by Jaquelina Falkenheim and Nirmala Kannankutty[1]
International collaboration is a key aspect of the globalization of science and engineering (S&E). In 2006, according to the Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT), one in six scientists and engineers in the United States reported working with individuals in other countries (table 1).[2] International collaboration was more likely to occur among persons working in the for-profit sector, men, and those with higher levels of educational attainment. Individuals who earned postsecondary degrees both in the United States and abroad reported the highest levels of international collaboration.
TABLE 1. Scientists and engineers reporting international collaboration, by employment sector and demographic characteristics: 2006
(Percent)
Business/industry
Government
Education
Characteristic
Total (n)
Reporting international collaboration
For profit
Self-employeda
Nonprofit
Federal
State/local
4-year educational institutionsb
Other educational institutionsc
All employed scientists and engineers (n)
18,927,000
-
7,682,000
3,624,000
1,830,000
824,000
1,405,000
1,549,000
2,014,000
Reporting international collaboration
3,157,000
16.7
26.7
13.2
6.9
17.8
4.9
14.8
3.0
Sex
Male
2,293,000
21.5
30.8
15.6
11.5
19.5
5.7
18.1
4.4
Female
865,000
10.5
18.9
8.6
4.9
14.3
4.1
11.6
2.3
Place of birth
United States
2,397,000
15.3
25.0
11.5
6.7
18.5
4.7
13.9
2.9
Outside of United States
761,000
23.7
33.4
21.2
8.5
12.4
6.6
17.9
3.8
Highest degree of educational attainmentd
Bachelor's
1,761,000
16.2
24.2
14.0
5.4
15.2
4.9
10.5
3.1
Master's
970,000
18.0
33.7
16.9
8.6
20.6
4.6
10.1
2.7
Doctorate
254,000
28.8
43.7
20.1
24.1
32.8
12.8
26.5
8.1
Location of postsecondary education
All degrees earned in United States
2,675,000
15.7
25.4
12.3
6.7
17.9
4.7
13.9
2.9
Degrees earned abroad and in United States
229,000
31.4
44.9
25.8
13.3
21.4
11.1
19.0
7.4
All degrees earned abroad
254,000
22.8
31.1
18.2
8.6
10.6
7.2
21.7
4.1
Occupation
S&E occupations
1,416,000
28.2
37.1
25.6
16.8
18.4
6.1
18.8
2.7
Computer and mathematical scientists
667,000
31.6
40.1
29.7
12.5
18.2
5.3
12.1
1.9
Biological, agricultural, and other life scientists
116,000
23.9
34.0
24.4
28.3
18.5
11.2
22.3
7.4
Physical scientists
80,000
23.9
30.7
17.5
35.7
25.5
4.6
23.7
4.4
Social scientists
70,000
14.8
34.3
9.2
10.4
20.0
2.9
19.0
1.8
Engineers
483,000
29.8
34.6
28.8
24.5
16.5
6.4
19.4
6.7
S&E-related occupations
394,000
7.5
13.6
4.9
3.4
13.0
4.0
9.6
2.7
Non-S&E occupations
1,348,000
15.6
24.1
13.9
8.8
19.7
4.8
14.1
3.2
S&E = science and engineering.
a Includes those who are self-employed or business owners in incorporated or unincorporated businesses, professional practices, or farms. b Includes 4-year colleges or universities, medical schools (including university-affiliated hospitals or medical centers), and university-affiliated research institutes. c Includes 2-year colleges, community colleges, technical institutes, and other precollege institutions. d Professional degrees are included in total reporting international collaboration but are not shown separately.
NOTES: Scientists and engineers refers to all persons who have received a bachelor's degree or higher in S&E or S&E-related field, plus persons holding a non-S&E bachelor's or higher degree who were employed in an S&E or S&E-related occupation in 2003. Numbers rounded to nearest thousand. Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT), 2006.
This InfoBrief examines the profile of U.S. scientists and engineers engaged in international collaboration, the means of communication they used, and the relationship between work activities in their principal job and the extent to which they collaborated internationally. Much of the previous literature on scientific international collaboration has focused on its impact on scientific research. Measurement of international collaboration has primarily used coauthorship and publication citation data (Frame and Carpenter 1979, Schubert and Braun 1990, Okubo et al. 1992). Others have focused on international collaboration relationships among specific countries (He 2009, Mattson et al. 2008) or on understanding the growth of international collaboration (Wagner and Leydesdorff 2005). This InfoBrief takes a different approach, focusing on individuals who report engaging in international collaboration in their work, regardless of whether that work has a research component, and covering international collaboration activities in all sectors of the economy.
