their life choices. Not everyone agrees that it is appropriate to make choices about what genes a child will inherit, and a right choice for one person may be a wrong choice for another. So while breeding out genetic disease may be theoretically possible, it is unlikely to happen until it can be done without taking away people's freedom of choice and respecting their beliefs. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

925

Can Genetic Engineering apply to people who are all ready alive, and not just to improve your offspring.      Karla Matteson, Ph.D.: I direct a molecular laboratory, teach med students, grad students and residents about genetics and genetic testing, administer a 25 person genetic center with clinical and laboratory activities. Your question asks can genetic engineering do something..actually the question should be could it, because right now genetic engineering is not possible in human beings. Theoretically genetic engineering may be able to change the operation of cells, tissues, organs or an entire organism at any time in its lifespan. There are certain tissues that would likely be less responsive to changes in later life due to the characteristics of the tissue cells, but it may be possible to do many things in the future Robert Folker in WA (12th grade student)

926

Is it genetically possible to modify a child's DNA before they are born so that they wont have cancer in their lifetime?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. At this point we cannot genetically modify a child's DNA. However, we can do preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) to select an embryo that doesn't have the genetic mutation that may cause cancer and transfer it to the mother for implantation and development. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at his bio: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment.

928

Have you found any gene(s) responsible for anemia?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Not personally, but there are quite a few that are known. A classic is sickle cell anemia, which is caused by changes in the beta globin gene. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

929

Since nuerons appear to stay permanently in the G zero stage,- and don't divide- then how are new nuerons made / triggered or signaled to be made?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Since neurons stay permanently in the G-zero phase, it means that they do not easily divide and reproduce. It does not affect their signaling ability. Neuron stimulation is influenced by other factors, like Calcium influx into the cell. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

930

What is the largest chromosome?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. The largest chromosome humans have is chromosome 1. Our chromosomes are actually numbered in order of size. Chromosome 1 is the largest and chromosome 22 is the smallest. You can see a picture of our chromosomes laid out in order of largest to smallest here: http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/popups/img_karyotype.html Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

931

Why do some people have albinism?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Albinism is a genetic disorder caused by a change (or mutation) in a gene. There are many forms of albinism. Stevenson Middle School in AL (7th grade student)

932

Is there NIH policy/guidance in regards to requiring patients to provide DNA for genetic analysis as a condition for participating in a clinical trial, or must patients always be given the option to opt-out of genetic analysis and still be allowed to particpate in the trial? Certainly it must be required if genetic analysis is a key component of the research, but what if the genetic analysis is peripheral to the primary research question?      Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D.: Laura Lyman Rodriguez is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes.  She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases). There is NOT an NIH policy requiring research participants to participate in genetic analyses associated with clinical trials (or other research studies). Individual studies may include within their study designs options to participate or decline genetic elements of the study, whereas others may include it as an essential part of study participation for scientific reasons. Penn State in PA (Higher Education )

933

If you found DNA randomly, how would you match it? Suppose it wasn't like a murder case, and there are suspects. How would you find it? Is there samples of everyone's DNA that you have?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. You have to have something to match the DNA to. No, there aren't collections of DNA samples or databases of DNA information for everybody. What do you think - should we have such collections? Would you want the government to have your DNA? Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

934

During RNA transcription of DNA, does the RNA only use one side of the DNA to make its' copy? How does it know which side to use?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. Transcription happens on one strand of the DNA at a time (some times termed the + strand or the - strand). The promoter region on the DNA strand determines which strand is transcribed. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (teacher)

Carla Matteson, Ph.D has entered the chatroom. Carla directs a molecular laboratory and teaches med students, grad students and residents about genetics and genetic testing. She also administers a 25-person genetic center with clinical and laboratory activities.

936

I heard in the news one day that a couple's dog died and they got a clone of the dog. If it is possible to clone dogs, why can't we clone humans?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. It's more technically difficult to clones humans as evidenced by the fact that it hasn't happened. Yet. Do you think humans should be cloned? East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

937

This is directed towards Dr. Flavia Facio: I have Type 2 diabetes, does that mean my children will have it?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    Thank you for your question. The short answer is "not necessarily". We know that Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) is a complex condition caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Currently, studies show that someone who has a sibling or parent with T2D is at an increased risk to develop the disease, but this does not mean that they will develop it for sure. Scientists are working to find out what genes might be involved in T2D, and how much they might contribute to the development of disease. The positive side of this is that we can control some of our environment, and by eating healthy and exercising someone might be able to prevent or delay the development of T2D. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

938

Will it ever be possible to cure genetic disorders? And if so how?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. That is a great question! The answer is yes, depending somewhat on your definition of "cure". Some conditions can be "cured" by giving a medicine. A good example is biotinidase deficiency, an enzyme deficiency that can be treated very successfully with biotin therapy. In the future, genes will be able to be introduced into the body to "replace" the function of genes that are not working. A example currently being studied is adenosine deaminase deficiency, which causes an immune deficiency. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

939	why is dna coiled up?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. So that it can fit into your cells. If it were not coiled up, the length of DNA in each cell can reach up to 6 feet! Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

940

What role does apoptosis play in human aging?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Apoptosis is programmed cell death that is controlled by a complex sequence of molecular and cellular events. Apoptosis plays a role in aging but is not well understood. This is an active area of research. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

941

Is it possible to take any DNA and just randomly add and or remove nucleic acids to form completely different and NEW lifeforms? DNA reconstruction could become and art form.      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Certainly genetic manipulation and engineering takes place in a lot of different form in the lab (food, bacteria, animals). However, organisms are complex, and making a whole NEW lifeform would require a whole new genome. There have reportedly been a few synthetic chromosomes built, which is a start to an organism. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

942

is dna kinda like finger prints?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. No DNA is the genetic information in our bodies that allow us to grow, function, and develop. DNA is passed down from one generation to the next in a family. Finger prints are the patterns of your fingertips (you can see the whorls when you look at the tips of your fingers) that you leave behind on things that you touch. When you are looking to find a criminal at a crime scene they can look at the fingerprint pattern and match it with the person that left it. Each person has a unique fingerprint. Massapequa High School in NY (11th grade student)

943

What is horizontal gene transfer (and why is it considered dangerous)?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. "Gene transfer" refers to insertion or replacement of a piece of DNA in the host genome. It may be "dangerous" if the insertion interrupts a gene in the host. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

944	Can marijuana affect the DNA in your brain cells?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Marijuana can affect how your DNA is expressed in the cell. There is no evidence that it can damage the actual DNA molecules. Elko High School in NV (11th grade teacher)

945

Is the ability to live in our atmosphere reflected in our genes anywhere?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Human cells rely on oxygen for many of their processes, and there are genes that underly all of those processes, especially in the mitochondria. So the answer is yes! Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

946

What new technologies are furthering the progress of pharmacogenetics?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. High throughput sequencing is widely used in pharmacogenomics and providing insight into the genetic variants that affect or modulate the body's ability to metabolize drugs and identify potential drug targets. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

947

My moms is allergic to sugar - am I?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. You could be. We know that allergies can run in families, but for many of them, we don't know how they run in families. It is likely that allergies are caused by many different genes as well as the environment. Wantagh High School in NY (5th grade student)

948

What determines what parent you look like most?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Great question! It is partially random and depends on different factors. However, we know certain eye colors or hair colors may be dominant over another color. Some of it depends on which features you are looking at, and what dominant traits the parents have. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

949

Can DNA determine anything else other than traits?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. DNA not only determines traits. It can also determine (together with environmental influences) your personality and intelligence. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

950

Is diabetes hereditary and if so how can someone who has no family history of it have type one diabetes?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    Diabetes is a complex condition caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Someone with a family history of diabetes has a higher chance to develop it, but it can also happen to someone without a family history. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

951

What will be the effect of G+C% of primer on PCR optimization?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. GC-rich primers require a higher temperature to make sure the primers are denatured and can anneal to the DNA template. However, higher temperature also makes it harder for primers to anneal to the template. This makes efficient PCR reaction more challenging. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (student)

952

What is pyrosequencing?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. When a nucleotide is incorporated into a growing DNA chain, the triphosphate is converted to a monophosphate. That means that 2 phosphate groups (as a pyrophosphate) leave as a 'waste product.' Pyrosequencing uses a series of coupled enzyme reactions to convert that product into light (using firefly luciferase!). That bioluminescence is detected, to indicate that a nucleotide was added to the DNA. Baltimore City Community College in MD (Higher Education student)

953

What is the most rapidly growing branch of DNA research/application?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I don't know if this is the most rapidly growing branch, but it is changing very fast. It is the area of genome sequencing. We are getting closer and closer to being able to sequence a human genome for $10,000 or less. compare that to the human Genome Project - it cost around $200 million. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

954

Why do Asian people have similar DNA?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Part of it is due to the fact that for a very long time, most ethnic groups procreated within their own group. That limits the gene pool within that ethnic group and keeps the DNA similar. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

955

would it be possible to raise an embryo outside the mother body? To create an enviorment that is so similar to the uterus that an embryo could actually develope?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. Interesting question! This field is actually called "ectogenesis": the growth of an organism in an artificial environment. It is currently not possible to replicate the uterus environment because it is so complex. In addition, this could raises some ethical issues about reproductive rights. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

956

What specific genes are realated to breast cancer? and is there a genetic link?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. All cancer results from mutations in genes, but most of these mutations are acquired in the environment, and not passed from generation to generation. Two genes that may have mutations and get passed on where there is family history of breast cancer are BRCA1 and BRCA2 (though there may be other rare ones). Most breast cancer is not hereditary, though. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

957

how many regions of unexplored DNA do you think might still be out there?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. The human genome is sequenced. However, gene functions are still largely unexplored. For instance, there could be many isoforms of a gene. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

958

How much of a role does bioethics play in your research? Would you say that your research is limited by ethics?      Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D.: Laura Lyman Rodriguez is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes.  She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases). I am not an active researcher, but my job focuses almost entirely on creating and implementing research policies that allow for the consideration of bioethics issues in the design and conduct of research. From my experience in past research positions, and my conversations with my researcher colleagues, I would say that ethics does not "limit" research, but rather can provide informative and helpful perspectives that in the end enhance the quality of the science and the meaningfulness of the research to the public. However, ethics can be presumed to limit research (or research to disregard ethics) when there are misunderstandings or miscommunications between the scientific and the "ethics" communities. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

959	what is a phenome wide association scan?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. A phenome wide association scan is used to identify what phenotypes are associated with genetic variations. P. Jen in MD (Higher Education student)

960

With today's technology, how long would the human genome project take?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. With today's technology, we can sequence the human genome in 3 weeks on one machine. Eagle Valley Middle School in CO (8th grade student)

961

What is the cause of Angelman Syndrome?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Angelman syndrome is an inherited disease caused by changes imprinting at a specific place in human genome. Imprinting is a modification of DNA that allows a cell to distinguish whether certain parts of of your genome come from your mother or your father. In Angelman, the chromosome that comes from the person's mother is the one associated with disease and involves the UBE3A gene. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

962

Is being athletic genetic?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Partially. You have some people who are naturally athletic. However, part of being athletic is environmental. The right coaching, training, exercising, etc. can make an average athlete better. But, with all things being the same, some people are born with certain body types and features that makes them a better natural athlete. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

963

Have there been significant changes in the sequence of the average healthy human's DNA in the past thousands of years?      Amber Trivedi, M.S.: I work for "InformedDNA", which provides genetic counseling over the telephone. I provide cancer and reproductive genetic counseling, lead a team of other genetic counselors, and am involved in InformedDNA's business processes. No, most of our DNA has remained the same over time. 99.9% of our DNA controls the functions of our body that keeps us healthy. Therefore 99.9% of all humans have the exact same DNA, while only 0.1% of our DNA accounts for the normal differences from person to person. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

964

What are the advantages of whole genome testing versus SNP testing?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    Great question! Whole genome testing or sequencing allows us to find gene variations or mutations that are rarer in the population, and that would not be found through SNP testing. There are some great examples of how WGS has been used recently to find the cause for rare conditions in two different families -- including Miller Syndrome and Charcot Marie Tooth disease. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

965

ajs Is it possible to determine what people will look like when they grow up?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. No, at least not yet. There's pretty good evidence accumulating that we'll be able to predict a lot about facial features from a person's DNA sequence. With time we'll also probably be able to predict roughly how tall a person will be, or how heavy. We can already do a reasonable job of that from looking at the parents! East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

966

Is epilepsy genetic?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. That is a great question! The answer is sometimes yes and sometimes no. Epilepsy can also be caused by head injuries and other, non-genetic, causes. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

967

What's the hardest job in the field of genetics?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I think right now the biggest challenge in the field is analyzing, storing, distributing and interpreting DNA sequence information. called bioinformatics. The amount of DNA sequence information that is available to scientists has exploded. Computers and appropriate software programs are needed. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

968

what's the easiest way to seperate dna from hair/blood?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. To get DNA from blood you need to first have a blood sample. Then in the lab they would perform steps to get the DNA separate from other things that are found in blood. They mix the blood in a machine so that the DNA is separated. Then you need to add chemicals to break down other proteins that aren't DNA, and also add alcohol so that the DNA will "come out" of the solution. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

969	Is there DNA in fossils?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. There can be. It's preservation state is really important for research. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

970

How long does it take to find a mutation on a gene?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Mutations can be found in many different ways. It might take 40 years for the mutation causing Huntington's disease to arise, while other mutations can stop fetal development resulting in miscarriages. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

971

Are there any gene therapies that have worked on humans?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. There have been a few instances of gene therapy that have worked in humans so far. One was to treat retinal disease. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

972	Can DNA be identified before it's transferred?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. DNA can be identified by sequencing and then transferred. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

973

Can I purposely mutate my genes and acquire super powers?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Nope. I think that is the stuff of science fiction. Wantagh High School in NY (10th grade student)

974

Why do people get grey hair as they age?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Melanin is the substance which gives hair color. Our genes control how and when melanin is produced. When hair grays, it is becuase those genes slow down or stop working to produce pigment for that specific hair follicle. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

975	How many genes have been recorded in the Human Genome Project?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. 20,000 to 25,000 Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

976

How many cells does the human body have?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Humans have over 210 different types of cells. But depending on size and age, the actual number of cells can be more than 100 trillion cells. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

977	Which animal is most commonly used when experimenting for genetic research?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. Mice are commonly used for human genetic disease research. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

978

Some people are more muscular than others. Is the ability to develop more muscle mass genetic?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Building muscle mass has both genetic and environmental influences. Some people have variations of genes controling muscle development that make it easier to build muscle. Stevenson Middle School in AL (7th grade student)

979

Are there any SNPs that are unique to a specific population?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. There are SNPs that occur at higher frequencies in some populations than in others. At the limit, some likely occur only in certain populations. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

980

Are identical twins clones?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Identical twins are from one egg that has been fertilized from one sperm, in early development the fertilized egg splits into 2 distinct embryos and share the same DNA. Reproductive clones are genetically engineered organisms and depend on a process called "nuclear transfer" when the nucleus (genetic material) from a cell of an existing egg is used to replace the nucleus of another cell. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

981

What are some of the different types of careers that involve genetics?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Policy Analyst Genomic Informaticist Genetic Counselor Science Reporter Professor Lab Technician Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

982

DNA has a double helix structure. Is it like this in all organisms? Has it always been this way?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Not all organisms have double helix structures. Bacteria, for example, have circular DNA. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

983	What is a prokaryote???      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. A group of organisms that lack a cell nucleus. Harvard in MA (Higher Education student)

984

What is metagenomics?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. I am not familiar with metagenomics but it seems to be the study of DNA in microbes, and other organisms. I haven't heard very much about this at all. Philipp Gebhardt (Higher Education teacher)

985	How long can DNA be good for?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. If stored properly, DNA can last indefinitely. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

986	How many different nitrogen bases are in DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. 4. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

987

Is gene therapy helping in the treatment of leukemia?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. There is certainly some research going on in that area. Go to http://clinicaltrials.gov and type in "leukemia gene therapy" (without the quotes) to see some examples. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (teacher)

988

This is a question for Flavia Facio: How accurate are genetic tests in determining a woman's risk of getting breast cancer?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    This is a great question. We know that about 10-15% of all breast cancer is hereditary. We can explain a good proportion of those by genetic testing (mainly by testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes); however, there are still many of those cases that remain unexplained by current genetic testing. A woman's chance of having a genetic test that explains her risk of developing breast cancer is mainly related to her family history of breast cancer. So the test can be very good for some women, but not for others. For more information, go to geneclinics.org and search for "BRCA1" or "BRCA2" Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

989	Can Dna be found anywhere?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. It can be found in all plants, animals, bacteria, viruses, etc. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

990

Are gels run to match fingerprints, or is it all computerized?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. DNA fingerprints are detected on gels. While it's often possible to look at a gel to discern results, computers are usually used to analyze and store the images, and then algorithms are used to "call" the results and assign statistical significance. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

991

Has any genetic disease been cured?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Gene therapy is a technique for correcting defective genes that are responsible for the development of a disease. This therapy is still very experimental and much needs to be examined before this can become a safe and effective treatment. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

992

Are most of the issues in GATTACA becoming really true?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I wouldn't say most. But since we have started to be able to pick traits for our children (for example, gender or lack of some genetic diseases), we need to think about what it would mean to our society to select for other traits, like in GATTACA. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

993	Why are the letter codes different for DNA and mRNA?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. DNA: A, C, T, G RNA: A, C, U, G Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

994

I read in an article that Alzheimer's Disease could possibly be in the same family of diseases as diabetes. Is there any proof of this or research going into it?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Because diabetes damages blood vessels, it has been connected with vascular dementia  a type of dementia caused by damaged blood vessels in the brain. Many people have vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease at the same time. Also high insulin and blood sugar (in diabetes), may play a role in development of Alzheimer disease. There certainly are studies looking at this possible connection to two common diseases around the world. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

995

How many proteins are made in 1 day?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. I do not know but I am glad that they are being made! Proteins are made by changing DNA to RNA, and then changing RNA to protein. If mistakes are made anywhere in this chain of events, then it could be damaging to the body. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

996

Can you clone animals that are at risk of extinction?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Successful cloning has been accomplished in only a few cases, none of these have been endangered. One of the biggest problems with endangered species is that with only a few members, there is a limited amount of genetic diversity, which isn't enough to keep a population of animals healthy - think about why close relatives don't marry... East Haven High School in CT (11th grade student)

997

Is there any way to reverse a genetic malfunction, such as Down's Syndrome, using modern science?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. In some cases, where a single gene is involved, gene therapy is showing some promise in "reversing" inherited illnesses. For Down's syndrome, an entire chromosome is involved. In addition, many of the changes happen very early in a child's development during pregnancy. So, in that case, the answer is probably no. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

998

How can psychology be explained through epigenetics?      Karla Matteson, Ph.D.: I direct a molecular laboratory, teach med students, grad students and residents about genetics and genetic testing, administer a 25 person genetic center with clinical and laboratory activities. Epigenetics is the (potentially) heritable change in the gene expression pattern in a cell or organism that has been produced by external influences that change DNA associated regulatory mechanisms rather than DNA sequences. Thus the personality of a rat or human or other organism may be influenced by stresses on the parental unit in the previous generation or on the developing organism that result in multiple changes in gene expression in the next generation. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (teacher)

999	Science isn't my favorite subject, so please explain to me what is so interesting about science?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. Science is a study of life. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1000

If humans and chimps share 99% the same DNA, can a man mate with a cimpanzee and have viable offspring? Not that I would try this, just asking.      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. No. Humans and chimpanzees are two different species, and hence cannot produce viable offspring. Raj R. Dancey in CA (12th grade student)

1001

In case of metageomic DNA, in what extent there is any possibility of reproducibility of results when samples from same environment is taken at two different intervals?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. This is one of the questions the Human Microbiome Project is asking: how much does the microbiome change over time at particular body sites. Preliminary results show that some body sites can be quite stable over time in a healthy individual. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (teacher)

1002

Does genetics cause hybrid animals to be sterile?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. Mules are the offspring of a donkey and a horse and are a great example of a hybrid animal. As your question suggests, they are infertile Why is that? Mules have 63 chromosomes, a number of chromosomes between the number donkeys have (62 chromosomes) and horses have (64 chromosomes). This number makes it difficult for the chromosomes to pair up as cells split. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1003	What tools did Watson and Crick use to discover the double helix?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. They used images obtained from X-ray crystallography. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1004

How often are there mutations in DNA?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Mutations are random and can be beneficial, neutral or harmful. Mutations rates can also be influenced by environment. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1005

What is Pyro Sequencing?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Pyrosequencing is a method of DNA sequencing that relies on the detection of pyrophosphate release on nucleotide incorporation, rather than chain termination with dideoxynucleotides. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

1006

How soon does fertilization occur after sperm and egg meet?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Fast! Lots of sperm meet the egg. When the "one" sperm makes it in, it buries into the egg, and that's fertilization. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

1007

Are there geneticists trying to clone humans?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. As this is illegal, I assume the answer is no, in the US at least. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1008	tandem repeats or micro satellites... what is the difference      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. They are both short repeats of nucleotides. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

