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Page last reviewed: 04/13/2010
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Reproductive Hazards
Exposure to reproductive hazards in the workplace is an increasing health concern. Reproductive hazards are substances or agents that may affect the reproductive health of women or men or the ability of couples to have healthy children. These hazards may cause problems such as infertility, miscarriage, and birth defects.
OSHA has standards specific to chemicals such as lead; 1, 2-Dibromo-3 Chloropropane; and ethylene oxide that are known to have an adverse effect on the reproductive system.
OSHA Standards
This section highlights OSHA standards, Federal Register notices and standard interpretations (official letters of interpretation of the standards) related to reproductive hazards.
Note: Twenty-five states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have OSHA-approved State Plans and have adopted their own standards and enforcement policies. For the most part, these States adopt standards that are identical to Federal OSHA. However, some States have adopted different standards applicable to this topic or may have different enforcement policies.
General Industry (29 CFR 1910)
- 1910 Subpart
Z, Toxic and hazardous substances [related topic page]
- 1910.97, Nonionizing Radiation. Describes the kinds of non-ionizing radiation, warning symbols used and formula for calculating radiation levels which should not be exceeded.
- 1910.1000, Air contaminants. Identifies hazardous chemicals many of which are potential reproductive hazards.
- 1910.1020, Access to employee exposure and medical records. OSHA requires the reporting of employee exposure to hazardous chemicals and allows access to these records by employees.
- 1910.1025, Lead. Describes guidelines for hazard protection from lead exposure including reproductive hazards. [related topic page]
- 1910.1030, Bloodborne Pathogens. Describes requirements for protection from exposure to bloodborne pathogens. [related topic page]
- 1910.1044, 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP). Describes exposure hazards to reproductive health and provides requirements for partial protection from these risks.
- Appendix A, Substance safety data sheet for DBCP
- Appendix B, Substance technical guidelines for DBCP
- Appendix C, Medical surveillance guidelines for DBCP
- 1910.1047, Ethylene oxide. Provides requirements for safe handling of ethylene oxide which includes hazard protection for reproductive health. [related topic page]
- Appendix A, Substance safety data sheet for ethylene oxide (Non-mandatory)
- Appendix B, Substance technical guidelines for ethylene oxide (Non-mandatory)
- Appendix C, Medical surveillance guidelines for ethylene oxide (Non-mandatory)
- 1910.1096, Ionizing Radiation. Describes types of ionizing radiation, warning symbols used, radiation levels which should not be exceeded and personal monitoring.
- 1910.1200, Hazard communication. In compliance with this standard, all personnel involved in any aspect of the handling of covered hazardous chemicals must receive information and training to appraise them of these hazards in the work area. [related
topic page]
Federal Registers
- Occupational Exposure to 1,3-Butadiene. Final Rule, Federal Register 61:56746-56856, (1996, November 4). Final standard revisions, include sections mentioning adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes.
- Occupational Exposure to 2-Methoxyethanol, 2-Ethoxyethanol and their Acetates (Glycol Ethers). Proposed Rules, Federal Register 54:15526-15632, (1993, March 23). Proposed standard revision for occupational exposure to Methoxyethanol, Ethoxyethanol and Glycol Ethers, to address specifically the adverse health effects on reproductive and developmental health.
- Search all available Federal Registers.
Standard Interpretations
Hazard Recognition
From the Preamble to NIOSH's National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) Statement on Reproductive Hazards.
"While more than 1,000 workplace chemicals have shown reproductive effects in animals, most have not been studied in humans. In addition, most of the 4 million other chemical mixtures in commercial use remain untested. Physical and biological agents in the workplace that may affect fertility and pregnancy outcomes are practically unstudied. The inadequacy of current knowledge coupled with the ever-growing variety of workplace exposures pose a potentially serious public health problem.
General Information
The following references provide general information that addresses the following issues:
- What are reproductive hazards?
Reproductive hazards are substances or agents that may affect the reproductive health of women or men or the ability of couples to have healthy children. Hazards may be chemical, physical or biological. Examples of reproductive hazards are lead (chemical), radiation (physical) and certain viruses (biological).
- What are the routes of exposure?
Workers may be exposed to reproductive hazards by breathing them in (inhalation), by contact with skin (dermal) and by swallowing them (ingestion).
- What are the potential health effects of exposure?
Potential health effects include infertility, miscarriage, birth defects and developmental disorders in children.
- Can a worker expose his/her family to these hazards?
Yes, a worker can expose his/her family to these hazards by bringing them home from the workplace, for example, on his/her skin, hair, clothes, shoes, tools or car. It is important to prevent these exposures by the use of workplace engineering controls, proper work practices and good hygiene.