Profile of International Collaborators
Employment sector. Reported international collaborations were higher among scientists and engineers working in the for-profit sector (27%) than in the federal government (18%) or in 4-year educational institutions (15%) (table 1). The higher level of for-profit sector collaboration holds regardless of gender, place of birth, highest degree attained, location of postsecondary education, as well as in most broad occupations.
Gender. Across all employment sectors, men were more likely than women to report international collaboration.
Place of birth. Across most employment sectors, scientists and engineers born outside of the United States were more likely than the U.S.-born to work with colleagues in other countries. However, among those working for the federal government, the U.S.-born had higher collaboration levels than those born outside of the United States.
Highest degree of educational attainment. Doctorate holders in all sectors were more likely than individuals with other types of degrees to engage in international collaborations.
Location of postsecondary education. Individuals with degrees from both U.S. and foreign institutions were the most likely to collaborate internationally across almost all employment sectors. The one exception was for the employment sector of 4-year colleges and universities, where those who had earned all their degrees abroad were the most likely to collaborate internationally. Generally, those with U.S.-only degrees were the least likely to report international collaboration, the exception being federal government employees.
Occupation. Individuals employed as computer and mathematical scientists were the most likely of those in all broad occupations to collaborate internationally (32%); in the for-profit sector, this proportion rose to 40%. In 4-year educational and in non-profit institutions, physical scientists and biological, agricultural, and other life scientists were the most likely to collaborate internationally. Among the self-employed, the most likely to do so were computer and mathematical scientists and engineers.
Large differences in the incidence of international collaboration exist within the same broad occupational categories (table 2). Postsecondary teachers within each occupational category were among the least likely to report international collaborations, whereas S&E managers within S&E-related occupations generally reported high involvement. Chemical engineers reported the highest level of international collaboration out of all occupations (43%), and psychologists; civil, architectural, or sanitary engineers; and environmental life scientists reported the lowest levels (7%–8%).
TABLE 2. Rate of international collaboration of employed U.S. scientists and engineers, by detailed occupation: 2006
Occupation
Total
Percent
All employed scientists and engineers
18,927,000
16.7
S&E occupations
5,024,000
28.2
Computer and mathematical scientists
2,112,000
31.6
Computer and information scientists
1,938,000
32.8
Mathematical scientists
85,000
26.3
Postsecondary teachers—computer and math sciences
90,000
10.7
Biological, agricultural, and other life scientists
487,000
23.9
Agricultural and food scientists
57,000
23.8
Biological and medical scientists
336,000
27.0
Environmental life scientists
35,000
8.2
Postsecondary teachers—life and related sciences
60,000
15.5
Physical scientists
334,000
23.9
Chemists, except biochemists
134,000
31.3
Earth scientists, geologists, and oceanographers
80,000
17.4
Physicists and astronomers
29,000
29.7
Other physical and related scientists
39,000
13.4
Postsecondary teachers—physical and related sciences
52,000
19.5
Social scientists
470,000
14.8
Economists
33,000
31.8
Political scientists
20,000
24.0
Psychologists
177,000
6.5
Sociologists and anthropologists
21,000
22.2
Other social and related scientists
103,000
20.0
Postsecondary teachers—social and related sciences
115,000
15.2
Engineers
1,621,000
29.8
Aerospace, aeronautical, or astronautical engineers
96,000
29.1
Chemical engineers
80,000
43.0
Civil, architectural, or sanitary engineers
266,000
7.4
Electrical or computer hardware engineers
395,000
35.6
Industrial engineers
93,000
37.0
Mechanical engineers
305,000
38.2
Other engineers
348,000
29.3
Postsecondary teachers—engineering
38,000
19.8
S&E-related occupations
5,246,000
7.5
Health-related occupations
3,625,000
4.2
S&E managers
382,000
33.9
S&E pre-college teachers
644,000
2.9
S&E technicians and technologists
371,000
17.4
Other S&E-related occupations
224,000
12.5
Non-S&E occupations
8,657,000
15.6
Non-S&E managers
1,118,000
29.0
Management-related occupations
1,361,000
22.6
Non-S&E precollege teachers
724,000
2.3
Non-S&E postsecondary teachers
141,000
12.6
Social services and related occupations
714,000
5.6
Sales and marketing occupations
1,435,000
18.7
Art, humanities, and related occupations
262,000
19.3
Other non-S&E occupations
2,902,000
11.2
S&E = science and engineering.
