Chapter footnotes

Preface

1 OECD includes all members of the organization as of September 1, 2010, throughout all time series included in this report. Israel became a member on September 7, 2010, and Estonia became a member on December 9, 2010, but neither country's membership is reflected in IEO2011.

Highlights

2 Current OECD member countries (as of September 1, 2010) are the United States, Canada, Mexico, Austria, Belgium, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. Israel became a member on September 7, 2010, and Estonia became a member on December 9, 2010, but neither country's membership is reflected in IEO2011.

3 Nominal dollars per barrel of West Texas Intermediate crude oil at Cushing, Oklahoma.

4 Petroleum and other liquid fuels include petroleum-derived fuels and non-petroleum-derived liquid fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, coal-to-liquids, and gas-to-liquids. Petroleum coke, which is a solid, is included. Also included are natural gas liquids, crude oil consumed as a fuel, and liquid hydrogen.

5 "Above-ground" constraints refer to those nongeological factors that might affect supply, including: government policies that limit access to resources; conflict; terrorist activity; lack of technological advances or access to technology; price constraints on the economical development of resources; labor shortages; materials shortages; weather; environmental protection actions; and other short- and long-term geopolitical considerations.

6 U.S. Energy Information Administration, World Shale Gas Resources: An Initial Assessment of 14 Regions Outside the United States (Washington, DC, April 2011), website www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/worldshalegas/index.cfm#7.

7 "Worldwide Look at Reserves and Production," Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 106, No. 47 (December 6, 2010), pp. 46-49, website www.ogj.com (subscription site), adjusted with the EIA release of proved reserve estimates as of December 31, 2010.

World energy demand and economic outlook

8 The International Monetary Fund (World Energy Outlook 2008, October 2008, p. 43) defines a global recession to be when the world's annual gross domestic product (GDP)—on a purchasing power parity basis—increases by less than 3.0 percent. According to IHS Global Insight, world GDP increased by 2.7 percent in 2008, 0.7 percent in 2009, and 4.6 percent in 2010.

9 For consistency, OECD includes all members of the organization as of September 1, 2010, throughout all the time series included in this report. Israel became a member on September 7, 2010, and Estonia became a member on December 9, 2010, but neither country's membership is reflected in IEO2011.

10 The National Bureau of Economic Research defines a recession as "a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months, normally visible in real GDP, real income, employment, industrial production, and wholesale-retail sales." However, the shorthand version of a recession is often given as two consecutive quarters of negative growth in GDP. In September 2010, the National Bureau of Economic Research declared that the recession which began in the United States in December 2007 had ended in June 2009.

11 In IEO2011, "petroleum and other liquid fuels" includes a full array of liquid product supplies, both conventional and unconventional. Conventional liquids include crude oil and lease condensate, natural gas plant liquids, and refinery gain; unconventional liquids include biofuels, gas-to-liquids, coal-to-liquids, and unconventional petroleum products (extra-heavy oils, oil shale, and bitumen) but do not include compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG), or hydrogen.

12 A feed-in tariff is an incentive structure to encourage the adoption of renewable energy through government legislation. Under a feed-in tariff structure, regional or national electric utilities are obligated to purchase renewable electricity at a rate higher than retail, in order to allow renewable energy sources to overcome price disadvantages.

13 For a discussion of the issues surrounding extension of the operating lives of U.S. nuclear reactors to 60 years, see "U.S. nuclear power plants: Continued life or replacement after 60?" in the Issues in Focus section of EIA's Annual Energy Outlook 2010, DOE/EIA-0383(2010) (Washington, DC, April 2010), pp. 43-46, website www.eia.gov/oiaf/archive/aeo10.

14 Delivered energy consumption in the end-use sectors consists of primary energy consumption and retail sales of electricity, excluding electrical system energy losses.

15 Petroleum and other liquid fuels include petroleum-derived fuels and non-petroleum-derived liquid fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, coal-to-liquids, and gas-to-liquids. Petroleum coke, which is a solid, is included. Also included are natural gas liquids, crude oil consumed as a fuel, and liquid hydrogen.

16 For consistency, OPEC includes all members of the organization as of March 1, 2011, throughout all the time series included in this report.