1009

What does smoking do to your DNA?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Smoking damages your DNA by causing mutations. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1010

Thank you all for donating your time to this chat. I hope that my students will have the opportunity to participate next year as well. I think that they really enjoyed it and learned a lot from it!      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. excellent! we are so glad you joined us!! Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (teacher)

1011

How is it possible for a small piece of genetic information to explain so much?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. We're complex organisms that rely on all parts functioning. I bet you can think of a lot of little things in your car that would result in it not working at all. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1012

Why does DNA exist?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. If DNA did not exist, then we would not exist. DNA is our genetic information. DNA codes for RNA and RNA code for proteins. Proteins are what we need to live, function, grow, develop, and stay healthy. DNA is the "instruction manual" for all life. Elko High School in NV (11th grade student)

1013

Do fraternal twins have the same dna?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. No, fraternal twins are just like two babies born of the same parents at different times. Their DNA is different. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1014

How will the process of genetically modified crops help create bo-fuels and such?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. GM-crops can be used to produce ethanol that can be used as alternative fuel. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1015

I want to screen bacteria molecularly, with respect to various enzymes secreted by bacteria. What techniques should I choose? Samples were collected from environment.      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. There are many diagnostic kits available for this. Some bacterial media can change color in the presence/absence of certain enzymes. You may also want to look at doing a Western blot if the enzymes can be sorted by size. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

1016

How does DNA affect your personality?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. See the earlier answer from Jean McEwen (copied here): There are many aspects of personality that are almost certainly influenced by genetics. But we already know that people's early childhood experiences and many other aspects of their social and cultural environments also play an enormous role. We are learning that all human traits - especially those related to behavior - are very complex, and result from a complicated interaction between genetic and environmental factors that we are only just now beginning to appreciate. We will need lots more research in order to understand these interactions more fully. And there will probably always be some degree of mystery involved in understanding all the different components that contribute to how our individual personalities develop. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1017

Is there a reason people act the way they do, and have different personalities? If a parent is funny, can that be passed down to their children? Is personality genetic?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. that is a great question, and honestly, the jury is still out. it's very complicated to figure out which aspects of our personality are inherited, and which are learned just by growing up wherever we grow up. Personally, I inherited my father's inability to deliver a punchline... Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1018

If a women is a carrier of a genetic disease, what is the chance (percent) of passing down the disease to their offspring?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    That depends on the genetic disease and how it is passed on. For example, if she is a carrier of an autosomal recessive condition, then her chance of having a child who is affected depends on the carrier status of her partner. If he is also a carrier for the same disease, then the chance that the couple will have an affected child is 25%. If she is a carrier and affected with an autosomal dominant disease, then her chance of having a child with the same disease is 50%. For more information, please go to www.genome.gov/Glossary Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1019

Are there certain genes that are more prone to mutations?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Yes. Some genes contain regions or basepairs that are susceptible to mutations more than others. One such gene is the the gene for neurofibromatosis, type 1. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1020

What is the most amazing thing people have ever done with DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I think it's a tie between determining its structure (Watson and Crick) and figuring our how to determine DNA sequence (MaxamGilbert). Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1021	What is the process of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) used for?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. It can be used to map the genome or analyze genetic diseases. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1022

what is the minimum number of genes on which a life can exist?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Existence of life is based on the minimum number of chromosomes, not genes. Some humans are born missing one sex chromosome, for a minimum of 45 chromosomes. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

1023

Can DNA ever change?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. Yes! DNA can change whenever it is copied. There are possibilities for errors anywhere along the 3 billion base pair length of sequence. most of the time, those errors are quickly corrected by dna repair mechanisms. but other times, those errors result in problems like cancer or other diseases. Shikellamy High School in PA (10th grade student)

1024

What inspired you to study DNA?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. The fact that we have the ability to study and manipulate our blueprint (DNA)....what makes us who we are as individuals and as a species.....has always been fascinating to me. I also like working with people and genetic counseling is a great mix between science and people. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1025

If you are working in DNA forensics for a crime, do you go to the scene to find any DNA to study?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. If you are the person who actually analyses the DNA, it is most likely that you just work in the lab with the actual DNA, and are not the one who collects it. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1026

Regarding nondisjunction...If you have a sperm with monosomy and an egg with trisomy...say it's the same chromosome...and they meet to form an embryo, could the fetus be normal?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Well a sperm is only supposed to have one copy of each chromosome (it is after Meiosis II, right?). And, the egg is also supposed to have only one copy. I understand your basic question, so let me restate it. If a sperm was nullisomic for a certain chromosome and the egg was disomic for that same chromosome, could the fetus be normal? The answer is that you could get a child with the normal number of chromosomes (46). However, they would have a condition called uniparental isodisomy (both chromosomes from the same parent). This often has medical consequences. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (teacher)

1027

Will there ever be a point in time where we can chose what DNA our children have?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. See this answer that I wrote earlier today: I think that we have already started to select for certain traits through pre-implantation diagnosis. This is when embryos are screened for certain genetic diseases. As we learn what causes other traits, like physical appearance or intelligence, we might be able to pick them. I think key question then is, would we want to? Is our idea of "the best genes" really good? Would we sacrifice other good traits just so we would have our idea of perfection? East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1028

How did scientists figure out the exact restriction site for so many restriction enzymes?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. I think that this question would be best answered by a different person, perhaps a molecular geneticist. I am sorry. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1029

How much does someone make doing clinical and molecular delineation of human malformation syndromes?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Hi NJ! Scientists are always in demand it's terrific that you are interested in the field. There are tremendous opportunities available; higher education, perseverance, and a willingness to keep asking questions and exploring are important ingredients for becoming a successful scientist. Ricky Waivers in NJ (12th grade student)

1030	Do viruses effect your DNA      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Yes, viruses can insert their their DNA into your own DNA, for expression later on. That is how you get cold sores when you are stressed. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1031

Do you think people could ever be reanimated, either through cryogenics or otherwise? Could genetics make it possible to build complex lives like humans from scratch (someday)?      Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D.: Laura Lyman Rodriguez is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes.  She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases). I honestly do not know if cryogenesis will ever advance to the point of reanimation as seen in many a sci fi movie, but I think that the potential for science to accomplish amazing feats is enormous. Cryogenics is already being applied in powerful ways to enable medical advances thought to be science fiction in the past, such as the storage of blood stem cells from umbilical cords for use in potential life-saving transplants years in the future. In terms of creating a human "from scratch" from synthetic DNA, I predict that it will not be possible for a very long time, if ever. There are many things that we are still learning about the elements necessary to initiate human development in a natural "biological" condition. Even if we knew every "ingredient" required, the balance and communications that must be in place between them is a complex system in its own right. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1032

Can DNA be used to treat cancer?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Hopefully in the future. Right now, no. There are some reports of DNA (gene therapy) being used to try and treat cancer in trials. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1033

How do you design your experiments?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. By first identifying the research question, choosing the best method as informed by current understanding of your research interest, executing of the experiment, and analyzing data. St. Mark's School in MA (5th grade student)

1034

What is on the cutting edge DNA science?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. I could write volumes on this but what comes to mind is a new technique called microarray or aCGH (array Comparative Genomic Hybridization). This technique is so cutting edge, quite often, we don't understand the data that is generated from it. A company using this technique and rapidly expanding its capabilities is Signature Genomics. St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

1035

What time does the chat shut down? i dont want to wait another year to talk about DNA again.      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. 6pm eastern Charles DuMarr in NY (Higher Education student)

1036

What is it like to be a genetic engineer?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. I'm a genetic counselor, but being a genetic engineer would be very interesting, too! Genetic engineers work on the cutting edge of tehnoglogy to help with modications of genes for food, disease, medication and so much more. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1037

Do humans have more DNA than dogs?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. Actually, no, we do not. Human have only 46 chromosomes while dogs have 76 chromosomes! Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1038	How many diploid human genomes have been published?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. The human genome has been sequenced and published. Nathan in CA (student)

1039

As a 27 year old with no health insurance, are companies such as 23andme.com worth looking into for screening of future health problems or is there a better way?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I think that right now, the benefit of a genome screen is limited. There are some changes that increase your likelihood of common diseases such as diabetes, that might encourage you to get health insurance. You should note that the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) protects your genetic information from misuse in health insurance and employment. James Woods Elementary in LA (Higher Education teacher)

1040

What is your favorite gene and why?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. whatever gene is responsible for my love of chocolate... Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1041

@ Assya Abdallah, B.S...Do viruses have chromosomes?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. No, viruses consist of a protein capsule surrounding a nucleic acid interior. These are not chromosomes, but can be single stranded or double stranded molecules of RNA or DNA. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

1042	About how many cells are in the human body?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. There can be up to 100 trillion cells in the human body. Shikellamy High School in PA (9th grade student)

1043

If all cells have the identical DNA, how do they differenciate? I know that it turns off certain protein productions, but how do they know which protein to turn off?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. Differentiation depends on genes turning on and off. Signals (such as hormones, or proteins sent from one cell to another, or cues arising from by physical forces that cells experience) arrive at cells and set off cascades that cause different regulatory proteins to be expressed in different cells. Those proteins interact with DNA in the nucleus and turn some genes on or off (and up and down) like a dimmer switch on a light bulb. So even though all the cells have the same DNA, different parts of that DNA are expressed, or not, in different types of cells. The resulting mRNAs encode the proteins. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1044

Phyllis, Are you worried about insurance companies using patient information for discriminatory practices?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) protects your genetic information from misuse in health insurance and employment, so in terms of your genetic information and health insurance you're protected. The same cannot be said for long term care and life insurance. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1045

Would it ever be possible to produce an organ that is generic that could be transplanted into anyone?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Great question. Most organs have proteins that are specific to a person. However, that technique might well work for some simple tissues, such as components of skin. You could certainly "stack the deck" and make an organ match as many people as possible based on the immunological markers you choose when you make the organ. That technology is a little ways in the future, but I look forward to seeing how it works out! Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

1046

How can genetic diseases be prevented?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    There are different ways to prevent an inherited condition. One way is for a couple to be tested prior to becoming pregnant (known as pre-conception testing) for conditions that they might be at higher risk for based on their family histories and/or ethnic background. Another option is to test the pregnancy if there is a known genetic disease running in the family. It is very important to keep in mind that these choices are very personal, and what is right for a person/couple, is not right for a different person/couple. These choices are very individual! Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1047

1- Are there any projects or experiments on DNA currently going on now and that will benefit human society in the next few years? And if so what is it and how will it helps us? RAWR      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. Yes, there are a number of exciting projects going on now that are trying to move what we're learning in the lab into the clinic. one is the clinseq project, which is exploring ways to use medical sequencing to learn more about heart disease. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1048

Why isnt DNA used to bring back extinct species like the American Bald Eagle?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. American bald eagles are extinct, but, in general, we cannot bring back extinct species because the to attempt clone something, you need to first have a live female to be pregnant with it! Cloning also has lots of limitations as it is currently attempted. J. Coringrato Jr. in WY (11th grade student)

1049	Does eating some type of other dna effect yours?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. No. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1050

A previous student asked about the possibility of using cloning to create Spiderman like superheroes. Dr. Frosst replied that the only way to do so would be to be bit by a radioactive spider. If one were to acquire a radioactive spider and allow it to bite them, what is the likelihood that superhero-like qualities would develop? Would new DNA be developed to produce the new traits or would it merely take a modification of currently existing genes?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I'd be surprised if some kind of genetic remodeling wouldn't be necessary, but as a scientist, empiric research would be necessary to really answer this question. Possibly the transfer of a certain amount of arachnid DNA might be sufficient. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1051

What do you think of genetic therapy?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. A powerful tool, but one that has to be used with a great deal of caution. I'm assuming that you are talking about methods such as gene therapy... Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1052

What is the most interesting aspect of DNA research you like the most?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. For me, I enjoy the topics related to the implications of what we are learning around DNA. For example, how can we make sure everyone has access to these great advances in genetic technology...regardless of their cost. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1053

Is there any possibility that S. aureus of oral microbiota and skin microbiota of same person may be two different strains?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Yes, it is possible. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (student)

1054

Do scientists examine every person for chromosomal disorders?      Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C.: Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way. Great questions, I was just thinking about chromosomes myself : ) Chromosomes are structures which contain our genes, you can think of them as a blueprint, instruction book, or recipe of life. When there are differences or abnormalities with chromosomes, these may cause features such as physical and developmental differences. Individuals with Down syndrome have a chromosome abnormality and some individuals with unexplained mental retardation may have a chromosome abnormality. Usually, individuals are sent to genetic counselors, geneticists, physicians, or scientists when there is a reason to suspect a chromosome abnormality. Another common way that families are referred to test chromosomes is during prenatal care. So, most everyone have not been tested from chromosomal disorders or will be offered chromosome testing. I suspect scientists would love to have all that data though! Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

1055

3. Induced pluripotent stem cells have the propensity to form tumors when they become specialized cells in humans. Do you foresee a resolution to this problem soon?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. We're still quite early in our study of iPS cells, and how their differentiation and growth might be controlled. While I don't have a crystal ball, I'm sure we'll learn a lot more, and that might include how to prevent them from growing out of control. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1056

What is the wierdest science story you can share with us?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Genetic engineers have made a cat that glows in the dark! Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1057

what is an allele      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. An allele is another way of talking about the difference between copies of the same gene. For example, we have two copies of all our genes - one copy we inherit from our mother and one copy we inherit from our father. To describe the difference between the two copies of one particular gene, we can say we have two different alleles. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1058

Can DNA live out side the body?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. DNA can still be found outside of the body. That is how forensics officers take advantage of DNA from hair, sweat, etc. at the scene of the crime to find the guilty party. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade teacher)

1059

If both parents were carriers of a genetic disorder, what would be the percentage of their offspring recieving this disorder?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    If both parents are carriers for a genetic disease that is autosomal recessive, then the chance that they might have a child affected with the disorder is 25%. This is the chance for each pregnancy. So, if they have 3 children, the chance will be 25% for each pregnancy or child. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1060

What is the role of Bioinformatics in todays genomics?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Bioinformatics includes many activities associated with genomic information, including: data processing, analysis, storage, distribution, maintenance, analytical methods development, computer programming and probably more. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

1061

I have read that viruses can incorporate host DNA, and they also inject their DNA into host cells. Could viruses take genes from an animal like a bird or pig and inject it into human cells? Might we have viruses and pigs to thanks for some useful evolutionary changes in man?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. Virus can incorporate its own DNA into the host, but not other animals' DNA. Usheed Ahnmakok (12th grade student)

1062

What is the largest ethical issue pertaining to DNA research/discoveries?      Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D.: Laura Lyman Rodriguez is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes.  She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases). I do not think that it is possible to name the "largest" ethical issue pertaining to DNA research, but near the top of my personal list would be: how to use an individual's DNA in a manner that respects their personal wishes; how to promote maximum scientific advances in genetics while respecting the interests of the individuals that participate in each study; how to enable the general public to understand and feel empowered by their own genetic information and its potential to inform their health care; and how to be sure that genetic information is used to promote equitable treatment of individuals and not to discriminate or distinguish between individuals. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1063

Can you find out how a person looks just by their DNA?      Karla Matteson, Ph.D.: I direct a molecular laboratory, teach med students, grad students and residents about genetics and genetic testing, administer a 25 person genetic center with clinical and laboratory activities. Right now the answer is No. However we do know a little about the genes involved in hair color and curliness, eye color and skin color and height. Of course we can tell the sex of an individual based on their DNA. If we can learn more about the multiple genes involved in these complex traits we might be able to say something about a person. But I am afraid the police will have to wait a while before DNA can tell them enough to identify a unique individual based on how they look Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1064

If my father has brown eyes and my mother has blue eyes, and I have brown eyes, and I have children with a woman who has blue eyes and both her parents have blue eyes, what are the chances that our children have blue eyes?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. About 50/50. Fallsview High schol in MA (11th grade student)

1065

Does our lack of understanding of junk DNA have any influence on medical treatments of genetic disorders?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Good question. Junk DNA is DNA we don't know its function. We now know that junk DNA, or non-coding DNA, is actually beneficial to the body and can play some important roles in a cell. For known genetic disorders, we often know the area of the genome that is causing the disorder. Genetic tests can determine whether or not a person has a genetic disorde by looking at the known area of the genome. There are still many disorders however for which genetic testing is not available perhaps because we have not discovered the causative gene yet. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1066	How does a mutation in DNA happen?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Mutation can happen during DNA replication. Mutation can also happen by environmental causes, such as UV radiation. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1067

Who inspired you to study genetics?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. My high school molecular biology teacher, Mr. Morton. :) Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1068

Do you suggest going into the science field?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Yes! I think science is a very interesting field to work in. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1069

As chimpanzees have a very similar genetic make-up, do they also get the same types of cancers as humans?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Surprisingly, although we share so much of our genetic make-up with chimpanzees, they seem to have lower rates of cancer overall. Chimps may have small differences in their cancer susceptibility genes that protect them against cancers, which differ from our genes. Philipp Gebhardt (Higher Education teacher)

1070

What type of filters do you use for professional DNA extraction?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. There are kits available for DNA extraction. A positively charged column can bind to DNA, which is negatively charged. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way.

1072

Does "instinct" have anything to do with genetics?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Since instinct is a behavior and scientists are finding links between behavior and genetics, then yes. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1073

Do any of you ever Skype with classrooms to share your expertise during genetics units??...We'd love to have you.      Jeff Witherly, Ph.D: Jeff is a Senior Advisor in the office of Education and Community Involvement Branch. We use another internet tool called "Connect" to beam into classrooms. It doesn't require anything special on the classroom end and functions a lot like Skype. If you are interested in trying to match up a professional here at the NIH Genome Institute with one of your learning units, we'd like to help. Email me (jlw@mail.nih.gov) and let's start a dialogue. This goes for any classroom that reads this. Getting a scientist or a genome professional into your classroom WITHOUT having to physically travel is a terrific way to add life to the curriculum. Valley View Middle School in MN (7th grade teacher)

1074

3. Induced pluripotent stem cells have the propensity to form tumors when they become specialized cells in humans. Do you foresee a resolution to this problem soon?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. Probably not soon because the regulation of IPS cells is not yet well understood. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1075

Are Mendelian laws applicable to explain all types of cancers?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Most cancer is not hereditary, therefore Mendelian laws do not explain most cancer. A small percentage of all cancer is hereditary, and Mendelian laws do explain this small percentage (example: Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome, BRCA1 and BRCA2) Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (student)

1076

What does deoxyribonucleic mean ?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Deoxy means that the sugar molecule in the nucleic acid is missing an Oxygen atom. This means that it DNA, compared to RNA, has fewer molecules of Oxygen. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1077

How long are chromosomes?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Very long! DNA is made up of billions of base pairs (the letters that make up DNA: A, T, G, C). DNA can fit into our cells because of very specific "packaging." There are many steps to this packaging which allows the very long DNA strand to be bunched up and fit inside the nucleus of a cell. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1078	Does DNA effect every physical feature of us?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. There are genetic influences and environmental factors that contribute to our features. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1079

Why is there cloning? What is the process of cloning? What can you clone? How do you know if something is cloned?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. There are two different processes that go by the name of cloning. One involves inserting a piece of DNA from the genome of one organism, into the DNA of another. Often that's done to grow a lot of copies of DNA from a more "complex" organism in a bacterial cell that grows very fast. You can tell if the bacterial cell contains cloned "foreign" DNA by analyzing the sequence of the DNA. The other kind of cloning refers to cloning an animal by taking a cell from one animal and treating it so that it can form an embryo and grow to an entire animal. It would be quite hard to tell if the resulting animal was cloned. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1080

Since some cultural groups mainly procreated amongst their own populations, is there a higher rate of genetic diseases especially those caused by recessive alleles?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Genetically isolated populations have been used to study the genetics of complex disorders because the environmental variation might be decreased and the genetic make-up of these populations is expected to be less complex due to founder effects. Recessive allele conditions do exist in these populations can can be higher than the general population. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

1081

Does DNA choose what you're afraid of?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Since fear is a behavior and scientists are finding links between behavior and genetics, then maybe 'yes'. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1082	How many DNA are in a human body?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. DNA is what forms chromosomes in the body. There are 46 chromosomes in the human body. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1083

How can people with dwarfism give birth to a normal child. Isn't DNA passed on to the offspring?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. That is a great question. Let's think of a gene that can have two forms, working (A) and broken (a). Each person has two copies of the gene, one from their mother and one from their father. So, for a common type of dwarfism, achondroplasia, an affected person has one of each: one A and one a or "Aa" If that person has a child with a partner who also has achondroplasia, only one of their chromosomes will be passed on with each pregnancy. Therefore, children with three combinations will be seen: AA (one A from mom, one A from dad), Aa, and aa. Kids with aa are severely affected and don't often live very long. Kids with Aa will have achondroplasia. Kids with AA will not have any achondroplasia and will have normal height. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1084

what is SNA?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. I think you might be referring to sRNA. sRNA is a word used to describe noncoding RNA in bacteria. We have noncoding RNA as well. "Noncoding" means that the RNA does not get translated into protein like we usually think of RNA. But noncoding RNA is very important is our cells. It is involved in making transfer RNA which is needed to turn messenger RNA into protein. It is also plays a role in turning some of our genes on and turning other ones off. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1085