NOTES: Scientists and engineers refers to all persons who have received a bachelor's degree or higher in S&E or S&E-related field, plus persons holding a non-S&E bachelor's or higher degree who were employed in an S&E or S&E-related occupation in 2003. Numbers rounded to nearest thousand. Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT), 2006.
Travel. Nearly half of all employed scientists and engineers indicated that their foreign collaborators traveled to the United States to conduct their work. Fewer U.S. scientists and engineers reported that they themselves had traveled abroad (table 3), with more men than women reporting that they traveled abroad or that their collaborators traveled to the United States. Travel abroad for international collaboration activities increased with respondent's age and level of degree. Non-U.S.-born scientists and engineers traveled more than their U.S.-born counterparts.
TABLE 3. Employed U.S. scientists and engineers reporting international collaboration, by means of communication, demographic characteristics, and employment sector: 2006
Means of collaboration (%)
Characteristic and employment sector
Total
Telephone or e-mail
Web-based or virtual communication
Foreign collaborator traveled to United States
U.S. collaborator traveled abroad
Total reporting international collaboration
3,157,000
94.6
56.0
49.4
32.2
Sex
Male
2,293,000
95.2
57.0
53.1
36.2
Female
865,000
93.2
53.4
39.7
21.6
Place of birth
United States
2,397,000
94.2
54.4
49.0
30.3
Outside of United States
761,000
95.8
61.3
50.8
38.2
Age group
29 or younger
354,000
93.9
56.0
45.2
20.3
30–39
911,000
95.1
57.8
49.7
29.1
40–49
1,008,000
96.1
58.4
51.5
33.9
50–59
671,000
92.1
53.7
48.7
37.3
60–69
192,000
95.1
45.5
47.5
40.6
70 or older
22,000
89.0
38.9
52.1
40.5
Highest degree of educational attainmenta
Bachelor's
1,761,000
93.7
56.1
47.0
28.4
Master's
970,000
96.0
60.2
52.4
35.7
Doctorate
254,000
97.4
47.0
58.6
47.3
Employment sector
Business/industry
2,653,000
95.8
58.3
50.5
32.2
For profit
2,048,000
96.1
59.7
52.4
31.6
Self-employedb
478,000
95.1
56.8
42.9
34.2
Nonprofit
127,000
92.7
40.5
48.4
33.4
Government
216,000
87.8
48.4
41.4
29.4
Federal
146,000
89.2
50.3
43.3
35.9
State/local
69,000
84.7
44.4
37.3
15.7
Education
289,000
89.2
41.3
45.3
34.2
4-year educational institutionsc
229,000
92.7
41.5
48.5
37.7
Other educational institutionsd
60,000
75.9
40.3
33.2
20.6
S&E = science and engineering.
a Professional degrees are included in total reporting international collaboration but are not shown separately. b Includes those who are self-employed or business owners in incorporated or unincorporated businesses, professional practices, or farms. c Includes 4-year colleges or universities, medical schools (including university-affiliated hospitals or medical centers), and university-affiliated
research institutes. d Includes 2-year colleges, community colleges, or technical institutes, and other precollege institutions.
NOTES: Scientists and engineers refers to all persons who have received a bachelor's degree or higher in S&E or S&E-related field, plus persons
holding a non-S&E bachelor's or higher degree who were employed in an S&E or S&E-related occupation in 2003. Respondents can report more
than one means of collaboration. Numbers rounded to nearest thousand. Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System
(SESTAT), 2006.
Communication patterns. Scientists and engineers used multiple means of communicating during international collaboration. Virtually all scientists and engineers involved in international collaboration used telephone or e-mail, and over half used Web-based or virtual communication (table 3). Most of them combined two or more means of communication (figure 1). One out of five communicated by telephone, e-mail, or through Web-based or virtual communication without any travel involved. A similar proportion reported communicating by telephone or e-mail without any Web-based or virtual communication or travel. Sixteen percent of scientists and engineers combined all means of communication, including telephone or e-mail with Web-based or virtual communication and travel in both directions, whereas a similar proportion indicated the same pattern without traveling abroad.