17 The oil price reported in IEO2011 is for light sweet crude oil delivered to Cushing, Oklahoma. The price series is consistent with spot prices for light sweet crude oil reported on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). All oil prices are in real 2009 dollars per barrel, unless otherwise noted.

18 Compliance is measured as the actual aggregate reduction in liquids production achieved by quota-restricted members as a percentage of the group's agreed-upon production cut.

19 "Above-ground" constraints refer to those nongeological factors that could affect supply, including but not limited to government policies that limit access to resources; conflict; terrorist activity; lack of technological advances or access to technology; price constraints on the economic development of resources; labor shortages; materials shortages; weather; environmental protection actions; and short- and long-term geopolitical considerations.

20 For a discussion of GTL prospects in the United States, see EIA's Annual Energy Outlook 2010, pages 39-40.

21 Reported reserves from Oil & Gas Journal were adjusted for the United States using the most recent estimates released by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (in late December 2010).

22 The approval covers countries with which the United States currently has, or in the future will enter into, Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) calling for "national treatment for trade in natural gas." The United States has FTAs that require national treatment for trade in natural gas with the following countries: Australia, Bahrain, Singapore, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Chile, Morocco, Canada, Mexico, Oman, Peru, and Jordan. The United States has FTAs that do not require national treatment for trade in natural gas with Costa Rica and Israel.

23 "Worldwide Look at Reserves and Production," Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 106, No. 47 (December 6, 2010), pp. 46-49, website www.ogj.com (subscription site), adjusted with the EIA release of proved reserve estimates as of December 31, 2010.

24 Throughout this chapter, tons refer to short tons (2,000 pounds).

25 In Figure 70, coal imports to Europe include small amounts imported by countries in the Middle East and Africa.

26 In Figure 70, coal imports to Europe include small amounts imported by countries in the Middle East and Africa.

27 Recoverable reserves are those quantities of coal which geological and engineering information indicates with reasonable certainty can be extracted in the future under existing economic and operating conditions. The reserves-to-production ratio is based on the reserves estimates and data on world coal production for 2008 shown in Table 10.

28 See the following sections on OECD Europe (pages 94-95) and non-OECD Asia (pages 97-99).

29 Unconventional natural gas includes tight gas, shale gas, and coalbed methane.

30 A feed-in tariff is a financial incentive that encourages the adoption of renewable electricity. Under a feed-in tariff, government legislation requires electric utilities to purchase renewable electricity at a higher price than the wholesale price, allowing the renewable generator to achieve a positive return on investment despite higher costs.

31 Gulf Cooperation Council members are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Oman.

32 This conclusion could change if assumptions about the life-cycle carbon dioxide output from biomass change.

33 Light-duty vehicles include passenger cars, pickup trucks, and light-duty commercial trucks with gross vehicle weight ratings of 8,500 to 10,000 pounds.

34 Heavy-duty vehicles include trucks with gross vehicle weight ratings of 10,001 pounds and above, as well as intercity buses, school buses, and transit buses.

35 The "load factor" represents the percentage of seats filled relative to total seating capacity on a given aircraft.

36 The passenger transport load of trains is a measure of how much of a train's passenger carrying capacity is used. It is usually calculated as passenger-miles traveled as a percentage of seat-miles available. Seat-miles are calculated as the number of seats available for each mile traveled by the train.

37 Motor vehicles include cars, buses, and freight vehicles but do not include two-wheelers.

38 Flexible-fuel vehicles can operate using 100 percent ethanol, 100 percent motor gasoline, or any combination of the two fuels.

39 In IEO2011, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions are defined as emissions related to the combustion of fossil fuels (liquid fuels, natural gas, and coal) and those associated with petroleum feedstocks. Emissions from the flaring of natural gas are not included.

40 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2010: Executive Summary (Paris, France, November 2010), p. 46.

41 IEA reported energy-equivalent biofuels consumption of 3.5 million barrels per day, which has been converted to volumetric terms for purposes of comparison.

42 Turkey is an Annex I nation that has not ratified the Framework Convention on Climate Change and did not commit to quantifiable emissions targets under the Kyoto Protocol. In 2001, the United States withdrew from the Protocol.