How many known disorders have to do with the sex chromosomes?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    There are many disorders related to variations in the sex chromosomes. Some of them have to do with the number of sex chromosomes. For example, women with Turner Syndrome have one X chromosome, instead of two (XX). Other disorders have to do with mutations or variations in the DNA of the X or the Y chromosome. For example, Fragile X Syndrome. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1086

When the cells divide, how many total times does it divide before it is complete?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Each type of cell has a different amount of cell divisions that it undergoes before it stops. Many cells never stop dividing, such as the cells that line your intestine. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

1087

When do you think all people will have to register their DNA on a worldwide database?      Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D.: Laura Lyman Rodriguez is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes.  She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases). I think it is questionable if there will ever be a time that the entire global population will contribute their DNA to a world-wide database. I hesitate even to predict that there will ever be a single national DNA database. I do believe, however, that there will be a time (in the not so distant future) where we will all have our DNA sequenced and will be able to provide it to our health care providers as part of our medical information. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1088

Can cancer run in your family ?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Cancer is a complex disease with genetic and environmental components. Understanding your family history is the first step. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1089

What happened to Han Solo's DNA when he was frozen in carbonite??      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. Well, since Han did not appear to age during the time he was frozen, it is likely his cells stopped dividing. When Leia released him, it restarted his aging process, so basically all Jabba did was to keep Han looking young and fresh. Jarjar Binks (7th grade student)

1090

Can eyes change color?      Jeff Schloss, Ph.D.: Jeff Schloss is a program director in the extramural division of NHGRI. Developing technology for sequencing complete human genomes for $1000 or less is the centerpiece of his technology development programs, and he also leads the Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science program. Jeffs formal science training is in cell and molecular biology. I didn't know the answer to this question so asked others who are with me here in the Chatroom. Apparently the answer is yes -- environmental effects and medications can change eye color. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1091

What is the hardest part when dealing with DNA?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. DNA can be hard in a lot of ways. It can be hard extracting it from the cell. It can be hard keeping it from decomposing. It can be hard finding out it's sequence. It depends on what type of work you do. St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

1092

What are real world applications of retrovirus can it be used      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Retroviridae are used in some gene therapy trials as vectors for gene delivery. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1093

Would it be beneficial to prevent persons with severe genetic disorders from having children? If so, how would we justify protecting the rest of society by taking away the individual rights of these persons since it is not a guarantee that any of their children would have their disorder?      Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D.: Laura Lyman Rodriguez is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes.  She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases). No, it would not be beneficial to prevent persons with severe genetic disorders from having children for a multitude of reasons. Diversity is the richness of life and our DNA. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

1094

How does having an extra chromosome, such as in down syndrome, negatively affect you?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. In the case of Down's Syndrome, the extra DNA is active and therefore changes the phenotype of the individual, resulting in an "abnormal" condition. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1095

If you weren't studying DNA, what would you be doing now?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. I would be in a career that helps people. Fortunately, I get to help people through science by being a genetic counselor. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1096

Are there any cures for genetic disorders?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    The short answer is "no". However, there have been tremendous improvements in the treatment of some genetic disorders. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1097

Is there anything else in our bodies other than DNA that helps create us?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Yes, your mother's egg has some non-DNA components that influence the very beginnings of the development of a person. They include proteins and RNA (a substance similar to DNA). Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1098

Since Elko is at about 5300 feet above sea level, is our DNA affected differently than somebody who is not?      Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C.: Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way. The amount of your DNA (when you were a fetus) in your mother's blood stream may have been at a higher level than someone at sea level. Some studies report pregnancy women in Tibet have a higher amount of fetal DNA in their blood than women at sea level. It doesn't have to be Tibet though, the study reports >2700 meters or around >8800 feet. Future research will tell us more! Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1099

Can you find out how a person looks just by their DNA?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. Right now, no, there are simply too many genes that influence hair color, eye color, facial structure, etc, to know what a person looks like from just their DNA. In the future, perhaps. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1100

Is our DNA the same shape in diffrent cells?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. DNA is packaged as chromosomes in cells. Chromosomes might look different in different cells depending on the stage of the cells that they are in. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1101

Do you think it will ever be possible to choose the traits of a fetus?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. See the answer I wrote earlier: I think that we have already started to select for certain traits through pre-implantation diagnosis. This is when embryos are screened for certain genetic diseases. As we learn what causes other traits, like physical appearance or intelligence, we might be able to pick them. I think key question then is, would we want to? Is our idea of "the best genes" really good? Would we sacrifice other good traits just so we would have our idea of perfection? East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1102

3. Induced pluripotent stem cells have the propensity to form tumors when they become specialized cells in humans. Do you foresee a resolution to this problem soon?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Induced pluripotent stem cells do not necessarily become tumors. They can be used to differentiate into different cell types. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1103	who is the founder of dna      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. DNA is the basic blueprint of life. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1104

Is cervical cancer hereditary?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. The human papilloma virus is thought to play a role in cervical cancer. Family history is also a strong predictor. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

1105

In what ways is gene testing like SNP and whole genome controversial?      Laura Lyman Rodriguez, Ph.D.: Laura Lyman Rodriguez is the Acting Director for the Office of Policy, Communication, and Education and the Senior Advisor to the Director for Research Policy at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), National Institutes of Health (NIH). She works to develop and implement policy for research initiatives at the NHGRI, as well as programs that work across all of the NIH Institutes.  She is particularly interested in the policy and ethics questions related to the inclusion of human research participants in genomics and genetics research and sharing human genomic data through broadly used research resources (e.g., databases). SNP and whole genome analysis is not controversial in and of itself. Rather, it is the potential use (or misuse) of the information generated that is potentially controversial. For example: the use should be consistent with the individual's wishes; the confidentiality of the information should be protected; and, the privacy interests of the individual protected, among other issues. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1106

What pushed humans to change from simple tool-making people into a more complex thinking species? Could it possibly be the interaction among humans? Did we always have the mental capacity to be "modern" or did something genetically change?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. This is a very complex question! We know that people and animals have changed over time. There could be many reasons for this. Natural selection is the idea that individuals with traits that were beneficial to them in their enviroment were able to survive and reproduce. As time goes by, mutations are introduced into the gene pool, and the natural selection allows the beneficial genes to reproduce. This allows humans to adapt to the specific enviroment that they are in. There are likely many theories to answer your question. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1107

Can there ever be 2 Y chromosomes in a parent cell.      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. Sure! As long as the parent cell also has an X chromosome, it can have 2 Y chromosomes. It estimated that 1:1000 boys are born with an X chromosome and 2 Y chromosomes in the cells of their bodies. This means they are 47,XYY. The extra Y chromosome does not cause much trouble for these boys. Some of them will have some learning disabilities and they may have a hard time learning to speak. But most boys with an extra Y chromosome don't even know it. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1108	Can you take a double helix completely apart?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Helicase, an enzyme, can be used to unwind the double helix structure. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1109

How do you seperate genes for hair from genes for eyes?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Our genes are contained along our chromosomes, like beads on a necklace. Some of the genes for hair and eye color sit close to one another one certain chromosomes. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1110	Why does the DNA "unzip" simultaneously?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. It unzips when the two strands pull apart from one another. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1111

Can a woman change the dna of an unborn baby to change its hair or eye color?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Hi Nevada! Good question, but no this is not possible. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1112

Would you rather be a bacteria or virus?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Oh, a virus for sure. They are complicated little critters but elegantly put together! James Woods Elementary in IL (5th grade student)

1113

Will we ever be able to pick the genes that will make up our offspring?      Jeff Witherly, Ph.D: Jeff is a Senior Advisor in the office of Education and Community Involvement Branch. The easy answer is not in the near future. However, if you think of about it you kinda already do this when you choose the person you have children with. Just not as distinctly as you might be thinking. Now... I have to also say I chose this question because I lived in your great city for about 6 years a long time ago. I have been in your high school to see a basketball game (Kyle Macy, hope I spelled his name right) was Mr. Basketball at the time. That and I have attended a number of the "circus parades." A big shout out to Peeeeroooo! Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

1114	What are you researching?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. I study prostate cancer and trying to figure out which signaling pathways are involved in tumorigenesis. St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

1115	what are the genetics of the fungi kingdom      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. They have the same nucleotides: A, C, G, T in their DNA. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

1116

Does apple pie have DNA???      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. Yes! There is DNA in every plant and animal- so the yeast and wheat used in the pie has DNA, as do the fruit parts! St. Mark's School in MA (5th grade student)

1117

Are twins DNA more alike than others???      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Hi CA! Identical twins share the same DNA, fraternal twins share up to 50% of their DNA but are no more alike or different than any two siblings. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1118

Is it possible to be completely missing a pair of chromosomes, but have an extra pair of other chromosomes? Example: No pair for 5, but 2 pairs of 23.      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    Such chromosome complement would probably not be viable. In general, we can deal with extra genetic material better than with loss of genetic material. It would probably not be possible to be missing both copies of a chromosome. The exception to this is the Y chromosome. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1119

Is there any other DNA in our body that hasn't been identify?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. The whole genome (all of human DNA), has been sequenced (identified) so far. But, right now we don't know what it all does, so we have a lot to learn! Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1120

Is it possible have YY for a 23rd chromosome?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. No, YY is not possible. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1121

If a student has brown eyes and her sister has blue eyes and every one else in her family has brown eyes, where did her blue eyes come from?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Does everyone else in the family also include grandparents? The Charter School of Educational Excellence in NY (5th grade teacher)

1122

In what kind of cases I should prefer Real Time PCR?      Jane Lee, B.S.: Jane Lee's area of focus at NHGRI is molecular biology and genetic counseling. For instance, you can use real time PCR if you want to quantify the expression level. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education teacher)

1123	Do you think GMOs will affect biodiversity in the future, in both plants and animals?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Yes What do you think? East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1124

Can we use genetics to help cure cancer?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Gene therapy is a promising treatment for many diseases including cancer. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1125

Are all psycological disorders genetic or are they developed over time?      Angela Filose, M.S.: Angela Filose, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I work as a genetic counselor with prenatal, pediatric and hereditary cancer patients. I help evaluate patients for genetic conditions in themselves or their babies, and help guide them through information. Excellent question- we are learning more and more about the cause of psychological disorders. They are VERY complicated. Most psych disorders have complex, or multifactorial causes, meaning it is a combination of both genetic and environmental factors that cause the condition. There are some families with multiple individuals affected with psych disorders (let's say schizophrenia or bipolar disorder). In such a family we may suspect a stronger genetic component. However, even in such a family there can be unaffected individuals- perhaps that person has the genetic component, but the environmental "trigger" never occurred. Genetic testing for psych disorders is still very difficult as we are learning that there are many different genes that can contribute to a certain psych condition. For example, one genetic database lists more than 25 possible gene loci that may be associated with increased risk for schizophrenia. Since many people are at risk to develop psychological disorders this will continue to be an area of intense research. Peru High School in IN (11th grade student)

1126

How is recombinant DNA used in making new drugs?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Wow, that is a good question. One example is the manufacture of insulin. Recombinant DNA is introduced into bacteria. As a result, the bacteria make insulin, which can be collected and purified to make a medication for humans. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1127

Can we call PCR products a clone library?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. A clone library or genomic library represents the entire genome of an organism. PCR products are often made for the purpose of isolating a particular sequence of interest and amplifying that small piece over and over again. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

1128

What is genomics?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. Genomics is the study of the genome. What is the genome? The genome is different for different organisms but regardless of the organism, the genome encompasses all of organism's hereditary information. This information can be stored as DNA or RNA. The Human Genome Project officially began in October 1990 and was successfully completed on April 14, 2003. While the project itself is officially over, we are now engaged in the really exciting -- and even more important -- work of figuring out how the genome functions and how it affects our health. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1129	will there ever be a cure for albinism      Les Biesecker, M.D.: I currently research the clinical and molecular delineation of human malformation syndromes. At this time there is no cure for albinism. Current treatments are aimed at easing symptoms. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1130

Why is it that a female horse and a male donkey can reproduce when other species cannot interbreed?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. A mule gets 32 horse chromosomes from mom and 31 donkey chromosomes from dad for a total of 63 chromosomes. (A horse has 64 chromosomes and a donkey has 62). Some other species may be able to interbreed if their chromsomes are similar enough. If chromsomes are not similar enough, they cannot breed. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (teacher)

1131

How drastically can epigenetics effect someones gene expression over time.      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Epigenetics is a relatively new field of study. We are learning that there are many things that can affect gene expression besides just the genetic code. I would say it probably has more of an effect than we understand at this point. Researchers are expanding our knowledge of epigenetics rapidly. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1132

What laws or regulations should be placed on human genome sequencing privacy in order to ensure that the human genome sequencing won't be miss used or abused by insurance companies?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I think a very important piece of legislation is already in place - the Genetic Information Non-discrimination Act. It prohibits the improper use of genetic information in health insurance and employment. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1133	I think you guys are pretty cool Can I friend you on Facebook?      Geoff Spencer: Geoff is a Public Affairs Specialist and covers all media inquiries at NHGRI. Hey Lika, YES, our National DNA Day Facebook page is www.faceboo.com/DNAday. See you there! Lika McKooch in NJ (7th grade student)

1134

Has a cure for any mutations that lead to cancer been found?      Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C.: Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way. You ask the same questions (a very good one) that many teams of scientists, clinicians, and families are working toward. Cancer genetics and cancer theraputics research, I would imagine, would be a fulfilling career. There are no cures for mutations that may lead to a cancer diagnosis. For now, we have the options of lifestyle changes to reduce the odds of cancer or regular checkups to find and hopefully beat any cancer early. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1135

What would happen to our bodies if we did not have DNA?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. We would not exist. DNA is the blueprint of life, providing instructions for life functions. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1136

Do databases online derive the same nucleotide sequence from the same source? (Like do the UCSC database and mapper correspond to the same NCBI database and mapper information?)      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Yes. But one needs to be a bit careful because the larger label of for example "human genome" is not the same sequence in each database. Each sequence has a unique tag or label that identifies it eg 'release 37' very much like software releases (eg v 2.5). As we learn more about the sequence and it becomes more refined and informed it becomes more useful and more accurate and gets a new release number or tag. Does that answer your question? St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

1137

Can human nerves be made to grow, either by genetics or drugs?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Yes, there are some drugs which cause nerves to grow more rapidly. Unfortunately, they work better in a Petri dish than in the body. That is an area of active research. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

National DNA Day - Haiku Contest Winners In honor of the 2010 DNA Day, National DNA Day held a Haiku contest on its Facebook page: www.facebook.com/DNAday. Today, we are proud to announce the winners.   1st Prize (Tie): Rebecca Kolberg Peas Out Monk in the garden yellow, green, round or wrinkled true seeds of knowledge Josephine Pino ubiquitous code our helical friend and foe reveal your secrets Both will receive a commemorative copy of the April 24, 2003 Nature journal featuring articles related to the sequencing of the human genome signed by NHGRI Director, Dr. Eric Green. 2nd Prize: Erica Stewart Obstinate helix If only you would tell me How to be human Erica will receive an NHGRI 19 oz. coffee mug signed by NHGRI Director, Dr. Eric Green. 3rd Prize: Kristen Tolson language of life, so simple yet so complex still an enigma Kristen will receive classroom set of National DNA Day pencils that change color as a result of body heat. Congratulations to you all. We will be contacting you via Facebook to ask you to send your mailing addresses to a designated email so we can deliver the prizes.

1139

If a woman were to cheat on her husband with his identical twin brother, would it be possible to determine her children's true father through DNA testing?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. No. The genetic profile of the child would match both men in the same way. Mt. Mianus High in NJ (12th grade student)

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Is there a way to get DNA from one person, then transfer it to another person without a risk of mutation?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. I think that you are asking about gene therapy. Gene therapy is the process of inserting genes into a person's cells so that they can "correct" the cause of a person's disease. A lot more research still needs to be done to find a safe and effective way to peform gene therapy. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

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What is the base structure of DNA?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. DNA is a very long molecule made up of repeating units called nucleotides. The backbone of the nucleotides is the same (sugar and phosphate backbone), but the "bases" attached to the backbone can change. There are four different bases, (A,C,G,T) and that is where all the genetic information for making an organism resides. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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Are all mutations expressed?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. No not all mutations are expressed; they can be beneficial, neutral or harmful. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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How does one become a science studier?      Jeff Witherly, Ph.D: Jeff is a Senior Advisor in the office of Education and Community Involvement Branch. I love the phrase "science studier." So, I am thinking you are wondering about how someone becomes really interested in science and then goes on to study it past high school and into college and maybe then becomes a researcher -- and then studies science. Well, that's the process for the schooling you would typically need. But in reality people are studying science without degrees and training and out of interest all the time. When I was young I once let a loaf of bread turn into a mold colony over time just to see what it looked like. So you become one by just being interested and asking questions. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

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What color is DNA?      Tiffany Lepard, M.S.: Tiffany Lepard, M.S. has entered the chatroom. She is a pediatric genetic counselor. DNA is not visible to the naked eye, so we wouldn't really be able to see it's color. However, we do use color a lot in genetics. For example, DNA sequencing is a process that uses four different flourescent dyes. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

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What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. A pro: food that grows more optimally. A con: introduced traits may trigger unexpected allergic reactions in those who eat them. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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How prominent is genetic counseling?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. Genetic counseling is very important and will become increasingly more important in the future as we learn more and more about our genome. Genetic counselors will be needed to explain the meaning and implications of genetic test results to individuals. You should consider it as a possible career! Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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What happened to make a national DNA Day?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. National DNA Day, begun in April 2003, celebrates the successful completion of the Human Genome Project and the 50th anniversary of the discovery of DNA's double helix in 1953. Every year, National DNA Day offers an opportunity for students to connect with genetic professionals to learn more about genetic research and career options in the field. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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What kind of issues do you think might come up socially as we learn more about the genome and its related diseases?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. If we find out that criminal behaviors are influenced greatly by genetics, how responsible is a criminal for his/her actions. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

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How long do you have to go to school to be a scientist?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. It depends on what you decide to study for. My master's degree took 2 years beyond a 4 year college degree. Some people stay in school for 5-7 years beyond college to get their PhD's. MDs take 4 years on average. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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If someone has Down syndrome, why couldn't scientists remove the extra chromosome when the egg was just fertilized?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    This is a great question. Although this might seem straight-forward, it is not possible to go in after the egg is fertilized to remove the extra copy of chromosome 21. It is possible to test a fertilized egg for specific genetic diseases before implantation through pre-implantation genetic diagnosis for couples who are pursuing in vitro fertilization. But even in that setting, they would not be able to remove the extra 21. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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Are green eyes dominant over blue eyes?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. Yes, they are. Green eyes are dominant over blue eyes. But you should know that brown eyes are dominant over green eyes. To read more about how this might work in a family where a dad has blue eyes and a mom has brown eyes, read here: http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=59 Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1152	Can my DNA be used to make a clone of me?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. No, your DNA can not be used to clone you. Flint Northern High School in GA (9th grade student)

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Why do people commit genetic discrimination anyway?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Insurance companies and employers might commit genetic discrimination to save money. However, you might as well be asking why people discriminate at all - whether it's because of genetics, how you dress, or where you where born. Surya Bangsa Elementary in Indonesia (8th grade student)

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How do know when foods are genetically modified?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I'm not an expert on this, but I expect that you could only tell if the product (packaging) is labeled. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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What combination of chromosomes does someone who is considered "intersex" have?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    There are different combinations of sex chromosomes that are considered "intersex", including 45, X or 47,XXY. For more information on this, you may want to check www.isna.org Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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How are SNPS detected?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Since the Human Genome Project, Scientists have been able to discover much faster and easier ways to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). DNA sequencing may be a method that you have heard of. We can also use allele specific hybridization. There are actually databases available that you can see the known associations of SNPs and disease. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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If a person has an illness such as cancer and AIDS, can their baby develop these issues?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Hi New York! Cancer is a complex disease that involves a combination of genetics (e.g. family history) and environmental influences. AIDS is an infectious disease and involves a different mechanism of transmission. The Charter School of Educational Excellence in NY (6th grade student)

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Do you think humans will evolve even more or did we stop evolving when we started using tools to change our environment?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. We will continue to evolve as we discover and invent new things! Mike Unthertz in DC (11th grade student)

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Wbat is the probability that the offspring of a man with Factor V Leiden will inherit the disorder?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. That is a good question. In general, each person has two copies of each gene (one from their mother and one from their father). So, firstly, it depends on whether the father has the Factor V Leiden change in one or both of his genes. If both, then every child will have at least one Leiden-affected gene. If the dad has one normal copy and one Leiden copy, the the risk is 50-50 for each child, plus a smaller chance that the mother also has a Leiden change and passes her copy on. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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could you mix up dna to create a new animal      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. You could breed to animals with similar species to produce a different animal (donkey+horse=mule) Chimera's, animals with two types of genetically distinct cells, can also result. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade teacher)