- The Effects of Workplace Hazards on Female Reproductive Health. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 99-104, (1999, February). Addresses exposure, prevention, and reproductive hazards for female workers and their unborn babies.
- The Effects of Workplace Hazards on Male Reproductive Health. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 96-132, (1997, January 23). Identifies steps to reduce or prevent workplace exposure to reproductive hazards.
Chemical Reproductive Hazards
- OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (1999, January 20).
- Ethylene Oxide [47 KB PDF*, 2 pages]. OSHA Fact Sheet, (2002). Provides list of exposure hazards including reproductive hazards with safety measures and controls outlined by the Ethylene Oxide standard.
- Ethylene Oxide Sterilizers in Health Care Facilities: Engineering Controls and Work Practices. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Current Intelligence Bulletin 52, (1989, July 13). Describes exposure control methods for sterilizers, including Work Practice Guidelines, available to copy and post at sterilizers, supply cylinders, and mechanical access rooms.
- Ethylene Oxide (EtO):Understanding OSHA’s Exposure Monitoring Requirements Making the Right Decisions – How to Comply with the EtO Standard [182 KB PDF*, 32 pages]. OSHA Publication No. 3325-01N, (2007).
- Small Business Guide for Ethylene Oxide [14 MB PDF*, 88 pages]. OSHA Publication No. 3359-04, (2009). Helps employers understand the EtO standard with particular emphasis on how to monitor air quality in workplaces where EtO is processed, used or handled.
- Occupational Exposure to Antineoplastic Agents. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Safety and Health Topic. This is an expanded bibliography of related publications drawn from the published literature related to the Alert above. Additional information can also be found on NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic Hazardous Drug Exposures in Health Care.
- Preventing Occupational Exposure to Antineoplastic and Other Hazardous Drugs in Health Care Settings. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 2004-165 (Alert), (2004, September). Also available as a 3 MB PDF, 58 pages. Increases awareness among healthcare workers and their employers about the health risks posed by working with hazardous drugs and provides them with measures for protecting their health.
- Anesthetic Gases: Guidelines for Workplace Exposures. OSHA, (2000, May 18). Provides preventive measures to help minimize hazards including reproductive hazards from exposure to anesthetic gases.
- NIOSH Warns: Nitrous Oxide Continues to Threaten Health Care Workers. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-118 (Update), (1994, June 14). Warns health professionals that scavenging systems need to be continuously monitored and maintained to effectively reduce exposure to nitrous oxide.
- Controlling Exposures to Nitrous Oxide During Anesthetic Administration. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100 (Alert), (1994). A Worker/Employer Summary Sheet is also available. Presents control measures for preventing or greatly reducing exposure to nitrous oxide during the administration of anesthetic gas.
- For additional information on hazardous drugs, see OSHA's Hazardous Drugs Safety and Health Topics Page.
Physical Reproductive Hazards
- Women
in the Construction Workplace: Providing Equitable Safety and Health Protection. OSHA, (1999, June). Recognizes the unique risks associated with females in construction trades, including reproductive hazards.
- OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (1999, January 20).
- Physical Agents. Contains general exposure and health effects information for ionizing radiation sources in health care facilities.
- Ionizing Radiation Fact Book [1 MB PDF, 22 pages]. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) EPA-402-F-06-061, (2007, March). Contains a general description of ionizing radiation types, sources, and health effects.
- Radiation and Pregnancy: A Fact Sheet for the Public. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Discusses possible health effects to unborn babies from exposure to radiation.
Biological Reproductive Hazards
- Healthcare-associated Infections (HAIs). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID). Provides a list of primary, CDC published, guidelines and recommendations for the prevention of Healthcare-Associated Infections.
- OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (1999, January 20).
Possible Solutions
Hierarchy of Controls
Workplace Hazards to Reproduction and Development: A Resource for Workers, Employers, Health Care Providers, and Health & Safety Personnel [210 KB PDF, 8 pages]. Washington State Department of Labor and Industries, (1999). In this 1999 publication, Washington State Department of Labor and Industries defines hierarchy of controls as "a ranking of methods that can be used in the workplace to prevent or minimize worker exposures - from the most effective to the least effective. Conceptually, a workplace exposure can be visualized as a source of potentially hazardous material, and a pathway along which the hazardous material travels to reach and affect the worker. The exposures can be controlled by eliminating the source (product substitution), capturing the contaminant along the pathway (engineering controls), and finally controlling exposures at the worker (personal protective equipment [PPE], administrative controls, and personal hygiene). This ranking of controls applies to practically all workplace exposures, and is readily applicable to reproductive and developmental hazards."