U.S. scientists and engineers collaborate across national boundaries in a range of work activities. Scientists and engineers who are engaged in computer programming, systems, or applications most often reported international collaboration (26%), and those engaged in teaching or professional services least often reported international collaboration (11% and 10%, respectively) (table 4). For most work activities, rates of international collaboration among those in S&E occupations (in particular among computer and mathematical scientists; biological, agricultural, and other life scientists; and engineers) were higher than rates among those in S&E-related or non-S&E occupations, including for work activities such as teaching and professional services.
TABLE 4. International collaboration rates of employed scientists and engineers, by level of work activity engagement and broad occupation: 2006
S&E occupations
Level of work activity engagement
All occupations
All S&E occupations
Computer, mathematical scientists
Biological, agricultural, other life scientists
Physical scientists
Social scientists
Engineers
S&E-related occupations
Non-S&E occupations
All employed scientists and engineers (n)
18,927,000
5,024,000
2,112,000
487,0007
334,000
470,000
1,621,000
5,246,000
8,657,000
Rate of international collaboration
16.7
28.2
31.6
23.9
23.9
14.8
29.8
7.5
15.6
Engaged in work activity 10% of time or more
Computer programming, systems, or
applications development
26.4
32.4
28.5
28.7
20.8
29.6
29.6
17.2
21.9
R&D
22.5
30.7
33.7
26.8
27.6
19.8
31.8
12.0
20.8
Production, operations, maintenance
21.4
31.9
33.4
22.3
25.5
38.0
34.4
10.4
18.8
Quality or productivity management
20.7
33.6
38.8
25.7
26.9
21.7
32.0
10.9
19.2
Managing or supervising people or projects
20.3
32.3
36.9
28.5
29.6
19.9
31.8
9.8
19.6
Accounting, finance, contracts
20.2
27.3
31.6
25.9
25.1
23.2
25.2
12.4
19.8
Human resources, including recruiting,
personnel development, training
19.2
32.7
40.3
28.7
24.1
19.2
31.1
11.2
18.7
Sales, purchasing, marketing, customer
service, public relations
18.8
32.7
35.9
23.2
22.4
23.4
35.2
8.4
18.6
Teaching
11.0
25.9
28.0
25.4
23.7
14.6
33.7
5.1
11.1
Professional services
9.8
19.5
34.3
21.2
10.1
10.6
15.5
4.5
13.7
Engaged in as primary or secondary work
activity
Computer programming, systems, or
applications development
27.8
30.6
31.2
22.6
25.9
28.4
27.3
20.2
20.8
R&D
25.3
30.4
31.8
28.4
29.4
20.8
32.0
15.9
21.3
Production, operations, maintenance
17.1
25.4
29.0
15.3
14.9
13.1
27.7
7.4
15.7
Quality or productivity management
20.2
31.1
36.7
19.0
24.8
16.7
30.7
11.3
18.2
Managing or supervising people or projects
20.7
32.4
39.6
27.0
26.3
20.2
30.1
11.1
19.9
Accounting, finance, contracts
17.1
20.9
25.4
17.2
12.1
9.9
21.6
9.2
17.4
Human resources, including recruiting,
personnel development, training
16.3
27.3
37.1
15.3
20.9
13.3
25.6
11.1
16.1
Sales, purchasing, marketing, customer
service, public relations
18.7
34.0
36.0
11.6
28.5
19.5
40.7
7.9
18.0
Teaching
6.3
15.8
12.9
15.1
18.2
14.0
25.2
3.8
5.8
Professional services
7.5
13.4
29.3
13.9
4.6
6.7
14.0
3.6
12.3
Not engaged in work activity
Computer programming, systems, or
applications development
14.0
25.4
28.4
23.3
22.8
14.1
29.9
5.9
14.7
R&D
10.4
19.8
26.7
5.0
6.4
5.8
18.7
3.6
12.0
Production, operations, maintenance
15.8
27.3
31.2
24.4
23.1
14.0
28.1
7.1
15.0
Quality or productivity management
15.0
26.1
28.9
23.4
22.7
13.9
28.6
6.2
14.0
Managing or supervising people or projects
11.2
22.4
25.7
16.3
16.7
9.8
25.5
4.5
8.7
Accounting, finance, contracts
15.3
28.4
31.6
23.4
23.7
12.8
31.6
6.5
12.3
Human resources, including recruiting,
personnel development, training
15.7
27.2
29.9
22.7
23.8
13.8
29.5
6.3
13.9
Sales, purchasing, marketing, customer
service, public relations
15.6
27.1
30.6
24.0
24.1
12.7
28.2
7.2
12.7
Teaching
19.4
28.8
32.3
23.1
23.9
15.0
29.2
9.8
17.4
Professional services
21.2
29.7
31.3
24.4
25.6
18.6
31.8
14.2
16.6
S&E = science and engineering.