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How do people with genteic didsorders such as Down Syndrome have an extra chromosome?      Angela Filose, M.S.: Angela Filose, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I work as a genetic counselor with prenatal, pediatric and hereditary cancer patients. I help evaluate patients for genetic conditions in themselves or their babies, and help guide them through information. Down syndrome occurs when there is an extra copy of chromosome #21 in the cells of the body. Normally there are two copies of each chromosome in the cells of a healthy person. During meiosis, the gametes (egg and sperm) are prepared for fertilization and creation of a new human being. Meiosis involves several specific steps, with pairs of chromosomes splitting apart to reduce the number of chromosomes. After meiosis, a cell that started with 46 chromosomes is reduced to a gamete that has 23 chromosomes (so half the normal number, making it ready to be half of a fertilized pregnancy). Sometimes errors occur during the process of meiosis so that an incorrect number of chromosomes is left in the final egg or sperm. Often the cause is "nondisjunction", which happens when paired chromosomes do not separate during the meiotic process. In women, we have learned that this happens more often within their eggs as they get older. However, even young women can have kids with Down syndrome as this nondisjunction error can happen to anyone. It does not happen because the parents have been drinking or smoking or doing other things wrong during the pregnancy. As Nature isn't always perfect, neither is meiosis. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (10th grade student)

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what happens if you slice DNA      Tiffany Lepard, M.S.: Tiffany Lepard, M.S. has entered the chatroom. She is a pediatric genetic counselor. This happens all the time in our cells - this is called splicing. Certain chemicals (enzymes) cut the RNA. These RNA pieces can then be "glued" back together in different arrangments. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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How can we detect a disorder in DNA?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    There are many ways to test DNA to find a genetic disease. One way is through molecular testing which allows us to look for a mutation in the DNA code of a gene. Another way is through cytogenetics which allows us to for variations at the chromosome level. Wantagh High School in NY (10th grade student)

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With the recent discovery of the baby mammoth, there has been much discussion on using the DNA to create another mammoth using an elephant surrogate mother. Would doing this create another baby mammoth even though the mitochondrial DNA will be from an elephant? Or would this create some type of mix between mammoths and elephants?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Assuming that it turns into a viable fetus and can survive the pregnancy, the structure of the fetus would be mammoth. The elephant mitochondria would not affect the physiology. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

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Is there any way to use DNA to see what someone might look like as they grow older?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Yes and no. One answer is your DNA 'ancestors' (parents/grandparents/greatparents) can be reasonably good indicators of what you will look like as you age in part because they carry your DNA and in part because you likely live in the same or a similar environment and have inherited diet and eating patterns. A good deal of effort is spent to use our DNA to inform us about our health and potential for disease so we can avoid things that contribute to the development of the disease. So, in a sense, one answer to your question might be that we are using DNA to be help insure that we GROW older. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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There are many new emerging diseases in our world. However, we have been unable to locate many pathogen's natural reservoir. What positive results would occur if a virus's natural resevoir was located?      David Adams, M.D., Ph.D.: David Adams studies rare inborn errors of metabolism and other rare genetic syndromes to understand the disease process and identify potential treatments. Some conditions, like influenza, pass through an animal carrier. In some of those cases, most of the pathogen is carried by animals and only occasionally infects a human. That is the current state of the pathogen that causes the plague. If you know that an animal carrier exists, you can avoid that animal and theoretically have a lower chance of contracting the illness. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

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Autism is reaching epidemic proportions. We saw a video where epigentics plays a big role in DNA expression and how situations that occured in a grandparents generation can affect the grandchild. Do you think that illegal drug use in the 60's (esp. LSD use) may be affecting children today?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Epigenetics is a hot area of research where it is thought that the genome responds to the environment; factors such as stress, diet, toxins, and behavior can activate chemical switches that regulate gene expression. This is not an exact cause and effect mechanism, but rather examining influences and their effect on the genome. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

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What are you currently researching?!      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. I am currently working on several projects. One of them, the 1000 Genomes Project, tries to find all the genetic variations in the genomes of people from different populations and countries. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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how do you use cabinatorial chemistry as a scientist, in the biotechnology field?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. Biotechnology companies employ combinatorial chemists all the time. The main jobs the combinatorial chemists have is manipulating chemical structures to make more effective medicine. Sometimes a computer program is used to generate possible chemical structures. And sometimes chemists start with a chemical structure that does some of the work they want it to do in a cell and modify it from there. For example, some biotech companies have a chemical library. Biologists in the company will develop a test that mimics a disease. The biologists will then test the chemicals in the library to see if they help treat the disease. If a chemical works, then the biologist will tell the chemist what the chemical is and the chemist will work to make that chemical more effective or less toxic in the human body. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

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Will cloning an EXACT copy of a human (age, personality, etc...) ever be possible?      Flavia Facio, M.S.: I am a Certified Genetic Counselor who has spent over three years working in the field of cancer genetics at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City.  In 2004 I came to the National Human Genome Research Institute where she has been ever since.  At NHGRI i've been working primarily on a study investigating the feasibility of providing large scale medical sequencing to adult individuals who are healthy volunteers for the most part.  I'm heavily involved with training and teaching genetic counseling students, and is an active member of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.    The short answer is "probably not". There are many factors that contribute to who we are beyond our genetic code. The field of epigenetics or epigenomics is helping us understand some of these factors. St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

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In order to increase scientific discoveries, why don't American scientists work under private organizations more often rather than the government, which continues to restrict certaing genetic tests?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I think that there are plusses and minuses for working under both public and private organizations. If for a company (private), then your research may need to be aimed only at potentially money-making problems. If at a university (public), then you have to compete frequently for money. For a pharmaceutical firm (private), then a product that the public can use might be developed. For the government (public), then your research results have to be shared wildly. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1172

If everyone has DNA, why don't we all look alike?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. The DNA sequence in your genes is on average 99.9% identical to ANY other human being. However, that still leaves about 0.01% difference- and since there is so much DNA, that 0.01% is actually 3 million letter differences. It's these 3 million letters that make us different! Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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I had a great lecture from Sam Rhine this fall, can you suggest any other great lecturers for me to attend in my free time?      Jeff Witherly, Ph.D: Jeff is a Senior Advisor in the office of Education and Community Involvement Branch. I often browse the National Institutes of Health "videocast" website to find interesting lectures. At the NIH (http://videocast.nih.gov) site you haver to wade through a few pages but I will often find things like lectures on things like "mysterious cases" or "stem cells" or "autism" or even on "the rapidly changing brain of taxi drivers." No kidding. There are over 5,000 videocasts. And even a lot of podcasts. If you like new ideas and science and biology, these may be just right for you. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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What substances can contaminate your DNA composition?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Some substances that can cause damage to DNA are: UV light, cigarette smoke, certain chemicals and radiation, to name a few. Arabia Mountain High School in HI (9th grade student)

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If an individual had YY as their sex chromosomes, (if it's possible) would would that look like?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Disorders of the sex chromosomes (X's and Y's) are fairly common chromosome conditions. Some common conditions involving the Y chromosome are XXY (Klinefelter's syndrome) and XYY. These conditions can sometimes affect fertility and learning. Individuals with these conditions have 47 chromosomes instead of the typical 46. Another common sex chromosome problem is Turner's syndrome. This only happens in girls and they have 45 chromosomes instead of 46 because they are missing an X chromosome (45,X). There are several other sex chromosome abnormalities as well, but I have never heard of a person with only 2 Y chromosomes. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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What are Okazaki fragments?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. An Okazaki fragment is a relatively short fragment of DNA (with an RNA primer at the 5' terminus) created on the lagging strand during DNA replication. The lengths of Okazaki fragments are between 1,000 to 2,000 nucleotides long in E. coli and are generally between 100 to 200 nucleotides long in eukaryotes. It was originally discovered in 1968 by Reiji Okazaki, Tsuneko Okazaki, and their colleagues while studying replication of bacteriophage DNA in Escherichia coli Each Okazaki fragment is initiated near the replication fork at an RNA primer created by primase, and extended by DNA polymerase III for more information you can read the wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okazaki_fragment East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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How did the different nucleotides get their name?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. This is a great question, and since I did not know the answer, I looked it up on www.etymonline.com. All of the nucleotides are named by the substance from which they were derived. For instance, tyrosine was first isolated from cheese. The Greek word for cheese is tyros. -ine is a chemical suffix. The same occurred with adenine...aden in Greek means 'gland', and it was first isolated from the pancreas. Thanks for helping me to learn something new today! Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

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How long does cloning take?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Cloning bacteria only takes a few weeks. However, cloning animals, such as sheep or cows, can take months or even years. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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Would it ever be possible to genetically modify an animal so that it would age slower or if you can remove or add a gene that would prevent hysteria or rabies?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Theoretically, it is possible, but we would have to know all the DNA sequences involved in aging, hysteria and rabies infection and then know how to introduce these into a viable animal. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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Wish you a very Happy DNA day 2010, Great job from Genome.gov!!!      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. Thank you very much! Thank you for joining us! Alabama State University in AL (Higher Education student)

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What makes science so enjoyable for you?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. Science is enjoyable simply because it is all about asking interesting questions and finding interesting answers. You never know what is going to come around next week or next month. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

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How did scientists discover how DNA is replicated?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Meselson and Stahl discovered it in 1958, five years after Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA. Here's a link describing their experiments: http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/Semi-Conservative-DNA-Replication-Meselson-and-Stahl-421 Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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What is the role of triclosan in health care products?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Triclosan is an antimicrobial chemical that is found in a variety of products ranging from some liquid soaps, hand soap, toothpaste, and even some facial tissues. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

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How many traits or genes are in the human genome as of late?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. There is still not a precise answer, but it is estimated that there are 20,000 to 30,000 genes in the human body. Shikellamy High School in PA (9th grade student)

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how long is each DNA strand, and how long is each RNA strand?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. 6 feet for DNA! It gets packaged up nicely so that it can fit in the nucleus of our cells. RNA is a bit different and we use DNA to make the RNA strands. RNA will then be chopped or "spliced" so that only the important parts are left behind in the mature mRNA. The shortened mRNA then codes for our proteins that we so badly need in our bodies! East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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If a sperm with an extra chromosome fertilizes an egg that is missing the same chromosome, will the baby turn out normal?      Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C.: Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way. Your question really highlights what important information has been learned about genetics by studying chromosomes and which parent they came from. It's called Uniparental Disomy (UPD for short). One example is a genetic condition called Prader-Willi syndrome, some of these individuals inherited their set of chromosome 15 from one parent and that set has a microdeletion in a specific region. Prader-Willi individuals have differences from individuals with normal chromosomes. So in this example, they would have some abnormal features, some you would see as a baby, some later in life. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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What is an example of a medicine that was discovered using combinatorial chemistry besides asprin?      Tiffany Lepard, M.S.: Tiffany Lepard, M.S. has entered the chatroom. She is a pediatric genetic counselor. As you know, combinatorial chemistry has had a big impact on the pharmaceutical industry. Nearly every pharmaceutical company takes advantage of this for a large number of medications. Combinatorial chemistry has many other uses. For example, it has been used to make materials, such as metals, and for chemicals. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

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THANK YOU SO MUCH! From the feedback I got from my students the DNA Day Chat Room was a huge success. In fact, they asked how late you would be answering questions. I told them the code was good through 6pm and some told me they would probably be logging on at home to ask more questions. There's nothing better in a teacher's life than to see student take new found knowledge and "run with it". Thanks again for doing such a great service for schools!      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. We are so thrilled that your students were so enthused. The transcript for the chatroom will be posted online, so your students can also check back tomorrow to see if more of their questions were answered. Thank you for participating! Peru High School in IN (teacher)

1189

Is Chuck Norris different genetically than the rest of us? :}      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. In fact, yes, Chuck Norris has his own, unique DNA sequence. McClesky Middle School in GA (7th grade student)

1190

Has anything ever gone wrong with your testing of genes?      Angela Filose, M.S.: Angela Filose, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I work as a genetic counselor with prenatal, pediatric and hereditary cancer patients. I help evaluate patients for genetic conditions in themselves or their babies, and help guide them through information. Unfortunately, yes. There is always a risk for error with a genetic test when humans are involved, as sometimes we make mistakes. There's always a chance for a mistake with any medical test! Thankfully, most labs are REALLY careful when running any genetic test as they know the information is so important for the family. Also, when a family is being evaluated by a genetic doctor, we try to be very careful to run genetic tests that are as accurate as possible, and that will help that family or patient as much as we can. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1191

So, the racial differences starts from environmental influences on genetics?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Sure, there are racial differences due to both DNA and to environment. Surya Bangsa Elementary in Indonesia (8th grade student)

1192

What's the worst that could happen if a point mutation occurs? The worst one I guess is at mtDNA.      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. This is a really good question. Like most really good questions though it depends. A point mutation in the worst case would case a defect in a key protein that blocks development of the organism and result in death. Mitochondrial DNA can and does have mutations that increase in number as we age. The good news is most of the mutations are without impact or 'silent'. Because we have many many copies of mitochondrial DNA in nearly all cells, a few defective mutations that are silent have little or no impact. Imagine though if the mutation is dominant and causes a cellular process to stop. Can you imagine what happens to the cell and organism as the expression of this mutant gene continues? Surya Bangsa Elementary in Indonesia (8th grade student)

1193

Is there a connection between thymine dimer and melanoma?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. UV radiation, particularly UVB damages DNA in exposed cells and is important in the development of skin cancers. Thymine dimers are often catalyzed by UV radiation or chemical mutagenic agents. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1194

How do genes form?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. A gene is defined as the basic unit of heredity, or a segment of DNA needed to contribute to a biological function. It is part of our bodies so they are already there and we don't need to form them. But we do need to use the genes to form proteins so that we can be healthy and grow, function, and develop. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1195

how many side affects are there once animal is cloned      Tiffany Lepard, M.S.: Tiffany Lepard, M.S. has entered the chatroom. She is a pediatric genetic counselor. Many! The cloning process is not perfected. There were many failed attempts at cloning before Dolly the sheep was born. We also don't know what the life expectancy for cloned animals. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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How do cells without a nucleus (e.g. red blood cells) store their DNA if every cell in our body has the same information?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. Great question! Developing (immature) red blood cells do have a nucleus, but the nuclei disintegrate when they are fully developed. This is because the nuclei are not needed any more for the red blood cell to perform its function. So, DNA is stored in the nucleus of an immature red blood cell. Bednarcik Junior High School in IL (8th grade student)

1197

what is the best field to take to study DNA.what college do you suggest      Jeff Witherly, Ph.D: Jeff is a Senior Advisor in the office of Education and Community Involvement Branch. As a 9th grader you have the whole academic world in front of you to methodically sample different fields and careers as you progress through high school and college. Typically people take their time through HS and the first year or two of college as they take biology, genetics, health and similar classes. These classes will give you a good idea of what you like to do, and what you are not really in love with doing. Once you get into the first or second year of college you will know more about what you might want to do specifically in the field of biology or more specifically in the field of genetics (DNA). For now, enjoy the ride a little and learn about different things and see what is exciting for you personally because for sure there will be lots of careers in "DNA" in the future. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1198

what are the most inherited mutations ?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. I do not know what the most inherited mutations are. There are many common mutations that we know of that can cause disease. For example, cystic fibrosis is a genetic condition and is fairly common in the Caucasian population (1 in 25 individuals "carry" this mutation). Some mutations are more common in one ethnicity over another. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1199

Is there any research going into angiogenesis? If so, for what purpose?      Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C.: Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way. Angiogeneis research, great question btw, can be put into two theraputic research groups. Anti-angiogenic therapies are being employed to fight cancer and malignancies. Pro-angiogenic therapies are being explored as options to treat cardiovascular diseases. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

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Are there any problems related to gene therapy that prevent it from being as effective as it could be?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Gene therapy is an active area of research and several factors have limited it's use. Immune response is a limitation because of the risk of stimulating the immune system in a manner that reduces the effectiveness of the treatment. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1201

In response to our previous question, according to the student, yes, even grandparents!      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. It is infrequent but possible, that the grandparents were heterozygous (and since blue eyes are recessive, they had brown eyes), as well as both parents. This resulted in only one child homozygous for blue eyes. The Charter School of Educational Excellence in NY (5th grade teacher)

1202

If someone has a piece of your hair, can they clone you?      Amber Trivedi, M.S.: I work for "InformedDNA", which provides genetic counseling over the telephone. I provide cancer and reproductive genetic counseling, lead a team of other genetic counselors, and am involved in InformedDNA's business processes. No. Live cells are needed for the cloning process, and you cannot be cloned if someone has the dead cells from your hair. The Charter School of Educational Excellence in NY (5th grade teacher)

1203	Can the codons of a DNA "untwist"?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. Strands of DNA can untwist. Codons however, are just fragments consisting of three base pairs; they do not untwist. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1204

How do people have more or less chromosomes than the average person      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. This happens because of a process called "non-disjunction." Non-disjunction is a mistake when an egg or a sperm is being made during meiosis. If this mistake happens, then the sperm or the egg will have an extra chromosome or a missing chromosome. Then when an egg and a sperm come together to make the embryo (the baby), each cell will have 47 or 45 chromosomes rather than 46, which is the typical number. Down syndrome is a common example of when a person has an extra chromosome. Bednarcik Junior High School in IL (8th grade student)

1205

Can I look at my own DNA?      Sarah Harding, M.P.H: I am a Community Outreach Analyst at the NHGRI. My programs involve outreach to diverse communities, and exploring how genetics and genomics can best be communicated to the public. Definitely...find the instructions for a simple DNA extraction technique...you can use your own DNA in the process. At the end you will see a big glob of your own genetic code! East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1206

Why are boys so annoying? Is it genetic?      Sanja Basaric, B.S: I currently work in the Policy and Program Analysis Branch within the Office of the Director. My roles include various scientific reporting for the institute on both disease specific topics as well as general advances and institute wide goals, usually involving translation of complex science into lay audience language. You can always blame their Y chromosome! After all, the human Y chromosome has lost 1,393 of its 1,438 original genes over the course of its existence. Eda Kumschott in NY (11th grade student)

1207

If DNA gives a person chacteristics,why are there some people who share no similar chacteristics of their mother or father?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. It's possible that the child received characteristics that are recessive. The parents were heterozygous and expressed only the dominant traits. If the child received the recessive copy of the trait from both parents, then the child would seem different. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1208

What are your views on genetically modified foods and their health risks or benefits?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I think the use of genetically modified foods will be necessary to feed the earth's growing population. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1209

Why do humans have 23 sets of chromosomes?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. At this point in the evolution of humans we have 23 sets but at some point in the future we may have more or less. A camel has 35 sets. Can you guess how many an ant has? Take a look at this link if you are interested in chromosome number diversity. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1210

How come whorl fingerprints are the most uncommon?      Angela Filose, M.S.: Angela Filose, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I work as a genetic counselor with prenatal, pediatric and hereditary cancer patients. I help evaluate patients for genetic conditions in themselves or their babies, and help guide them through information. The three basic fingerprint patterns are arches, loops, and whorls. In my experience, arches are actually the least common type of fingerprint pattern (loops are the most common, whorls come in second). These patterns occur as the tips of the fingers develop in a fetus, and each is unique. It's been noted that certain genetic conditions will have certain patterns in the fingerprints (for example, kids with Down syndrome often have more loops, while babies born with trisomy 18 often will have arches on every fingerprint). Most of the time people will have a combination of different patterns on their fingers- I have two whorls and eight loops! Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1211

Which one is better for RNA virus detection? ELISA or PCR amp with specific primers?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. The better method for detection of an RNA virus will depend on how much you know about the RNA virus, how much time you have to run the test, and how many tests you want to run. Keep in mind that the assays (or tests) will detect two different things; an ELISA uses antibodies to detect the infection and the PCR would be measuring presence of the virus itself. An ELISA depends on the presence of antibodies and the ability to detect those antibodies. As long as an antibody is available for the antigen, you could theoretically do an ELISA. A PCR, as you suggested, depends on the availability of primers. If you know the sequence of your RNA virus, you could design the right primers. Let's assume you have all the tools to run both and ELISA and a PCR. Then you'll have to consider what your time frame is and how many samples you have. ELISA's are lower through-put that PCR. That is, you cannot do as many samples at one time. And often ELISA's will take longer than PCR (though this will depend). So really, the answer to your question will probably vary depending on the situation. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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(MC) Have there been any cases where a person does not have all the chromosomes they need? If this did happen, why?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Yes. The typical number of chromosomes in a human is 46. We get half of our chromosomes from Mom and half from Dad. So 23 from each. Sometimes a mistake happens when a sperm or an egg is being made. This is called non-disjunction and often happens during meiosis. So either the sperm or egg would have 22 chromosomes (not enough) or 24 chromosomes (too many). The embryo (fertilized egg) would then have either 47 chromosomes total or 45. Down syndrome is a common example of when a person has an extra chromosome (chromosome number 21). Depending on what number chromosome is extra or missing will give a person a different symptom. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1213

