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Cadmium

Cadmium is an extremely toxic metal commonly found in industrial workplaces, particularly where any ore is being processed or smelted. Due to its low permissible exposure limit (PEL), overexposures may occur even in situations where trace quantities of cadmium are found in the parent ore or smelter dust. Cadmium is used extensively in electroplating, although the nature of the operation does not generally lead to overexposures. Several deaths from acute exposure have occurred among welders who have unsuspectingly welded on cadmium-containing alloys or worked with silver solders. Cadmium is also found in some industrial paints and may represent a hazard when sprayed. Operations involving removal of cadmium paints by scraping or blasting may similarly pose a significant hazard. Cadmium is also present in the manufacture of some types of batteries. Cadmium emits a characteristic brown fume (CdO) upon heating, which is relatively non-irritating, and thus does not alarm the exposed individual.

OSHA Standards

Exposures to cadmium are addressed in specific standards for general industry, shipyard employment, construction industry and the agricultural industry. This section highlights OSHA standards, preambles to final rules (background to final rules), Federal Registers (rules, proposed rules, and notices), directives (instructions for compliance officers), and standard interpretations (official letters of interpretation of the standards) related to cadmium. Twenty-five states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have OSHA-approved State Plans and have adopted their own standards and enforcement policies. For the most part, these States adopt standards that are identical to Federal OSHA. However, some States have adopted different standards applicable to this topic or may have different enforcement policies.

General Industry (29 CFR 1910)

  • 1910 Subpart B, Adoption and extension of established federal standards
    • 1910.19, Special provisions for air contaminants

  • 1910 Subpart Z, Toxic and hazardous substances [related topic page]
    • 1910.1027, Cadmium. Applies to the worksites covered by 29 CFR 1910.16 (longshoring and marine terminals) unless specified otherwise.
      • Appendix A, Substance safety data sheet - cadmium
      • Appendix B, Substance technical guidelines for cadmium
      • Appendix C, Qualitative and quantitative fit testing procedures [removed]
      • Appendix D, Occupational health history interview with reference to cadmium exposure
      • Appendix E, Cadmium in workplace atmospheres
      • Appendix F, Nonmandatory protocol for biological monitoring

Shipyard Employment (29 CFR 1915)

Construction Industry (29 CFR 1926)

  • 1926 Subpart Z, Toxic and hazardous substances
    • 1926.1127, Cadmium. The requirements applicable to construction work under these appendices are identical to those set forth in the appendices of this chapter 29 CFR 1910.1027.
      • Appendix A, Substance safety data sheet - cadmium
      • Appendix B, Substance technical guidelines for cadmium
      • Appendix C, Qualitative and quantitative fit testing procedures [removed]
      • Appendix D, Occupational health history interview with reference to cadmium exposure
      • Appendix E, Cadmium in workplace atmospheres
      • Appendix F, Nonmandatory protocol for biological monitoring

Agricultural Industry (29 CFR 1928)

Preambles to Final Rules

  • Occupational Exposure to Cadmium. (1992). Reviews the existing regulations for occupational exposures in other countries worldwide. The range of existing PELs runs from the ban of all non-essential uses of cadmium in Sweden to OSHA's existing time weighted average (TWA) PEL of 200ug/m(3) for cadmium dust, which was originally set forth by American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

  • Search all available preambles to final rules.

Federal Registers

  • Standards Improvement Project-Phase II; Final Rule. Final Rules 70:1111-1144, (2005, January 5). Revises or removes a number of health provisions in its standards for general industry, shipyard employment, and construction that are outdated, duplicative, unnecessary, or inconsistent. For example: OSHA removes the requirement for a physician to sign a medical opinion regarding whether an employee may continue to work in cadmium-exposed jobs from the cadmium standards 29 CFR 1910.1027, 29 CFR 1915.1027, and 29 CFR 1926.1127.