Resources
General Reproductive Hazards
- Hospital. OSHA eTool. The following modules help hospital workers recognize and control hazards associated with reproductive health:
- Central Supply Module
- Pharmacy Module
Physical Reproductive Hazards
- Standards for Protection Against Radiation. 10 CFR 20, Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The NRC requires licensees to maintain exposure to the fetus of an occupationally exposed individual to 500 mrem (5 mSv) or less during the gestation period.
- Radiation Protection Policy. US Department of Energy (DOE). The Office of Health, Safety and Security develops and issues DOE's occupational radiation protection policy, requirements and guidance.
Chemical Reproductive Hazards
- Controlling Exposures to Nitrous Oxide During Anesthetic Administration. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100 (Alert), (1994). A Worker/Employer Summary Sheet is also available. Presents control measures for preventing or greatly reducing exposure to nitrous oxide during the administration of anesthetic gas.
- Ethylene Oxide [47 KB PDF*, 2 pages]. OSHA Fact Sheet, (1995, January 1). Provides exposure hazards including reproductive hazards with safety measures and controls outlined by the ethylene oxide standard.
- Ethylene Oxide Sterilizers in Health Care Facilities: Engineering Controls and Work Practices. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Current Intelligence Bulletin 52, (1989, July 13). Describes exposure control methods for sterilizers, including Work Practice Guidelines, available to copy and post by sterilizers, supply cylinders, and mechanical access rooms.
- OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (1999, January 20).
- Occupational Exposures to Antineoplastic Agents. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Safety and Health Topic. In September 2004, NIOSH published an Alert: Preventing Occupational Exposures to Antineoplastic and Other Hazardous Drugs in Health Care Setting [DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2004-165]. DHHS(NIOSH) This topic page is an expanded bibliography of related publications drawn from the published literature related to the Alert. Additional information on this topic can also be found on the NIOSH Hazardous Drug Exposures in Health Care topic page.
- NIOSH Warns: Nitrous Oxide Continues to Threaten Health Care Workers. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-118 (Update), (1994, June 14). Warns health professionals that scavenging systems need to be continuously monitored and maintained to effectively reduce exposure to nitrous oxide.
- Anesthetic Gases: Guidelines for Workplace Exposures. OSHA, (2000, May 18). Provides preventive measures to help minimize hazards including reproductive hazards from exposure to anesthetic gases.
- For additional information on hazardous drugs, see OSHA's Hazardous Drugs Safety and Health Topics Page.
Biological Reproductive Hazards
- Healthcare-associated Infections (HAIs). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Infectious Diseases (NCID). Provides a list of primary, CDC published, guidelines and recommendations for the prevention of Healthcare-Associated Infections.
Additional Information
Related Safety and Health Topics Pages
Other Resources
- Screening and Surveillance: A Guide to OSHA Standards [365 KB PDF*, 40 pages]. OSHA Publication 3162, (2009). This is a quick reference to help you locate and implement the screening and surveillance requirements of the OSHA standards in Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations (29 CFR).
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and is the federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related injury and illness.
- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 2005-149, Third printing 2007. Also available as a 6 MB PDF, 454 pages. Provides general industrial hygiene information on several hundred chemicals/classes for workers, employers, and occupational health professionals.
- Reproductive Health. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Workplace Safety and Health Topic. Provides links to reproductive health issues and information.
- Women's
Safety and Health Issues at Work. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Workplace Safety and Health Topic. Provides links to resources and documents related to reproductive health hazards.
- Office of Health Assessment and Translation. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Toxicology Program (NTP). Provides the latest information about potentially hazardous effects of chemicals on human reproduction and development.
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). ATSDR is a federal public health agency of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ATSDR serves the public by using the best science, taking responsive public health actions, and providing trusted health information to prevent harmful exposures and diseases related to toxic substances.
- Workplace Hazards to Reproduction and Development: A Resource for Workers, Employers, Health Care Providers, and Health & Safety Personnel [210 KB PDF, 8 pages]. Washington State Department of Labor and Industries.
- California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA). The mission of the Cal/EPA is to restore, protect and enhance the environment, to ensure public health, environmental quality and economic vitality.
This topics page is not a standard or regulation and it creates no new legal obligations. It contains recommendations as well as descriptions of mandatory safety and health standards. The recommendations are advisory in nature, informational in content and are intended to assist employers in providing a safe and healthful workplace. The Occupational Safety and Health Act requires employers to comply with safety and health standards and regulations promulgated by OSHA or by a state with an OSHA-approved state plan. In addition, the Act’s General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1), requires employers to provide their employees with a workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm.
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