I think we need to teach genetics starting young. I propose "What's In Your Genes?" national ad campaign to get everyone interested.      Jeff Witherly, Ph.D: Jeff is a Senior Advisor in the office of Education and Community Involvement Branch. I think you would find a lot of people who would agree with you that genetics could be taught more and at younger ages. There have been strides made with K-12 science curriculums that are worth celebrating. Both the National Science Education Standards (NSES) and the AAAS "Project 2061" guidelines for science teaching in American public schools call for building blocks of biology to include genetic constructs at the early grades. It wasn't long ago that the only people who learned genetics in a classroom were college students. That would reach less then a fourth of the population. So some credit to K-12 learning strides. Great point! Ann in CA ()

1214

Even though HIV mutates at such a high rate, do you think that a cure will be found in the near future?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Aside from a high mutation rate, the nature of HIV is also an obstacle in developing a cure. The HIV virus evades the body's immune system response and actually destroys the leader cells, CD4 T-cells. HIV is a very active area of research and there are many novel and exciting exploratory treatments. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1215

If a person uses drugs or alcohol, can that be seen through DNA testing?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. No. DNA testing looks at the DNA, not the insult or injury on the person or cells caused by drugs or alcohol. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1216

2. Is the ability to patent genes fair? Can anyone really "own" a gene and prohibit others from using it in research?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I think it doesn't make sense to own a gene. However, years ago it took a lot of effort to identify genes, so I can understand why people patented them. Now, it takes more than gene identification to get a patent. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1217

Can you identify how a person acts just by their DNA?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Not at this time. However, more often scientists are discovering how certain genes affect behaviors. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1218

When you extract DNA from fruit with soap, water, and rubbing alcohol, why are the DNA strands so big if they are really microscopic?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. DNA for each cell is microscopic. But if you extract DNA from a large enough number of cells, you can see a chunk of white matter. However, you won't be able to see what it looks like in detail. Bednarcik Junior High School in IL (8th grade student)

1219

Can color blindness be cured?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. Not that I know of. Color blindness is most often caused by a change, or "mutation" in a persons genes. It can be passed on in a family, most often on the X chromosome. There is no way to change or fix a person's genes at this time (gene therapy). Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1220

Is it possible for a person to have two different hair colors at once?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Someone may have different shades of the same hair color due to slight differences in the pigment of each strand, and exposure to the sun. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1221

Are there any possibilities for reducing the years of clinical trials or testing?      Christine Kobelka, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor who works with patients who have, or are at risk for, genetic conditions. I take family histories, help evaluate patients, and arrange/help interpret genetic testing results. Clinical trials and testing have to follow specific guidelines depending on what is being investigated, so it depends on the specific study. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1222

If a clone of an animal or human have offspring: will the offspring have a normal life span?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. We don't know what the lifespan of a cloned animal or human is, so we can't predict what the lifespan of their offspring would be. Francis Howell Central High School in MO (12th grade student)

1223

how many types of cancer cells are there?      Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C.: Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way. Cancer research is such a growing field and it takes bright and interested students like yourself to learn and work toward making a difference! Think of it this way, cancer cells were once normal cells, but what is different is the way it acts or loses the ability to control it's division and growth. When a normal cell transforms into a cancer cell, genes which regulate cell growth and differentiation must be altered. Two examples are oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

Heidi Parker, Ph.D has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans.

1225

What is the probable reason to explain presence of specific genetic disorders in a particular ethnic group only?      Matt Tschirgi, M.S., C.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor who works with women who have high risk pregnancies. I provid information about testing options, results, and genetic risk assessment. For many years, most ethnic groups would only procreate within their race, thus limiting the genetic variability. With certain autosomal recessive conditions, like sickle cell disease, carriers have a selective advantage over non-carriers. This selective advantage increases the chance of that gene being passed to the next generation. Before mass transit, most ethnic groups stayed at their location, which increased this effect. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (student)

1226

If a daughter's mother has several miscarriages when pregnant, what is the chance of the daughter having a miscarriage?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. The risk of miscarriage is about 15% and there is some evidence that miscarriage increases with age. Having a positive family history does not necessarily mean that your risk is increased. Recurrent miscarriages is rarely hereditary. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1227

How do viruses evolve or mutate?      Angela Filose, M.S.: Angela Filose, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I work as a genetic counselor with prenatal, pediatric and hereditary cancer patients. I help evaluate patients for genetic conditions in themselves or their babies, and help guide them through information. All living things (and the question of whether a virus is truly "alive" is another question entirely!) evolve over time, or they die out. At the heart of evolution is genetic mutation, which can allow that particular lifeform to potentially adapt to a situation better than others, and therefore have some sort of advantage (whether it's surviving longer, reproducing more efficiently, etc). Viruses have short lifespans, and also generally have very high rates of mutation within their genetic material. Therefore they can respond very quickly to evolutionary pressures and adapt to new situations. This is one reason why it's so difficult to treat or prevent certain viruses that infect humans, like the flu. Each year we need new flu shots, as the flu from last year has already mutated (and evolved!) into a new strain. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1228

Forensic scientists often use mitochondrial DNA in criminal cases to convict or exonerate the suspect. How do recent studies in the increasing rate of mDNA mutations and the occurrence of heteroplasmies in the mDNA of 10-20% of humans affect this forensic method?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. The higher rate of mutation in the mitochondrial genome is exactly why scientists often use it in forensics. Since the DNA of humans is so similar, scientists have to use DNA markers that are know to be highly variable and can differentiate between people. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1229	What is a prion?      Assya Abdallah, B.S.: Assya's area of focus at NHGRI is Human Genetics. A prion is a disease-causing agent that is a protein By folding differently, that is what transforms a normally safe protein, into a dangerous substance. Amanda Blohard in TX (5th grade student)

1230

Could cancer stem cells be utilized at all in stem cell research?      Meghan Deeney, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor working at a high risk perinatal practice. I counsel patients and families who have high risk pregnancies based on family history, age, maternal conditions, etc. Another part of our practice is cancer genetic counseling. In this role, I provide medical information, risk assessment, testing options, and psychosocial support for individuals and their families who have strong family histories of cancer. I am not sure but I do know that researchers are using cancer stem cells to gain more information about targeted cancer treatments. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1231

Would you reccomend a job in genetics?      Jeff Witherly, Ph.D: Jeff is a Senior Advisor in the office of Education and Community Involvement Branch. So first of all, you are a 7th grader and by the time you are ready to work as an adult a lot will have changed in every field including the field of genetics. So don't worry a lot about an actual job right now. My advice would be to submerge yourself in biology and genetics in the coming years and see what makes you excited and happy to do or work with or even think about. What will happen is that you will have the chance to see what you really, really like down deep. The very best way to choose a job is to find something that doesn't feel like work to you. Most of the people I work with don't feel like their jobs are work. And they all work in genetics. At the same time they are not all interested in each other's jobs. Makes sense when you think about it. So relax, look around and see what is REALLY interesting for you. Good luck! Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1232

I have asthma and so does my dad. Is there any evidence that asthma is hereditary and that I got it from my dad?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Hi CT! Family history is a predictor of asthma risk with prevalence ranging from 2-26%. Environmental factors also play a big role in determining risk, such as smoking and allergies. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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How many chromosomes carry diseases? How many diseases are carried in these chromosomes?      Ann Madeo, M.S.: All of the chromosomes haves genes on them that, if changed, or mutated, can cause disease. There are thousands of known diseases that results from changes in our genes, and more are identified every day. Bednarcik Junior High School in IL (8th grade student)

Anne Madeo, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000. I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program.

1235

With the decreased cost of whole genome testing is there still a role for SNP analysis in disease diagnosis?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. This is a great question. Yes there is an important role for SNP testing if the need is for testing for a specific disease that has a particular SNP defect or set of SNP mutations. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade teacher)

1236

In how many years will we be able to genetically modify foods?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Genetically modified foods are already available. Development of genetically modified foods began in the 1980s. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade )

1237

is DNA sequencing part of your daily life?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Yes, it is. In genomics we are very interested in the changes in DNA that create different traits. The best way to find those is to sequence, sequence, sequence. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1238

what is Ligase?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. Ligase is an enzyme that is capable of joining two molecules together. For example, DNA ligase is used to join two pieces of DNA together. The cell uses DNA ligase during DNA replication and when repairing DNA after mistakes in the DNA have been corrected. Our Lady of Lourdes Academy in FL (9th grade student)

1239

What is the difference between an animal DNA to human DNA?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. Since humans are animals, the DNA is very similar. They are the same chemically, but different in terms of the sequences of the nucleotides. The level of difference between humans and different animals depends on the evolutionary relationship. For example, the human genome is much more similar to the chimp genome than it is to the frog genome. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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What is the COOLEST thing you've ever seen during your work and/or research?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. There is NEVER a dull moment in the genetics clinic! You will see a wide range of disorders and physical findings, and you need to keep in mind that new discoveries are applicabe to the clinic every day. The coolest thing I see in the clinic is that the work I used to do in the lab, as a graduate student, now has practical applications in my clinic! Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

Christy Ferlatte, M.S. has entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program.

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Do you think that DNA will ever be engineered to produce artificial life?      Kris Wetterstrand, M.S.: I currently work on the Large-scale Sequencing Program, which managed the Human Genome Project, and the Human Microbiome Project, an effort to sequence the DNA of microbes (e.g. bacteria) that live in and on humans. I believe it already has. Craig Venter and his research team created an artificial bacteria. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

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Can mutations be passed on?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Mutations in genes can be passed on. We inherited our genes from our mother and father. If one of our parents has a mutation, we have a 50% of inheriting that mutation. Wantagh High School in NY (10th grade student)

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How did you discover research and science were the path you wanted to take? Are you glad you did so?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Hi MA! This is a great question and I am very excited about career as a scientist. I developed an early interest in animals and medicine, wanting to help and take care of them. Through various courses, working in labs, and talking to scientists my interests changed towards human medicine and wanting to study the various aspects of disease. I am very glad that I followed my heart and pursued a career that makes me happy and everyday interesting. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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Is it true that scientists can change the DNA in babies before they're born so you can change traits such as eye or hair color?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. No, it is not true. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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What kind of DNA is in H1N1?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. H1N1 is a virus. Viruses have DNA similar to humans. The instructions for making proteins are written with the nucleotides A, T, G and C and are organized into genes. The Charter School of Educational Excellence in NY (5th grade student)

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Why do girls have the extra X chromosome? What does it do if girls have another X already?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. One of the two copies of X-chromosomes in girls is randomly inactivated, so there is only one active X-chromosome in girls. This is a mechanism to compensate for the difference in "dose" of X-chromosome between boys (1 X-chromosome) and girls (2 X-chromosomes). Impairment of this mechanism can lead to developmental abnormalities. Ivan Tulikurbut (student)

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How does a child of a biracial couple get a mixed skin color, when you only inherit one code for each parent?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Skin color is controlled by many factors and these variations all add up. A similar number of variants can explain eye or hair color, which is why siblings in the same family often have very different features. Bednarcik Junior High School in IL (8th grade student)

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Can you be born with more genes than anybody else?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. No. If you have the same number of chromosomes as the typical human, you will have the same number of genes as the typical human. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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How accurate is CSI to DNA forensics?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Not being a CSI watcher or a forensic geneticist, I don't know the answer to that question. However, I am told that the full set of steps required to extract and analyze DNA is not portrayed. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

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What is gene therapy?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. Gene therapy is when a gene is inserted into a cell in order to produce a desired function. For example, if someone had a disease caused by a mutation in a gene, they could undergo gene therapy and have a working copy of the gene inserted into their cells and no longer have the disease. However, while the idea of gene therapy sounds simple it has been very difficult to apply and has been mainly limited to clinical trials. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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Can nanoparticles coated with small peptides really alter DNA of virus particles in human body ?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. I am not sure I understand your questions. Nanoparticles are small particles that are designed to elicit a greater immunogenic response than recombinant vaccines. They can be engineered to target a particular type of cell and in this way deliver very accurately. ABABU CBIT,RAJAHMUNDRY (A.P.), INDIA (Higher Education student)

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Reguarding species and breeds; what does it take for a group of organisms to be identified as a new species? Building off of that, why are all dogs categorized into one species if the breeds vary so much?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. What makes a species is a hot topic for a lot of scientists. Originally species were determined primarily by appearance and different species were assumed to be reproductively isolated. Even though all of the dog breeds look very different, at the DNA level they are very similar. If they had to, even a Chihuahua and a mastiff could reproduce and create viable offspring, though it wouldn't be easy and they would be very funny looking. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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Are instincts in our DNA?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Since instinct is a fixed set of actions that is not learned, it may in fact be genetic. However, the genetics of behavior is very difficult to study and to date there are not any known genes linked to specific instincts. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

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Why must Genes be expressed?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. Hi! Genes must be expressed in order modulate how our body functions. You can think of genes, and the human genome, as the great library of information that tells our body how to function. For the body to function, however, genes must be expressed into protein or RNA to deliver its function. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

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What will be effect on DNA stored for more than one year period in -20?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. It entirely depends on the condition of the DNA at the outset and the conditions under which the DNA has been stored. If the DNA was precipitated, largely free of DNAses and kept at a steady -20 degrees, the DNA would be perfectly fine. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (student)

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If we can eventually regrow all of our organs using stem cells, would we be able to live forever if we kept replacing old organs with new ones?      Heather Junkins, M.S.: I currently work in the Office of Population Genomics on a variety of projects that aim to promote the application of genomic technologies to population-based studies. Included in the portfolio are projects that are developing standard phenotype and exposure measures for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and using well-characterized cohorts to follow-up on putative casual variants. I am also the curator of the NHGRI GWAS Catalog. Human stem cells hold a lot of promise for various aspects of health and this is an active area of research. Before we can replace old organs with new organs we need to understand how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. East Haven High School in CT (11th grade student)

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How do genes create genetic disorders?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Genes do not actually create genetic disorders; they provide instructions for creating proteins that a healthy body needs in order to function. Certain mutations, or changes, in these genes, lead to the creation of proteins that can't function properly, or prevent the production of the protein altogether. Disease then results because the body can't function properly without the protein normally created by the gene. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (10th grade student)

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How do genes get turned on and off?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. Turning "on" or "off" of genes means if there is a functional "expressed" copy of the gene of interest. Expression of genes is a mechanism where the DNA (blue-print of the gene) is transcribed into a messenger-RNA (mRNA; working copy of the gene). The process of turning-on a gene is a complex-mechanism, where multiple proteins assemble at the site of the gene to be expressed and start manufacturing the mRNA. The quantity of mRNA expressed is dependent on the metabolic / cellular needs of the cell. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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How long did it take to find the first gene?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. The process was long. First we understood that traits were inherited, then that DNA was the genetic material and finally a gene was found in a small virus that controls resistance to lactose. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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What ways you can suggest to motivate Indian children to develop interest in Science field?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Demonstrate both the exciting aspects of science (it's a great way to understand the world through designing experiments that ask questions and seek answers) as well as the practical (science careers can be rewarding and are in high demand). Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (teacher)

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Have you made any DNA discoveries? What are they?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. I have not made any earth-shattering discoveries. However, you can read the classic paper by Watson and Crick and compare how a seemingly simple description of DNA's structure has altered our understanding of the human genome, diseases, and cures in just 50 years! Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

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In many science fiction movies, we see a society in which humans can be genetically conditioned before birth to conform to the wishes of their parents, in terms of physical appearance, special talents etc. How likely is it that this will be possible in the near future?      Vence Bonham, J.D.: Vence Bonham researches the ethical, legal, social and policy implications of genomic discoveries, particularly health professionals' and lay persons' understanding of race, ethnicity and genetics. Remember that the movies are "science fiction" and are developed for entertainment. Genetic technology is providing parents the opportunity to use preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) to screen embryos for disease, which is providing parents some control. Remember that traits including "special talents" are caused by environment and genes. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

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How can one small error in a chromosome shorten the life span of a person?      Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C.: Laura Fuqua, M.S., C.G.C. has now entered the chatroom. Take a look at her bio: I am a Genetic Counselor at Genzyme Genetics. I provide genetic consultations to families undergoing or planing a pregnancy in Northern California. I enjoy presenting genetic/medical/scientific information in a meaningful, sensitive way. Great question bc it highlights the different levels (chromosomes to genes) of how we can study genetics! I like the "Zooming into DNA" photo slideshow here: http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ You can see chromosomes toward the end. For your questions, definitely yes, some chromosomal error can results in differences, such as physical, developmental, and life span differences. One example is when the error may be in the amount of chromosomal material. Any time there is extra or missing chromosome material, that can be hundreds or more genes extra or missing. We need those genes! A lot of what genetics is learning about how genes work to keep us healthy and developing ways to use this information to improve quality of life. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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2. In your opinion, is the ability to patent genes fair - can anyone really "own" a gene and prohibit others from using it in research?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Genes and their sequences are a part of nature. They are not something that has been created or constructed by others so I personally feel that it is not fair for any company to "own" or patent at gene. I also think that any group interested in researching a gene should be able to do so. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

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When should we expect to see the next big round of papers from the ENCODE consortium?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. This is a great question. Thanks for asking! ENCODE consortium papers should be out in the next year. Papers using ENCODE generated data should be published during the next year as well by other non ENCODE participants as well. Chris in MA ()

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Thanks everyone for your time and thoughtful responses. The students and I really appreciate it!      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. We really enjoyed finding out more about everyones' interest in science and DNA. Valley View Middle School in MN (7th grade teacher)

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Can we manipulate the human psychology by knowing the genetic basis responsible for controlling psychological behaviour?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. No, we can not. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (student)

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What would the human genome of RNA look like? Would it be possible?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. The human genome of RNA (known as the transcriptome) would look similar to the ~1% of the human genome that encodes RNA, except with uracils (U's) instead of thymines (T's). Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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Is there a way to make a protein that is programmed to destroy a disease?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. The field of gene-therapy would fit into the realm of this approach. This is a field of very active research and there are some classic historic examples where this was successfully carried out. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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I'm truly enjoying this, and so glad I found it TODAY as I am studying cloning! Learning a lot of useful stuff.. just wanted to take a moment and say 'thank you' for finding a way to keep us interested in something we might not be so enthused about! And my next question: Who does or should regulate the cloning?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. We need the involvement of many groups to make decisions about the degree to which cloning should be regulated. It crosses scientific, ethical, religious subjects. Kaplan University in FL (Higher Education student)

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Do animals have genes that are 99.9% alike to each other?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. All genes, like all animals, are different. Some genes that are required for very basic functions may be conserved at 99% or more in lots of different animals. The similarity of the gene in different animals usually depends on how close the animals are phylogenetically. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

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I'm truly enjoying this, and so glad I found it TODAY as I am studying cloning! Learning a lot of useful stuff.. just wanted to take a moment and say 'thank you' for finding a way to keep us interested in something we might not be so enthused about! And my next question: Who does or should regulate the cloning?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Thanks for your positive comments. Cloning is regulated by a variety of organizations in different countries depending on the type, kind and risk of the cloning being done. So, 'it depends'. Kaplan University in FL (Higher Education student)

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How is stem cell research expected to become prevalent in the years to come?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. As we understand more and more about the remarkable potential of stem cells, our ability to use them therapeutically will only increase. Researchers are working on stem cell therapies for neurological diseases, cancer, diabetes and cardiac disease, among others. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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Why do our eyes change color? Do everyone's eyes change over time?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Eye color is controlled by numerous genes. Eye color can change because of how pigment is made by these genes, where it is in the iris, and how quickly it is degraded. The environment can change these factors. People's eye color can change over time because of how these genes function. About 15% of people report some eye color changes near puberty. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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Why is there so much controversy over genetically modified food? How can slightly modified DNA in foods be harmful to human health?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Some individuals have concerns with genetically modified foods because of various reasons. One argument is that by altering the DNA of foods we may be altering their ability to fight off bacteria that may then be permitted to grow in stregnth. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

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What was the biggest accomplishment using DNA technology this year?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. One of the key advancements over the past couple years has been the improvement in the ability to sequence DNA much faster for a much cheaper cost. There are multiple companies that are competing to bring down the costs, and sooner than later it would be possible to sequence the entire human genome on a regular basis. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

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How are restriction enzymes discovered?      Ellyn Farrelly, M.A.: I am currently completing my Master's degree in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling at Stanford University. My research interests are in disability rights. Werner Arber was microbiologist. He observed that when a virus entered a bacterium, the viral DNA was destroyed. His theory was that the bacterium had an enzyme that was cutting up the viral DNA. Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith later proved this theory. In 1978, the three men won the Nobel prize in Medicine for their discovery. More than 900 restriction enzymes that have been discovered in over 230 different bacteria. Most of these will cut DNA in a very unique and specific way. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