NOTES: Scientists and engineers refers to all persons who have received a bachelor's degree or higher in S&E or S&E-related field, plus persons holding a non-S&E bachelor's or higher degree who were employed in an S&E or S&E-related occupation in 2003. R&D includes basic research, applied research, development, or design activities. Respondentsmay report more than one work activity. Numbers rounded to nearest thousand. Detail may not add to total because of rounding. See SESTAT questionnaires for examples of work activity (http://nsf.gov/statistics/question.cfm#ScienceandEngineeringWorkforce).
SOURCE: National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Scientists and Engineers Statistical Data System (SESTAT), 2006.
Data presented here are from the 2006 SESTAT, which comprises three large demographic and workforce surveys of individuals conducted by the National Science Foundation: the National Survey of College Graduates, the National Survey of Recent College Graduates, and the Survey of Doctorate Recipients. The 2006 surveys included 105,064 individuals, representing a population of about 22 million scientists and engineers, including people trained in S&E or S&E-related fields or working in S&E or S&E-related occupations. All demographic, employment, and education data on scientists and engineers represent the status of these individuals at the respective survey reference dates.
Scientists and engineers include any person who has ever received a bachelor's degree or higher in an S&E or S&E-related field through 30 June 2005, plus persons holding a non-S&E bachelor's or higher degree who were employed in an S&E or S&E-related occupation on 1 October 2003.
S&E fields include biological, agricultural, environmental life sciences; computer and information sciences; mathematics and statistics; physical sciences; psychology; social sciences; and engineering. S&E-related fields include health, science and mathematics teacher education, technology and technical fields, and other S&E-related fields, such as architecture and environmental design and actuarial science. See http://sestat.nsf.gov/docs/ed03maj.html for a detailed description of the educational classification.
S&E occupations include computer and mathematical scientists; biological, agricultural, and other life scientists; physical and related scientists; social and related scientists; and engineers. S&E-related occupations include health related occupations, S&E managers, S&E pre-college teachers, S&E technicians and technologists, and other S&E-related occupations, such as architects and actuaries. See http://sestat.nsf.gov/docs/occ03maj.html for a detailed description of the occupational classification.
Notes
[1] Jaquelina Falkenheim, Science and Engineering Indicators Program, and Nirmala Kannankutty, Office of the Director, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, National Science Foundation, 4201 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 965, Arlington, VA 22230 (jfalkenh@nsf.gov; 703-292-7798) (nkannank@nsf.gov; 703-292-7797).
[2] Data on international collaboration were collected only in 2006. The wording of the question was as follows: "In performing the principal job you held during the week of April 1, 2006, did you work with individuals located in other countries?" The wording of the means of communication was "In your work with individuals located in other countries, did you...? (Mark yes or no for each item). The response categories were as follows: communicate by telephone or e-mail to conduct the work, use web-based or virtual technology to conduct the work, travel to a foreign country for collaborative activities, work with foreign collaborator(s) who traveled to the U.S. to meet with you.
References
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He T. 2009. International scientific collaboration of China with the G7 countries. Scientometrics 80(3):571–82.
Okubo Y, Miguel JF, Frigoletto L, Dore JC. 1992. Structure of international collaboration in science: typology of countries through multivariate techniques using a link indicator. Scientometrics 25(2):321–51.
Mattson P, Laget P, Nilsson A, Sundberg C-J. 2008. Intra-EU vs. extra-EU scientific co-publication patterns in EU. Scientometrics 75(3):555–74.
Schubert A, Braun T. 1990. International collaboration in the sciences, 1981–1985. Scientometrics 19(1–2):3–10.
Wagner C, Leydesdorff L. 2005. Network structure, self-organization and the growth of international collaboration in science. Research Policy 34(10):1608–18.
National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics International Collaborations of Scientists and Engineers in the United States
Arlington, VA (NSF 12-323) [August 2012]