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What cures are being developed for cystic fibrosis?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Current efforts to cure cystic fibrosis focus on a couple of different areas. One is to see if antibiotic treatments will encourage the DNA transcription mechanism to ignore mutations that instruct the mechanism to stop transcription. There are also efforts to change the CFTR gene (the gene that causes CF), also called 'gene therapy'. However, these cures are still in the pipeline and are not ready for routine care in humans. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

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What is the most succesful stem cell project related to the functions of the brain?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Stem cell projects are promising for everything from diabetes to blood disorders. In the brain, regeneration of nerves has been shown to a modest extent in mouse models. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

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Has there ever been an incident where DNA has showed up in a single strand or a triple strand? Can it ever show up or appear other than a double stranded helix?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. There are single stranded DNA viruses, and telomeres are usually single stranded DNA. Triple stranded DNA was considered by Watson and Crick as a potential structure, but evidence of it's existence in biology has not been substantiated. Westview High School in CA (5th grade student)

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Has there ever been an incident where DNA has showed up in a single strand or a triple strand? Can it ever show up or appear other than a double stranded helix?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Single stranded DNA is not uncommon, it happens for brief periods in the cell while the DNA is being replicated or read and there are many viruses that always have single stranded DNA. Triple stranded DNA is not something that happens naturally, as far as I know, but it can be forced in laboratory experiments where a third strand of DNA is bound to the double strand. Westview High School in CA (5th grade student)

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Can scientists modify single base pairs in DNA?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. This is a great question! Yes. Changing a single base in DNA is the basis for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 for engineering proteins by changing a single DNA base pair and thereby changing the coding sequence for the gene and protein product. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

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How long does it take to replicate one DNA strand?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. DNA polymerase can copy at a rate of 50 base pairs per second; the average chromosome is 150,000,000 base pairs! However, because a chromosome has many origins of replication, it takes about an hour to complete replication. A singe strand is never replicated in isolation; its complementary strand is always replicated at the same time because of the semi-conservative model of replication. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

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Can scientists modify single base pairs in DNA?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. yes, we do this in cells to test the effect of mutating a single base pair. But we use techniques that could not be applied to change all cells in a human body. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

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Can a paternity test be performed before the baby is born?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Yes, you can get DNA from the baby with a procedure called chorionic villus sampling, where we take a sample of cells from the placenta (since the placenta comes from the same egg and sperm cell that form the fetus, the DNA should be the same as the fetus) or amniocentesis, where we take a sample of fluid from around the baby that has some of the baby's cells in it. You can then compare the DNA from the baby to the DNA of the mother and potential father to determine paternity. There is a risk of causing a miscarriage in the pregnancy by having a CVS or amniocentesis done during pregnancy, so some women chose to wait until after the baby is born. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

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Does DNA affect emotions?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. We do not know the exact area(s) in the genome/DNA that accounts for our emotions. there is no genetic cause that has been found to explain why one person may be more emotional than another. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

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In your opinion, what is the best model genetic organism to conduct research on?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Everyone has a favorite organism depending on the kind of scientific question that they are trying to answer. I am a geneticist so for me dogs are the best. Nova Southeastern University in FL (Higher Education student)

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Why do cells in our body never use nucleic acid as an energy source?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. All complex metabolic molecules and essential building blocks of a cell (carbohydrates, protein, fatty acids, and nucleic acids) are all inter-convertible. For instance, cells during apoptosis (or programmed cell-death) can in fact break down the entire contents of a cell into precursors that can be put to use rebuild new cells. DNA is not the primary source of energy needs, unlike carbohydrates as it is chiefly the blue-print for a functional cellular machinery. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

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How has the human DNA been affected or changed in an unnatural way indirectly due to human interaction?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. DNA mutations have occurred from environmental toxins, from excessive sun exposure or from certain kinds of radiation. All unintentional. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

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Who is the most famous minority DNA scientist      Vence Bonham, J.D.: Vence Bonham researches the ethical, legal, social and policy implications of genomic discoveries, particularly health professionals' and lay persons' understanding of race, ethnicity and genetics. That is a very interesting question! There are many important minority scientists. One historic minority scientist is Charles Drew M.D. He conducted research in the field of blood transfusions and developing improved techniques of blood storage. We need more minority scientists in the fields of genetics and genomics. So are you preparing for a career in genetics and genomics? Charles DuMarr in NY (Higher Education student)

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Do you fear that mapping the genome could lead to the ability to create biological warfare agents which could selectively attack certain ethnic groups?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Scientists from the NIH work to detect viruses or bacteria that cause new diseases - such as the recent SARS or H1N1 outbreaks. NIH also worked with Walter Reed Hospital when bacteria that infected soldiers were showing multiple drug resistance. There are no examples that I am aware of that would selectively target certain ethnic groups. However, different government agencies maintain surveillance to pick up new biological agents if they should emerge. Tay Kadumpon-Michest in NC (11th grade student)

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is it possible to have a gene disfunction and be born with a superpower such as super strength      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. There have been examples of dogs and cattle that have more muscle because of a genetic variation - this is as close to a 'super power' as i know. it's been selected for by breeders. Shikellamy High School in PA (9th grade student)

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My grandfather and mom both have been diagnosed with Mytonic Muscular Dystrophy Type 2. Have there been any updates in ways to cure or treat this disease?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Treatment for individuals with Myotonic Muscular Dystrophy Type 2 (DM2) include routine physical activity. This may be beneficial for maintaining muscle strength and endurance and as a way to control muscle pain. Some individuals with DM2 have heart problems that may be treated with a pacemaker. If an individual has cataracts that impair vision, they can be removed. Unfortunately, there are currently no cures for and there is no known way to prevent the progressive weakness of individuals with DM2. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

1295

Why do my cousin and I look similar? We aren't sisters!      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Assuming you mean your first cousin (your parent's sibling's child), you and your cousin share 1/8 of your genes in common (vs. your sister, with whom you'd share 1/2). Depending upon which genes you share, that can help explain why you look alike. Florida in IL (5th grade student)

1296

Is it possible to combine DNA of different species to create a new species?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. It is possible if the cross produces some benefit to the offspring, however, most of the time it doesn't work out. If you cross two different species you get a hybrid. Most hybrid species are not viable, meaning that they cannot produce offspring on there own, usually because the two original species have differently organized chromosomes. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1297

Did introns ever code for proteins in our evolutionary history? If not, what is their purpose?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. It entirely possible that DNA insertions and deletions have resulted in coding sequences that have become introns. Some introns result from the insertion of DNA from viruses or other organisms. One of the most important roles of introns is their transcription into small regulatory RNA, such as microRNA These small single-stranded RNAs can regulate the expression of genes. Cho Kon Mai, Harry Balzac HS in NC (11th grade student)

1298

Alcohol is common disinfectant used in Laboratory. But now many bacteria have been discovered with alcohol defying action. What factors do you think are responsible for such character development? Is this an evolutionary phenomena?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Alcohol dehydrates the membrane of bacterial cells so it's unlikely that bacteria will evolve to escape this but it's very non specific. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (student)

1299

If DNA can make an exact copy of itself, can an exact clone of any organism be made?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. Yes, DNA can make an exact copy of itself. Dolly the sheep was the first organism to be made. However, DNA replication is not perfect and so errors can be made such that the copy is not exact. In addition, we are discovering that DNA can be modified after it is copied by methylation and such, so even if the DNA is copied exactly, it doesn't mean that the two daughter cells will function the same. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1300	Do cupcakes have RNA?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. No - a cupcake is not a living organism. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1301

Do you think it is ethical to destroy an embryo to choose the sex of a baby?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. Sex selection is often used when parents carry a genetic disorder that only affects boys and so they wish to have a girl. It is hard for me to give a personal opinion because every situation is different for couples that choose this method and it is an individual choice and a matter of individual ethics. Stevenson Middle School in AL (7th grade student)

1302

What is science?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Science is literally defined as "the state of knowing." In practice it refers to the process and knowledge gained by learning about the world around us through systematic observation and experimentation. Institute of Broad Questions in WI (Higher Education student)

1303

Is the sequencing of human genomes ever going to be open to the general public, allowing normal people to know their personal genome?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. This is a really good question. The human genome sequence is available on line and anyone can access it. This is the reference human genome sequence. We are probably 99% identical to this sequence. So, we already know 99% of our genome sequence. Part of the question though is 'how about my genome sequence'? The cost of the first genome was about 1 billion dollars. The cost today of a human genome is about $40,000. What we are really interested in though are the 'differences' that we carry that cause disease or pre dispose us to disease. To know these sequences in our genome we don't need to sequence each person's DNA but rather build a catalog of the disease causing differences and then test for them. Does that help answer your question? St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

1304

Why is it illegal to pick and change your eye color or your traits?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. people can change their eye color with contact lenses. they can also change their weight. we thought these features were immutable until technology came with a break through. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1305

Do we know what the common ancestor between primates and humans is?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Humans actually belong to biological order of primates. We do not know the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, the ape with the most DNA in common with humans, but we know that this ancestor lives between 8 and 6 million years ago. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

1306

How do scientists determine which chromosome causes a certain disease?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. There are many different ways that scientists determine which chromosome and gene causes a certain disease. One of the most common ways is to study families where there are multiple individuals in the family who all have the same disease. By looking at the DNA in all of the individuals in the family (both those with and without the disease), scientists can identify which DNA is shared by everybody with the disease (and not the people without the disease). This bit of DNA probably contains the gene that is responsible for the disease. So then the scientists start looking at the genes in that bit of DNA to see if they can identify the one most likely to cause the disease that they're interested in. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1307

Does it ever boggle your mind,as a scientist, that there are still millions of things unknown about the complex human body? What were your personal thoughts when you first began to learn all of this intricate information?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. There are a multitude of questions that still are unanswered in both basic biology as well as in human health. Looking back at the last 100 years, we have come a long way in understanding the intricate workings of the human body and it's relation to disease. I'm sure we would lot more than we know today in future with continued efforts in research. I've always been intrigued about understanding the molecular mechanisms of human biology and disruptions leading to disease. I'm enjoying and having the time of my life working in this field. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1308

What are the most genetic mutations a person can have and still survive?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. The number can be variable depending on what type of mutation is occurring and in what gene. Some genes are so important to our development that just one mutation would mean that person wouldn't survive very long. Roosevelt High School in WA (11th grade student)

1309

Why is it illegal to pick and change your eye color or your traits?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. people can change their eye color with contact lenses. we thought this feature was immutable until technology came with a break through. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1310

What have been some recent advances regarding the epigenome?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Medications and drugs aimed at epigenetic targets are being widely studied for use in new cancer treatments. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (teacher)

1311

How much of our DNA is coding and non coding?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Less than 1.5% of the human genome is coding sequence. Nova Southeastern University in FL (Higher Education student)

1312

If we can read the genome, then why haven't we been able to fix genetic defects?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. Reading the genome is the first step to understand genetic disorders. Now that we know the code, we can try to figure out what certain genes do in the body and how they interact with other genes. Then, we can potentially fix some of the genetic problems. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1313

How can RFLP analysis show differences between to members of the same species?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. RFLP, or restriction fragment length polymorphisms, rely on a base change in the site where the restriction enzyme cuts the DNA. One base change in a restriction site will prevent an enzyme from cutting there. If two individuals have differences in their restriction sites RFLP analysis will show different band sizes, one that is cut and one that is not. Nova Southeastern University in FL (Higher Education student)

1314

Is there any way that blood types can be converted into other blood types, so that donating blood would be much easier?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Right now, we know of no way to convert blood types from one to another. It's a great idea, though, because it would be helpful if we could donate and accept blood regardless of our blood type. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1315

I heard that there was an attempt to clone the extinct Pyrenean Ibex, but it died early on. Do you think it will ever be possible to clone an extinct species and have it live? Or are the conditions just not right?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. It may be possible. Cloning a living species already has technical challenges related to differences between adult and embryonic cells and the quality and expression of their DNA; cloning an extinct species adds another layer of difficulty related to the quality of DNA that can be extracted from a long-dead organism. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1316

how would this century be if we never found out about DNA      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. one example that comes to mind immediately is that we now make recombinant insulin for diabetic patients that wouldn't be possible without a thorough understanding of DNA. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1317

Is PCR the most effective method used in gene cloning compared to others? Why or why not?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. PCR is the most commonly used method because it is very specific. You can create PCR primers and amplify almost any region of the genome if you know the sequence. Nova Southeastern University in FL (Higher Education student)

1318

What is the easiest way to extract DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. First the cells must be broken open, then the membranes are solublized with a detergent, salts are added and then the DNA is precipitated with ethanol or isopropanol. Here's an easy protocol that uses strawberries: http://www.mysciencebox.org/book/export/html/340 Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1319

I watched GATTACA in my genetics class today and was wondering about your views on preimplantation genetics and the film?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. PGD is used in very rare situations where parents want to avoid having a child with a severe defect. As genetic counselor, it is a option to some patients, but invlolves an intense discussion. PGD can be a slippery slope and have some ethical issues. However, there is a PGD consortium that regualtes the this method. Nova Southeastern University in FL (Higher Education student)

1320

RAWR Is there any way that DNA can have missing links so the double helix is not complete?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Yes, some genetic mutations involve the deletion of entire segments of DNA, even the deletion of one or more whole genes. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1321

Have scientists ever engineered a virus that has healthy DNA for as genetic therapy for a disease?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. Yes, this has been done. There are multiple successful instance of using gene therapy to rescue the malfunctioning gene. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1322

How were stem cells discovered?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. The term "stem cell" was first used way back in 1908 by a Russian histologist, Alexander Maksimov. It wasn't until the 1960's that research in the stem cell field really began. If you have other questions about stem cells, you can explore this site: http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/ Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1323

What do you think of direct to consumer genetic services? Do you think it's important to have a genetic professional, like a genetic counselor or geneticist, involved in these services?      Vence Bonham, J.D.: Vence Bonham researches the ethical, legal, social and policy implications of genomic discoveries, particularly health professionals' and lay persons' understanding of race, ethnicity and genetics. There is debate within the policy and science community whether health professionals should always be involved in the delivery of genetic services or should an individual have the right to obtain genetic information without a genetic professional. I believe that genetic professionals are important; they are able to interpret information but individuals should have the right to control how they receive genetic information. Most direct to consumer genetic service companies encourage individuals to seek professional advice. Rachel in NC (Higher Education )

1325

Did William Shakespeare have special DNA in order to write everything in iambic pentameter?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I'm guessing that he had genes that coded for an unusually high amount of verbal ability, patience and creativity, although all of these features have a high environmental contribution as well. J. Coringrato Jr. in WY (11th grade student)

1326

Year after year, the public is bombarded with ominous messages about a future pandemic. For example, the swine flu controlled the public's attention for months. However, one virus has yet to wipe out the human race. Why do premature warnings continue to be announced?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Thankfully, for all of us- no single virus has "wiped us out" yet. But to date more than 12,000 people have died from the swine flu. This number would likely have been greater if warnings were not given as quickly. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1327

What makes people different colors?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Skin color is determined primarily by the amount and type of melanin, which is mostly genetic. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1328

Could scientists create T-cells in the lab if a patient has a low T-cell count?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. While this might be a good long term goal, there are many steps required to do this successfully. Not only would the T-cells need to be created, but then they would need to be put in a patient's body in a way that their body didn't reject them. And, the T-cells would have to work in the patient's body. Depending on the reason for the low T-cell count, it is likely easier to treat the underlying reason for the low T-cell count rather than replacing them. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1329

So we've all heard of the various benefits of GM foods. But couldn't messing with the DNA accidentally turn on some 'switches' for undesirable qualities, like unexpected allergens?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. There are still lots of things we don't know about how changes in each section of DNA affects the next - that is why we need more scientist working on genomics and genetics :) It is important any time changes are introduced into an organism that an exhaustive number of experiments are completed as well to assess other possible changes that were unexpected. Bednarcik Junior High School in IL (8th grade student)

1330

How long do you think it will take before we can regrow organs using stem cells?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I think it will be several years before we can re-grow most organs from stem cells, but it is possible now to grow skin, the largest organ in the human body! East Haven High School in CT (11th grade student)

1331

Is genetic science used to find a family's dead relatives?      Vence Bonham, J.D.: Vence Bonham researches the ethical, legal, social and policy implications of genomic discoveries, particularly health professionals' and lay persons' understanding of race, ethnicity and genetics. Yes. Genetic science is often used to assist with the identification of deceased individuals. DNA was used to identify individuals from 911 and Katrina disasters. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1332

Are there any substances other than DNA or RNA that can carry genetic code of some sort?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. It is currently unknown if there is another molecule other than DNA that would faithfully carry genetic information from one generation to the next. There have been advances in the field of "epi-genetics" which have shown that the linear stretch of sequence of DNA is not the sole player in determining heredity. There may be "marks" on the DNA or proteins that pack DNA that might have information that can be passed from parents to children. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1333

what are the most inherited mutations ?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. It is hard to say what the most inherited mutations are. The mutations that are found in humans are found because they cause a phenotype. Different ethnicities also have different frequencies of different mutations. An example of commonly inherited mutations are BRCA1 and BRCA2, the genes associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. BRCA1 has a prevalence of 1 in 500 to 1 in 1000 and BRCA2 has a prevalence 1 in 250 to 1 in 500 in North America. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1334

Why is credit not given to Rosalind Franklin for the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Try asking female scientist who discovered the double helix structure, she will give credit to Dr. Franklin. Nova Southeastern University in FL (Higher Education student)

1335

If you have DNA from an extinct animal can you clone it to bring back the species?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Not yet. Not only would you need the complete genome of an extinct animal, but you would need an organism that would be able to gestate the extinct animal. Additionally, unless you had many members of the extinct species, you would not have enough genetic diversity to repopulate the species. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1336

How does DNA "carry" genes?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Genes are made of DNA. Some sequences of DNA code for proteins that are important in the growth and development of the body. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1337	What does RNA stand for?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. RNA = Ribonucleic acid. Also Really Need an Answer... Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1338

How many genes are in the DNA code      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. Completion of the human genome project a few years ago indicates that there are 25,000 to 30,000 genes - less than expected! Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

1339

Can two different species, like a dog and a cat, have babies together?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. May be not cats and dogs, but there can be successful reproduction between lions and tigers (babies are called ligers, and tigons). A. Neal Saxon-McCouch in NJ (5th grade student)

1340

What determines how much DNA you have?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. The size of a genome is well defined for each species. If you're asking about amount of DNA in a single individual, then that's determined by the amount of cells in that person's body. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1341

Is ability to roll your tongue in your DNA? Am I doomed to never experience a tongue roll?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. While we don't know exactly how the gene or genes that allow us to roll our tongue are inherited, we do know that the ability to roll one's tongue is genetic. Florida in FL (6th grade student)

1342

About how close do you think we are to a cure for Type 1 Diabetes?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. While there is ongoing research into finding a cure and/or better treatment options for Type 1 diabetes I don't know how close researchers believe they are to finding a cure. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1343

What is the most common nitrogen base in humans?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. This is a very interesting question. The most common base pair is A-T in the genomic DNA. The most common nitrogen base in humans depends on if you are asking about total nucleic acid (DNA plus RNA) or just DNA. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1344

What determines whether you're right-handed or left-handed? How much of a factor does genetics play in this?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Genetics appears to play a strong role in but not completely explain handedness. Larry Phelps in FL ()

1345

Have there been any new interesting cases of mutated DNA?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. New mutations are found in DNA all the time! For example, the zebra finch (a bird) genome was recently sequenced and analyzed. On the basis of this information, researchers have identified 800 genes that appear to play a role in the male zebra finch's ability to learn elaborate songs from his father. While this may seem unrelated to humans, this kind of information helps provide clues to how humans learn to speak. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1346

Can human nerves grow, either by drugs or genetics to enhance ones actions and reactions?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. I am definitely not an expert on this - but I can tell you that scientists are trying very hard to find ways to regrow the nerves in people who have had injuries to their spine. So far we haven't completely figured it out, so we aren't able to help people who are paralyzed walk again. So, I doubt that we have figured out how to grow nerves to enhance actions and reactions. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1347

How come brown is a dominant eye color?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Dominance is determined by the function of each gene, and the change that the mutation creates. Lets say there is a gene that creates brown color. If at least one copy of the gene works then you still get brown color so it is dominant. If neither copy works, you cannot make brown and you might get blue instead. Then blue is recessive to brown. However, eye color isn't quite that simple in people there are lots of colors and shades so it takes a few more genes and mutations to get all of them. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1348

Can we actually clone a human in the next twenty years?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. I think what we should be asking is whether it is something that we should or that we would want to do. Technically, many things will be possible, but ethically, may not be appropriate. As a society, these decisions are up to us. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1349

In what ways has genetics contributed to our understanding of human sexuality?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Genetics has not yet contributed much specifically to our understanding of human sexuality. It is complex to dissect complex traits and even to understand the genetic component. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1350

Seeing as we know so much about DNA why can't we clone things?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Well, we do clone. All the time. In the context of your question, we clone genes each and every day. We don't clone people but we do clone plants. Cloning is a pretty broad word so it depends on what kind of organism one is talking about with regard to cloning. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1351

How does DNA know when to stop replicating?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. There are proteins in the cell that ensure fidelity of completion of all cell division check points. Puditinma Vajayjay (9th grade student)

1352	what is a ciliate?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Some species of single-celled eukaryotic protozoans are known as ciliates. Bald Eagle Area School District in PA (9th grade student)

1353

Can your DNA predispose you to contracting herpes simplex virus?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Generally your particular genetic makeup does play a role in how likely you are to contract specific infectious diseases, including herpes simplex virus, and some genes potentially involved in that susceptibility have been identified, such as UNC93B1. UConn in CT (Higher Education student)

1354

How does crossing over contribute to to genetic diversity?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Crossing over mixes the maternal and paternal chromosomes creating new combinations of genes and markers. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1355

How often do your cells die from running out of DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. To my knowledge, this isn't something that happens very often. Mutations in DNA are much more common. Some cells in our body don't have nuclear DNA, by the way, for example red blood cells. St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

1356

Is there any organisms, that you know of, that has more than a double helix for DNA, such as a triple helix?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. None that I know of. As far as I know a triple helix can only be created in the lab. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1357

Once a genetic disorder has been identified, how long does it take researchers to find the specific gene sequence that's causing the disorder?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. It depends. Characterizing a genetic disorder and identifying the underlying genetic cause are two very different activities. If a disease is rare or is caused by multiple genes, it may take a very long time (years or decades) to identify the cause. If there is only one gene that causes the disorder and there are lots of people with it, it may not take long at all (months). Regardless of how common the disease is or the number of responsible genes, the rate at which the gene is identified is increasing because of improvements in laboratory technology. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

1358

Is there any genetic factor in being a savant?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Yes, autism and its features including being a savant do appear to have a strong genetic component, though the specifics are still being worked out. Peru High School in IN (12th grade student)

1359

Is there any way to reduce the years of clinical testing and trials?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. Clinical trials are typically long because researchers need to follow certain protocols to make sure that the treatments being tested will work properly and not cause harmful side effects. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1360

Can the scientists synthesize a DNA molecule with any gene sequence they wish? If so, how this is done?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. If the sequence of the gene is already known, a single copy can be amplified / synthesized into multiple copies of the same sequence using a process called PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). DNA can also be synthesized de novo. Jean-Pierre Fronbergý (9th grade student)

1361

How are sex-linked genes different in males and females?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. sex linked genes are the genes on the X and Y chromosome also know as the sex chromosomes. Females have 2 copies of the X chromosome and no copies of the Y. Males have one copy of the X and one copy of the Y. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1362

hkrat-If my mother and grandmother were both diagnosed with kidney failure,and I have only one kidney, what is the chance of me having kidney failure?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. It depends on why your mother and grandmother developed kidney failure. If they have a genetic condition that caused their kidneys to fail, you may have a higher risk. If they developed kidney failure because of something like diabetes, and you don't develop diabetes, you might not have a higher risk for kidney failure. That you have one kidney may or may not be related to your family history of kidney failure. Unilateral renal agenesis (missing one kidney at birth) is not that uncommon and most people do not develop kidney failure because of it. I would recommend that you talk to your doctor about your medical and family history to see if there is anything you should do to help prevent kidney problems in the future. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1363

What is the basic function of RNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Take a look at the NHGRI talking glossary - it's got a great definition! http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index.cfm?id=180 There are several different kinds of RNA, each with an important cellular function. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1364

How does stem cell research work? Is it legal?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Stem cell research is any research being conducted on a cell or group of cells that have not "matured" enough to become a specific type of cell (hair, skin, muscle, kidney, etc.). Research on stem cells is legal and is being done by many groups and companies. The federal goverment does not fund research on groups of stems cells that are newly retrieved from embryos. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1365	Can two people have the same DNA?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. If two people are identical twins then they will have the same DNA. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1366

It is understood that species need to be separated for a long period of time in order to split into subspecies. Clearly, humans have not divided into subspecies. What amount of time needs to pass for a species to develop subspecies? Also, with more communication and travel amongst people will humans gradually become increasingly similar??      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Often times being segregated physically also leads to speciation. Reconstructing the history of Homo sapiens, homo erectus and homo neanderthalens which are thought to have evolved ~400,000 years ago. All humans are already very similar genetically. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1367

Is there something in DNA that causes verticals scars (from stretch marks or incisions, for example) to expand and become wider?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. There is nothing in DNA as such to make stretch marks wide, but since our DNA encodes our wound healing attributes, mutations in certain genes that function in wound healing can lead to poor wound healing. Shikellamy High School in PA (10th grade student)

1368

What is the basic function of RNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. RNA is like a note passed between the nucleus and the cell. The RNA takes a sequence message from the DNA and delivers it to the ribosomes where it is translated into a protein. Arabia Mountain High School in GA (9th grade student)

1369

What are the genes in the DNA sequence that if mutated, cause the most damage.      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. That is a tough question to answer. Each of our genes has an important function in the body, so if a gene is not working properly it may cause problems. Which of these causes the most damage is probably subjective - some people might think a gene change that causes mental retardation would be more damaging that a gene change that causes muscular dystrophy - other people might think the opposite. Some gene changes would be so damaging that they would not allow a person to develop, so you might think that was the most damaging. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1370

When will biological computing become practical?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. We have some biological computing in place, such as genome browsers where you can select a piece of a chromosome and find out what genes are encoded there, the reading frame of the gene, etc. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1371

What is it about your individual immune system that explains why certain people get colds more than others?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. The reason some people get colds more than others is probably the result of changes (mutations) in the genes that code for parts of immune system as well as environmental exposures. There are multiple genes responsible for our immune system. Multiple changes in these genes may make an individual more or less susceptible to certain viruses. Additionally, increased stress or lack of sleep can reduce the effectiveness of our immune system. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

1372

Are all genetic disorders based on changes in DNA???      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Yes and no. A genetic disorder usually refers to a condition that is caused by a change in DNA. But, chromosomal conditions, like Down syndrome (where there is an extra copy of chromosome #21), are also a kind of genetic disorder. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1373

What's the longest DNA strand you've ever personally encountered?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Every chromosome is one long strand of DNA. I work with dogs and in the dog the X is the longest chromosome. It is more than 120 million bases long. Westview High School in CA (9th grade student)

1374

I speak an Asian language. Is language genetic or did I learn how to speak it?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. The ability to learn a language is genetic and has similarities across all cultures in the pattern in which language is developed. So the answer to your question is that it is both genetic and cultural - you have the ability to learn language and you've learned the Asian language because you learned to speak what was in your environment. Trisha Taukanowa in HI (8th grade teacher)

1375

What is your opinion on stem cell research?      Vence Bonham, J.D.: Vence Bonham researches the ethical, legal, social and policy implications of genomic discoveries, particularly health professionals' and lay persons' understanding of race, ethnicity and genetics. On March 9, 2009, President Barack Obama issued Executive Order (EO) 13505, entitled "Removing Barriers to Responsible Scientific Research Involving Human Stem Cells". There is no doubt that stem cells hold infinite promise for solving some of the greatest challenges we face in chronic disease and illness. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1376

Could you envision using cloning technology in your own life? If so, how?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Yes but cloning plants like roses is regulated. To answer you question though I think cloning to produce proteins that can be used to treat a disease is now used widely and accepted. I can't imagine cloning humans though. Kaplan University in FL (Higher Education student)

1377

Is there any way to alter genes in order to make someone more athletic (like run faster)?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. No, we currently don't have any means of changing genes to make someone more athletic. Right now, the focus on changing genes is to improve an individual's health, not to improve athleticism. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1378

How far and how much progress have the scientists who research the genome and to unlock the cure for cancer.      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. Everyday scientists are learning more and more about what causes different types of cancer. We know that cancer can be a very complicated disease with a variety of causes. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1379

KV- How did they figure out that A went with T and C went with G?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Using paper chromatography and UV spectrophotometry, Columbia University scientists lead by Erwin Chargaff observed that there are equal molar concentration of A & T, as well as G & C in most DNA molecules. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1380

Because animals only birth offspring of the same species, would it even be possible to create another mammoth? Or is it possible that surrogate mother's body would reject the pregnancy?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. It is possible. One needs to have a complete genomic DNA that can be injected into a recipient egg and transplanted into the host/surrogate mother's body. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1381

what chromosome is the gene for diabetes located on?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. There is not one single gene for diabetes. However, several chromosomal regions, such as on chromosomes 6 and 11, that are associated with an increased risk of developing diabetes. Flint Northern High School in MI (10th grade student)

1382

How long does it take for DNA to replicate? How long does it take for a cell to replicate?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. For a single-cell organism like E.coli, it DNA replication is carried out at a rate of 1000 bases / second. E.coli's genome has 4.7 million bases, but only a single-site of replication origin, and it takes close to 40 minutes to replicate the E.coli genome. In case of higher organisms, whose genomes are much larger than single cell organisms' genomes, it would take almost a month to replicate if there were only one site for replication origin. Higher organisms speed up this process by have multiple replication sites, and replicate using a "bubble" replication mechanism. Arun V in NJ ()

1383

How do you get genes from DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. DNA codes for genes - the DNA sequence encodes start, stop and splicing codons. We understand what the codes are, so we can translate the sequence. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1384

Is there a condition by which someone produces too much adrenaline?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Yes. One example is a pheochromocytoma, which is a rare tumor on the adrenal gland that causes your body to make too much adrenaline. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1385

India is rich in biodiversity. Its identification is focussed in now-a-days research. Most likely candidates are bacteria. We are also having different emerging outbreaks. Is this sign of biowar or release of experimentally modified micro-organisms?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. Not necessarily - new strains of bacteria emerge naturally as antibiotic resistance emerges. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

1386

Who discovered the double helix structure of DNA?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. James Watson and Francis Crick are credited with the publication of the structure of DNA in 1953, but the determination would not have been possible without work by Rosalind Franklin. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1387

Would it be possible to combine two sperm cells in some way to create offspring?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. No. To grow and develop properly both in the womb and then after a human is born, he or she needs to receive a complete set of chromosomes for both an egg and a sperm cell. There are many reasons for this. One reason is that humans inherit their mitochondrial genome from the egg cell and there are no mitochondria in the sperm. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1388

What ties does the genome have to language and speech besides FOXP2?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. FOXP2 has been associated with language and speech and seems to be the most commonly studied gene in terms of language. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1389

why do you like science?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. Science is very interesting because it part of understanding of everyday life. Cooking involves science, sports involve science, even sleeping involves science! I started loving science when I started to learn about genetics because genetics is something I am naturally interested in. Flint Northern High School in MI (10th grade student)

1390

Can you get your type of feelings like shyness from your parents?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. There is a genetic component to most personality traits like shyness, but it's important to remember that there is a strong environmental component to these as well. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1391

why dont red blood cells keep there the nucleous with the DNA? why exactly do they lose it?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. There are two reasons, one is that the cells need all of their interior space to hold hemoglobin, the substance that enables them to move oxygen throughout the body. Also, by losing the nucleus they are able to obtain the "doughnut" shape giving them more surface area while keeping the over all size down. Westview High School in CA (10th grade student)

1392

Why is it that if a person gets MRSA they are then prone to having recurrances of MRSA? And is there any way to prevent reacurrances?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. There are individuals who get recurrent MRSA infections. We're trying to understand if it is because of their bacterial community or some other genetic predisposition. I don't have any advice on preventing recurrence other than your physician's advice and monitoring for early signs of infection. Shikellamy High School in PA ()

1393

How would the most common trait for breast cancer be found?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. We know that the majority of breast cancers are sporadic (meaning it happens randomly). Unfortunately, researchers haven't figured out yet why some people get breast cancer this way and others don't. We do know that if someone has a family history of breast cancer they might be at an increased risk to developing the disease. Flint Northern High School in MI (10th grade student)

1394

Are there any simpler ways to sequence DNA?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. Recent advances in technology have made sequencing DNA much faster and cheaper. In short, these technologies sequence short stretches repeatedly in parallel, such that the entire genome is sequenced efficiently. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1395

How does breast cancer affect the body?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Normal cells die when they are damaged or get old. Cancer cells do not. Cancer cells can invade and damage nearby organs and tissues and can spread to other parts of the body. In some cases, breast cancer can lead to death. Flint Northern High School in MI (10th grade student)

1396	What is your favorite DNA/heredity joke?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. Insanity is hereditary; you get it from your kids. Carmen R. in FL (10th grade student)

1397

In case of emerging infectious diseases, what should be the target, to control antibiotic resistance development or to develop new drug?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Both are valuable targets! Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (teacher)

1398

I was told by a doctor in an emergency room that I got Poly Cystic Ovarian Syndrome because my mother is diabetic. I know that I have a genetic predisposition for diabetes, but I'm not sure about PCOS. Is there a gene for PCOS?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Current research suggests that PCOS is the result of mutations in many different genes instead of one gene. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1399

1. Do you think stem cells will be a reasonable, successful treatment for diseases that have physical deterioration as symptoms - like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. In theory stem cells have the potential to regenerate tissues, so it might be possible to someday program stem cells to make neuron cells in order to reverse the symptoms of Alzheimers. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (11th grade student)

1400

Do you think we will ever find a cure for cancer?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Cancer is a complex disorder that results from many different mutations in many different genes. Although some forms of cancer may be curable, it is unlikely that one cure will be found for all forms of cancer. McClesky Middle School in GA (7th grade student)

1401

How would you find the differences in the genome between different Archaea species?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. The easiest way to find the differences in the genome between different Archaea species would be to sequences the genomes and compare them. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1402

Does being deaf effect anything else in the body?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. In a sense. Being born deaf can affect the ability to learn to speak because hearing speech is important for acquiring it, so the function and development of the speaking apparatus can be affected. Also, some genetic disorders that affect the hearing also affect other functions such as vision or skin pigmentation because the genes involved are expressed in multiple parts of the body. Flint Northern High School in MI (10th grade student)

1403

Can athletes use DNA instead of steroids to get a competitive edge?      Joe McInerney, M.S.: I received my MS in human genetics and genetic counseling from the State University of New York at Stony Brook, in 1976. I spent more than two decades at the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), in Colorado, where I was director for 14 years and wrote textbooks and other educational materials in biology, with a focus on genetics and evolution. Since October 2000, i've been executive director of National Coalition for Health Professional Education in Genetics, where he develops educational materials in human genetics and genetic medicine for a broad range of health professionals. We are learning the role of genetic variation in endurance. Researchers at NHGRI have demonstrated that myostatin (MSTN) allele in dogs seems to confer a competitive advantage to racing whippets. Researchers are studying the role of genes in endurance in humans. Alex Rodriguez in NY (Higher Education student)

1404

Is there any new technology with stem cell research?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Scientists are working to find new ways to generate stem cells, a lot of work is in the field of iPS, induced pleuripotent stem cells. A lot of interesting research is going on in the areas of breast cancer and brain tumors. Westview High School in CA (11th grade student)

1405

How long does it take to karyotype?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Karyotyping (counting chromosomes) is the easy part. the hard part is growing up enough cells and finding cells that are dividing at exactly the point where their chromosomes are fully extended and you can obtain a beautiful banding pattern. So when you get an amniocentisis it takes about a week to grow out the cells and then a few days to stain and count the cells. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1406

What is the molecular structure of the "end" of a DNA molecule?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. A telomere. It's the region of repetitive DNA at the end of a chromosome that protects the chromosome from degradation. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1407

It has been discovered that the environment has some effect on E. Coli. Assuming that this concept applies to other microbes; could we alter our world to ensure the most virulent microorganisms do not flourish? For example, can we clean our water systems or change other environmental factors that encourage the ýbadý microbes from reproducing to help stop the rapid spread of pathogens?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. You are talking about natural selection. Any organism with DNA is affected by the environment. If we change the environment to get rid of one type of pathogen, we may be allowing a different type of pathogen to flourish, thus just changing which pathogen we are concerned about. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1408

Do you like your job?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. I love it because it's the process of exploration, testing hypotheses and working with people who are all excited about their research. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1409

If you are missing some chromosomes, what would happen?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. The only chromosomes that you can 'miss' and not cause a problem are the sex chromosomes (the X or the Y chromosome). Women have two X chromosomes, so clearly a Y chromosome is not necessary for life. Individuals can be born with only one X chromosome and not a second sex chromosome. These individuals have Turner syndrome and are essentially healthy although they are usually infertile. The result of missing an entire autosome is usually a fetal demise. Charter School of Educational Excellence in NY (5th grade teacher)

1410	What is the most common use for stem cells?      Phyllis Frosst, Ph.D.: I currently investigate genetic discrimination, direct to consumer marketing of genetic tests and pharmacogenomics. Bone marrow transplants, right now. Westview High School in CA (12th grade student)

1411

Why is DNA so important?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. DNA is the library of information that encodes how our body forms and functions. Without DNA, there would not be a 'reference manual' with the instructions for human development and function. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1412

What does DNA have to do with Mad Cow disease?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. Mad Cow disease is an infectious disease where the agent is a protein. It is still unclear if DNA plays a role. There have been indications to suggest the there might be a role for DNA to predispose to disease susceptibility. Putit in ME (Higher Education student)

1413

What are some of the most common birth defects?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Different birth defects are more common in different areas of the world. Overall, some of the more common birth defects are spina bifida, cleft lip and palate, and heart defects, but there are many, many more. Surya Bangsa Elementary in Indonesia (8th grade student)

1414

What did HIV evolve from?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. HIV evolved from a similar virus called SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus) found in non-human primates. St. Mark's School in MA (11th grade student)

1415

Do your muscles have DNA?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Yes. All of the cells in our body (except for red blood cells) have DNA. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1416

What is pathogenomics?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. The bulk of pathogenomics research concerns itself with pathogens that affect human health. A pathogen is a biologic agent that causes disease in its host - so, pathogens make you sick. Pathogenomics is the examination, usually by sequencing, of the genome of a pathogen. We do this to understand the nature of the disease-causing agent to gain a better understanding of how the pathogen affects the infected person. This information may make it possible to heal, or even prevent disease, in a person. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

1417

Is there a way you can combine two different DNA's to make one single DNA that has both traits?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. There is not currently a way to combine two different DNA strands to make one single DNA strand that has both traits. However, genes can be inserted into vectors and transformed into a host cell. The host cell would then have the traits found in its original genome and that additional trait that was inserted via the vector. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1418

Can you alter a person's DNA to give them immunity to an illness?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. That may be something that will be possible in the future, but it is not possible now. Right now we give people immunity by giving them vaccinations to some illnesses. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1419

Is it possible to create a new species using various types of DNA?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. Evolutionary processes through random mutation and selection have created new species. Fields of animal husbandry and agriculture have used inter-breeding to selectively screen for desired traits in animals and plants. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1420

Can we explain Mendelian principles of heredity in the light of modern DNA sequences studied in human diseases?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Mendelian principles of heredity still apply to modern DNA sequences. It's true that we are learning more about diseases that have complex inheritance patters as a result of interactions among multiple genes and environmental factors, but the gene variants underlying those diseases are still inherited according to Mendelian principles. We also know some things that extend the knowledge that Mendel gave us, such as that some genes are linked to each other on the same chromosome. ABABU CBIT,RAJAHMUNDRY (A.P.), INDIA (Higher Education student)

1421

Is there a genetic component to metabolism?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. Yes - our genetic material encodes enzymes that are involved in metabolism of the food we eat. When there is a mutation in one of these genes, the way our body utilizes the various components of food (carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins, etc) can be impaired. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1422

Recently, our class has been studying evolution including the story of Lubya the baby mammoth. There has been talk of using her DNA to clone a mammoth using an Asian elephant as a surrogate mother. However, the mammoth DNA is not complete and it has been suggested that modified Asian elephant DNA could be used instead. How would scientists go about the process of modifying the DNA and how likely is the success of this project?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. There have been successful attempts to clone extinct or endangered species by transferring a nucleus into the ovum of a similar species and using the similar species as a surrogate mother. So far no one has cloned an animal based on only sections of DNA and we will need to improve recombinant DNA methodologies before it can be attempted. The elephant is not easy to breed in captivity, and since cloning is difficult even in domestic animals, I think we are a long way from cloning a Mammoth. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1423

Tell us the funniest thing that happened to you during your research on DNA.      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Thanks for this question. Most of the funny things have turned out to be safety related things in the lab that didn't result in significant harm. On the personal side of funny, there have a been a number of embarrassing moments that are funny only in looking back but not at the time. Like the time we had music blasting in the lab and the director walks in and says nothing. I asked what he thought of the music and he responded 'not much'. Then there was the time I walked into the dark room to develop an x-ray film only to discover there were two other folks in the dark room NOT developing film. :-) Belle HS in MO (11th grade teacher)

1424

Whats the biggest gene project you have worked on?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. When I was in graduate school, my thesis work was to find how a certain group of genes could affect the development of head and neck cancers. Now, I only see genetics patients and do not work in the lab. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1425

hi im josh I was wondering if you can take the DNA out of someone's body and make it stronger to make the person stronger?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. Hi, Josh- I wish we could but we can not. DNA is inside every cell in our body and we do not have a way to take it out and put it back. However, we are actively trying to develop therapies to help people when their genes are not working as well as we usually expect. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1426

I would love to know the answer to whether there is a genetic cure for cancer.      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. There is not currently a genetic cure for cancer. Not all cancers are caused by genes. Environment plays a large role in the development of cancers. Currently, there are some genes that are associated with particular cancers such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 which are associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. Genetic testing can be done as a screening tool if there is a risk of hereditary type of cancer. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1427

Can you alter a person's DNA to give them immunity to an illness?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. No. We can't alter a person's DNA to give them immunity to an illness. There have been gene therapy trials to treat immunodeficiency disorders, but those trials have the goal of providing people who don't have an immune system with an immune system, not immunity to a specific illness. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1428

Is it true that America has found a genetic cure for diabetes?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. No, there are no known genetic cures for diabetes. Abu "Slim" Nahasainijad (Higher Education student)

1429

Can alcoholism be inherited from your parents?      Amber Trivedi, M.S.: I work for "InformedDNA", which provides genetic counseling over the telephone. I provide cancer and reproductive genetic counseling, lead a team of other genetic counselors, and am involved in InformedDNA's business processes. Some studies show that addictions (e.g. alcoholism) may run in families or certain ethnic groups. This makes us think that genes do play a role in susceptibility to addition. However, addiction is not controlled by a single gene. Rather it is influenced by several genetic and environmental factors. It is not clear whether people with a family history of addiction may be more susceptible because they share the same genes with their relatives, or because they share the same environmental influences with their relatives. Someone may be more susceptible to addiction if it runs in their family, but it does not mean that they will definitely develop addictions just because their relatives had addictions. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1430

Cloning has a high failure rate, but that has not stopped people from trying. Recently, our class has been studying woolly mammoths and the topic of "resurrecting" the species came about. How realistic is this proposal? And would this be a good idea?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. We are still a long way from cloning an elephant, much less a mammoth but if we could would it be a good idea? I guess that depends on what you intend to do with it. Bringing back large extinct animals didn't work out well for the guy who built Jurassic Park. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1431

Why is DNA colorless?      Praveen Cherukuri, Ph.D.: I currently carry out the analysis of sequence variation in relation to the protein coding regions of the human genome. DNA looks colorless (white) in the visible light spectrum. DNA has a maximum absorbance at a wave-length of 260 nm, which lies outside the visible spectrum of light (typically 390-750 nm). Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1432

How can the Human Genome Project help in the treatment of multigenic disorders?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. The human genome project can help us understand how various genetic traits can lead to disease by allowing us to explore how each trait may be involved or contributing to disease. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

1433

What our the chances that mammoths could be cloned?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Right now the chances are very low. Cloning is difficult in small domestic animals that are easy to breed and birth. Elephants are difficult to breed under the best circumstances. Cloning an extinct relative of the elephant and trying to grow it within its modern counterpart will be extremely difficult. We will need to come up with better cloning and recombinant DNA strategies before it is attempted. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1434

What do you do with genetics?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. I am a genetic counselor- this means that I meet with people that either have or might have a genetic condition in their family. My job is to help them learn about the condition, and to best adjust to its occurrence in the family. I provide both information and support to them. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1435

What genetic difference causes autism?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. There are probably a lot of different genetic differences that cause autism. Research supports the hypothesis that autism is probably the result of many different causes that are currently not distinguishable from one another. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1436

What is the exact physical structure of a gene?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. There are many unique things about DNA, but the most unique is its double-helix structure. This structure, which resembles a twisted ladder, makes it possible for each DNA strand to be precisely copied. These copies, which contain the same genetic information as the original DNA strand, can then be passed along to an organism's offspring. Junaid Ahmed (BUITEMS, Balochistan) (Higher Education student)

1437

What have you working on with genetics lately?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. I am a genetic counselor. I specialize in inherited cancer syndromes and helping families understand the risks and benefits of this genetic testing. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1438

When screening for genetic disorders, is the epigenome ever taken into account?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. The short answer is no. However, if you plan on becoming a geneticist then you'll learn that there may be some instances in which epigenomic tools could be applied in screening for genetic disorders. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1439	Are you able to clone plants?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. You may be able to do so, as plants do contain DNA. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1440

What is methylation?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Methylation is a process whereby a methyl group (CH4) is added to areas of the DNA where there is a C (cytosine) followed by a G (guanine), resulting in structural changes to the DNA that prevent the DNA from being transcribed, or expressed. Thus it is considered a way of "silencing" certain genes. Elko High School in NV (10th grade student)

1441

Why are the letters X and Y used to name chromosomes?AO      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Although the precise details of its chemical structure and performance are only just emerging, the X chromosome has long been renowned among geneticists, who named it X not because of its shape, as is commonly presumed  the non-sex chromosomes also vaguely resemble an X at times during cell division  but because they were baffled by the way it held itself apart from the other chromosomal pairs. They called it X for unknown, said Mark T. Ross of the X Chromosome Group at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge. (When its much tinier male counterpart was finally detected, researchers simply continued down the alphabet for a name.) ngier, Natalie (2007-05-01). "For Motherly X Chromosome, Gender Is Only the Beginning". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/01/science/01angi.html. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1442

how do you feel about cloning?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. I think that cloning is very interesting. I think cloning research is a good idea when it is aimed at providing help to people with illnesses or injuries. I personally do not think it is a good idea to try to cloce an entire organism/person. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1443

why is dna shaped like a twisted ladder?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. It has to do with how the chemical structure of the various bases that make up DNA actually fits in space. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1444

Do you think that we will ever see a day where an infant has it's entire genome sequenced with a heel prick, to discover all of it's genetic risks, such as breast cancer or prostate cancer?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. I think we may see a day where we can sequence a genome with a heel prick. And we might be able to give an estimate of the risks for certain conditions. But there are so many other factors that are involved in the development of cancer and other conditions, that I don't think we will ever be able to predict with certainty. Jennifer in FL ()

1445

Is there a way for a person to be born with red eyes?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. I don't think there is a genetic condition that would cause someone to be born with red eyes, however there are some infections that could possibly cause this. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1446

What research is currently being done on DNA computing?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. In the 1990s, there was booming research involved in DNA computing. Currently, research in DNA computing has dropped off significantly. The current research seems to focused on answering basic questions about DNA computing and work through some of the problems that have plagued DNA computing such as issues with data representation. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1447

If I adopt a child, what are the chances of him getting a tumor?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Your genetics will have no effect on your adopted child. His chance of getting a tumor will be similar to everyone else's. Wantagh High School in NY (12th grade student)

1448

how do you work with DNA      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. I sequence the DNA of bacteria that live on healthy skin and those involved in skin infections. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1449

Are siamese twins caused by a genetic mutation?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Conjoined twins (also known as Siamese twins) are generally thought to be the result of a fertilized egg that has partially (instead of fully) split. If the egg had fully split the two fertilized eggs would have gone on to become identical twins. Whether or not there is a genetic contribution to partial splitting is not known. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1451

How do you diagnose genetic disorders from looking at one gene?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. It would depend on what the disorder is. We know that some genetic conditions are caused by a mutation in one gene. If this were the case we can look at the one gene and see if there are any changes that would cause it not to work properly and therefore cause the disorder. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1452

What biotech instrument has been the most useful in your line of work?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. I was going to say my sequencer because it went down this week and everyone in the lab was lost. However, the computer is also a really important piece of equipment for anyone doing genomics or genetics. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1453

some animals can grow back body parts, can we use that dna to somehow grow back one or more of our body parts?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. There is work being done in humans involving using stem cells and a person's own cells to regenerate certain tissues such as skin. It's not clear yet how far this will be able to go for full organ replacement. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1454

WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF WE HAD NO GENES OR DNA      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Without genes and DNA, life as we know it would not be possible. Genes contain all our hereditary information, including the information we need to develop and grow. Even the most basic organisms have DNA and genes. OVERLAND in AZ (7th grade )

1455

what book do you recommend about genetics?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. There are too many good genetics books to just pick one- some talk about human genetics, some even have genetic experiments you can do. Lots of people like the book "Genetics And Evolution Science Fair Projects: Using Skeletons, Cereal, Earthworms, And More" by Robert Gardner. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1456

In past transcripts, I saw that someone said cows could be genetically modified to produce more beef and milk, that it would be better for the animals and the environment; but wouldn't that affect cows the same way it did chickens and impede movement and the quality of life of the animal?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. It is always possible to overdo. If we can find a balance between increasing production per animal and maintaining quality of life then everyone can benefit. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1457

What is DNA made of?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by bonds. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1458

There are some forms of cancer that develop prenatally but are not detected until later in life, such as medulloblastoma. Is there a way to detect these types of tumors and cancers before birth through "normal" genetic testing? If there isn't, what type of scientific advances would be needed to make this possible?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. If there is a known genetic mutation inherited in a family, and that mutation results in a cancer that develops prenatally, than a the fetus can be tested for the mutation through prenatal diagnostic testing such as amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1459	how many genetic jobs are there?      Geoff Spencer: Geoff is a Public Affairs Specialist and covers all media inquiries at NHGRI. Lots. Check them out at www.genome.gov/GenomicCareers Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1460

What kind of environment can cause mutations?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Almost any environment can cause mutations. Our bodies are pretty much always under attack that is why we have so many DNA repair pathways and mechanisms for getting rid of cell where things have gone wrong. We run into trouble when our repair machinery doesn't work right. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1461

What is the deadliest genetic disorder?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. A genetic disorder that results in the death of an embryo would probably be considered the deadliest. We don't even name these disorders because a person can't be born or live with them. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1462

What are some current developments in the use of plasmids and recombinant DNA?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Plasmids are used in research to transfer a DNA sequence to another cell or organism to study the function of a gene(s) and are also being evaluated for use in gene therapy. A very common use of recombinant DNA is in the production of human insulin by bacterial cells, making it to provide enough human insulin to treat individuals who have forms of diabetes that require it. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1463	whats the most popular job for genetics?      Geoff Spencer: Geoff is a Public Affairs Specialist and covers all media inquiries at NHGRI. Find out at www.genome.gov/GenomicCareers Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1464

How was DNA discovered?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. In the 1930s Avery-MacLeod-McCarty demonstrated that genes are made up of DNA and that it transforms the properties of bacteria. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1465

Have you isolated the gene for spinal muscular atrophy? One of our friends knows she is a carrier for this disease.      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. There are multiple genes responsible for spinal muscular atrophy and many of them have been identified (isolated). Eagle Valley Middle School in CO (8th grade student)

1466

Just as spider webs are strong in structure, how strong is the structure of DNA?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. DNA is so strong that it can remain bound together for hundreds of thousands of years as we found by sequencing wooly mammoths and Neanderthals. Belle HS in MO (11th grade student)

1467

Is it possible that you can be born with albinism ?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Yes, there are multiple forms of albinism that a person can be born with. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1468

Are boys more likley to lose their hair      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Androgenetic alopecia, or male-pattern baldness, is the most common cause of hair loss in men. There is a gene that is associated with this type of hair loss. The hairline tends to recede and there is baldness on the top of the head in this type of baldness. Female-pattern baldness also exists. Hair thins over the entire scalp when this type of hair loss is present. While it might be more noticeable in men, both men and women experience hair loss. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1469

Why does sickle cell anemia mostly affect African Americans?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Different genetic conditions are more common in different ethnic groups - sickle cell in African Americans, cystic fibrosis in Caucasians. It is because the change in the gene started a very long time ago in that population. Since people tend to have children with other people in their same population, the gene change stayed in the population and became more and more common. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1470

I saw something on the news about a crossbred pig and sheep. is this a reality or a hoax?      Eron O'Leary, M.S.: I work as a Cancer Genetic Counselor. I see individuals and families who are at a high risk for hereditary cancer and discuss available and appropriate genetic testing, and the risks benefits and limitations of this testing as well as make appropriate medicla management recommendations and referrals. Good question. I cannot find eveidence to prove that this is real or fake. Roosevelt High School in WA (12th grade student)

1471

What is the most serious disease you have ever come across?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Genetic diseases range from chronic diseases, like color blindness, to fatal illnesses, like brain cancer. Any disease, however, that lowers the quality of life for a patient is serious. It is the effort to save patients from both serious and chronic diseases that drives the many researchers at the NIH to continue striving for cures. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1472

Why is DNA so important to human life? If we didn't know about DNA what do you think would be going on?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Understanding DNA has improved human health and on an individual level it has saved babies by understanding that patients have metabolic disorders. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1473

If a baby is born mentally chanllenged do they have the same amount of DNA?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Sometimes yes and sometimes no. It depends on the cause of the disability. For example, babies with Down syndrome have an extra chromosome 21 and therefore have *more* DNA than most people. On the other hand, babies with another type of mental retardation called Fragile X syndrome have a mutation in one gene but have roughly the same amount of DNA as anyone else. There are also forms of mental retardation that have little or no effect on the DNA amount OR sequence. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1474

Why is DNA so important to human life? If we didn't know about DNA what do you think would be going on?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Understanding DNA has improved human health and on an individual level it has saved babies by understanding and diagnosing their metabolic disorders. Brownsville Area High School in PA (9th grade student)

1475

How does a trait appear on an offspring of someone with a co-dominant trait.      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. The offspring of someone with a co-dominant trait would only receive one of the co-dominant alleles, or traits, from his or her parent. Expression on the trait in the offspring would be dependent on the allele that was inherited from the other parent. Expression in the offspring would be determined solely on the alleles inherited. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1476

(MC) What are the recent discoveries in the Human Genome Project?      Keith McKenney, Ph.D: He is a staff member for the Division of Extramural Research. Wow, great question. It depends on what interests you. Try taking a look at our web site: http://www.genome.gov/Newsroom/ East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1477

will people be able to clone without killing an organism?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. Cloning doesn't involve killing any organisms. All the cells required can be obtained from living animals. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1478

What is the most serious disease you have ever come across?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. Any disease seen in a genetics clinic could be considered a serious disease, especially by the patient and family members. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1479

How do they find instruments small enough to extract the nucleus from cells?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. They don't find them, they are made using very special machines to create tiny delicate instruments. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1480	What type of animals do you study?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. Dogs of all kinds. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1481

If a person has cancer, can you identify the bad gene from their genetic code?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Sometimes, yes we can. There are clues in the family history (for example, are there other individuals in the family who have cancer? If so, what kind of cancer and how old were they were they were diagnosed?) that may point a health care provider towards offering testing in one of the known genes that can cause cancer. Most cancers, however, are sporadic, which means they happen to people who have no family history. In that case, it's much harder to identify the mutation in the gene that caused the cancer. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1482

I'm so disappointed by the French Institutions being so shy about DNA sciences advancement, and being so restrictive with their "so-so yesterday" bioethics regulations. How could we shout them loud to embrace the future of genomic medicine like you guys are preparing in the US?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Communicating science with government and the public is a challenge that we must embrace. France (and Europe) has a long history of being very progressive and involved in genomic medicine. University Hospital of Bordeaux (Higher Education teacher)

1483

have you ever cloned?      Kelly Donahue, M.G.C.: I am a prenatal genetic counselor working in the Pittsburgh area. I have also worked in Pediatric and Adult genetics as well as a commercial genetics laboratory. I am a supervisor of students studying to be genetic counselors. No I have not. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1484

What are other possible forms of delivery when it comes to inserting reprogramming IPS cells in a patient being treated with induced pluripotent skin cells?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. Viruses are currently used to introduce the reprogramming factors into adult cells. Researchers are currently investigating non-viral delivery strategies. Scientists are now working on adding permeable proteins directly to the adult cells. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1485

How will you defined the term "Molecular screening" of bacteria?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Molecular screens usually involve the use of DNA or RNA sequences as hybridization probes or the use of antibodies to identify gene products. Sindhu Mahavidyalaya Institution, Nagpur, India (Higher Education student)

1486

Do people with mental disorders have different DNA?      Christy Ferlatte, M.S.: I am a recent graduate of a Masters Genetic Counseling program. Some people with mental disorders could have changes in their DNA that could be the cause of their condition. However, the genetics of mental illnesses is complex and research is ongoing. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1487

Is there a functional reason as to why certain parts of the DNA are grouped together within each chromosome? Why is the DNA split into the separate chromosomes the way it is?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. Certain genes are grouped together so that they can be coordinately regulated like globin genes that turn on sequentially throughout development. THese coordinated genes can extend over hundreds of thousands of base pairs of DNA. Elle in CA (12th grade student)

1488

how big is DNA?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. DNA can be all different sizes depending on what organism it is in or where it is being used. A human chromosome, which is one long strand of DNA, can be more than 100 million bases long. DNA in a virus might only be a few thousand base pairs long. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1489

Why am I so skinny and all the rest of the people in my family are fit?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Do you mean the rest of the people in your family are fat? Body weight is influenced by both genes and how much we eat and exercise. So if you and the rest of your family eat the same amount of food and get the same amount of exercise, you might have forms of some genes that are different from some other family members' and help you to keep from gaining weight. The tendency to gain weight also changes through the life span and varies between males and females. East Haven High School in CT (10th grade student)

1490

How much of an effect do DNA and the epigenome have on the prevalence of allergies like peanuts? How do environmental changes come into play?      Patricia Devers, M.S.: I am a genetic counselor specializing in reproductive genetics. I see patients in the preconceptional and prenatal period. There is definitely a genetic component to peanut allergy, but is does not give us the whole story. There are also triggers in the environment which contribute to peanut (and other) allergy. DNA, epigenomics, and environment all play an important role. Saint Ignatius College Prep in IL (12th grade student)

1491

Why are mice used to research human genetic disease?      Claire Anderson, B.A.: I am a first year genetic counseling graduate student at Virginia Commonwealth University. Mice are used to research human genetic disease have numerous reasons. First of all, mice have about 90% of all human disease genes and the organization of their genomes is related to humans. Genetic manipulation of mice is also possible. Mice are also small in size and have a short life cycle and give birth to large litters. Mice used in laboratories are resistance to infection and there are numerous inbred strains available for research. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1492

What is the worst DNA mutation?      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. The worst DNA mutation is probably one that prevents a fertilized embryo from implanting in the uterus or growing once it has implanted. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1493

do clones have majordefects??      Anne Madeo, M.S.: I earned my MS in Human Genetics at the University of Michigan and has been working at the NIH as a Genetic Counselor since 2000.  I'm currently the Associate Director of the Johns Hopkins University/NHGRI Genetic Counseling Training Program. Genes are cloned all the time without major defects. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1494

How is mutation caused ?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. Mutations can be caused when a mistake is made during replication, when the cells divide. They can also happen when the DNA is hit with a mutagen like a chemical or radiation that breaks the DNA or changes a base. Viruses can cause mutations, too. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1495

What is your most recent discovory?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. My lab is investigating how bacteria evolve resistance to antibiotics and found out the genetic steps required to adapt to a rarely used antibiotic. Shikellamy High School in PA (9th grade student)

1496

How is mutation caused ?      Toni Pollin, M.S., Ph.D.: I do research on the genetic factors in complex diseases, particularly diabetes and cardiovascular disease. I also teach graduate and medical students and have a background in genetic counseling. DNA is constantly being copied and random mistakes sometimes get made, just as if you were copying a document and made a spelling mistake. There is machinery in the cells to help repair these mistakes, but it's not perfect. Sometimes these "mistakes" actually lead to improvements. Exposure to certain chemicals or radiation, for example, can make more mutation more likely. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1497

What, in your opinion, are the the most promising uses of genetically engineered bacteria and viruses?      Julie Segre, Ph.D.: Using contemporary genomic methodologies, my laboratory focuses on the role that bacteria and other small micro-organisms may play in human health and disease. The Segre laboratory estimates that approximately one million bacteria reside on each square centimeter of skin; many common skin conditions are associated with both impaired skin barrier function and increased microbial colonization. By sequencing the DNA of bacteria collected from the skin of humans and mouse models of human disease, her group investigates how these bacteria contribute to health and, conversely, how changes in the bacterial community structure might contribute to chronic skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. we use bacteria and viruses to produce proteins such as human insulin to treat diabetes. St. Mark's School in MA (12th grade student)

1498	What type of animals do you study?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. I only study humans! Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

1499

What is DNA?      Heidi Parker, Ph.D.: I currently study the genetics of the dog in an effort to answer questions about disease in both dogs and humans. DNA is a very long molecule made up of repeating units called nucleotides. The backbone of the nucleotides is the same, but the "bases" attached to the backbone can change. There are four different bases, (A,C,G,T) and that is where all the genetic information for making an organism resides. honolulu high in HI (student)

1500

How is mutation caused ?      Loren Pena, M.D., Ph.D.: I am a clinical geneticist who sees patients for diagnosis and management of a variety of inherited, or sporadic, conditions. It is caused by an error in copying DNA - so instead of incorporating a particular base, another is put in, thus changing the genetic code. Palms Middle School in CA (7th grade student)

The DNA Day Chat Room is closed for the year. Thank you to everyone who sent in questions. And please come back and celebrate with us next year!

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Posted: April 23, 2010