  • Occupational Safety and Health Standards for Cadmium in Shipyard Employment and Construction. Final Rules 59:146-215, (1994, January 3). Corrects an error in the final rule, which appeared in the Federal Register on July 1, 1993, and had the effect of mistakenly inferring that the cadmium standard for shipyard employment from the Code of Federal Regulations was being deleted though the preamble made it clear it was retained. OSHA has redesignated the cadmium standard for construction employment. The redesignation merged it in with the newly created subpart that contains specific toxic substance standards for construction.

  • Employee exposure to Cadmium. Final Rules 57:42389, (1992, September 14). Discusses the events that lead to the development of the proposal, cadmium's physical properties, manufacture and use, the health effects associated with exposure to cadmium, and the degree and the significance of the risk.

  • Search all available Federal Registers.

Directives

  • Recordkeeping Policies and Procedures Manual. CPL 02-00-135, (2004, December 30). Creates a recordkeeping manual for the rule that assembles recordkeeping compliance policies and procedures from several existing OSHA Instructions. Recording Criteria for Cases Involving Medical Removal. The employer is required to record the case on the OSHA 300 Log if an employee is medically removed under the medical surveillance requirements of an OSHA standard. Currently the medical surveillance requirements of OSHA's Cadmium standards [General industry standard (29 CFR 1910.1027(l)); Shipyard standard (29 CFR 1915.1027); and Construction standard (29 CFR 1926.1127)] have medical removal requirements.

  • Search all available directives.

Standard Interpretations

Health Effects

Hazards are present in every work environment; being unaware of them, especially when dealing with cadmium, can have critical, even fatal, consequences. Cadmium hazards may be present in a number of seemingly unrelated operations and materials, such as paints, batteries, and phosphate fertilizers. Included among the references listed below are most of the major activities in which cadmium exposure may or has occurred. The following links provide information about the health effects of cadmium:

  • Occupational Exposure to Cadmium. OSHA Preambles to Final Rules, (1992).
    • V. Health Effects. Documents the adverse health effects from acute and chronic exposure to cadmium in both humans and animals.
      • Acute — Indicates that metal fume fever may result from acute exposure with flu-like symptoms of weakness, fever, headache, chills, sweating and muscular pain. Acute pulmonary edema usually develops within 24 hours and reaches a maximum by three days. If death from asphyxia does not occur, symptoms may resolve within a week.
      • Chronic — Identifies the most serious consequence of chronic cadmium poisoning is cancer (lung and prostate). The first observed chronic effect is generally kidney damage, manifested by excretion of excessive (low molecular weight) protein in the urine. Cadmium also is believed to cause pulmonary emphysema and bone disease (osteomalcia and osteoporosis). The latter has been observed in Japan ("itai-itai" disease) where residents were exposed to cadmium in rice crops irrigated with cadmium-contaminated water. Cadmium may also cause anemia, teeth discoloration (Cd forms CdS) and loss of smell (anosmia).
    • IV. Chemical Identification, Production, and Use of Cadmium. Identifies cadmium (Chemical Services Registry Number 7740-43-9) as a soft, blue-white malleable, lustrous metal or a grayish-white powder that is insoluble in water and reacts readily with dilute nitric acid. A primary use for cadmium metal is as an anticorrosive, electroplated onto steel. Cadmium may serve as an electrode component in alkaline batteries and may be used in alloys, silver solders, and welding.
  • Cadmium compounds (as Cd). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), (1994, May). Provides an Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) document that includes acute toxicity data for cadmium.

  • Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Cadmium. US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 76-192, (1976, August). Proposes a recommended standard based on the health effects of exposure to cadmium.

  • Cadmium (Cd). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Current Intelligence Bulletin 42, (1984, September 27). Estimates that approximately 1,500,000 workers may be potentially exposed to cadmium, of which approximately 100,000 are identified with exposure to specific cadmium compounds or with industries that utilize cadmium (based on data from the National Occupational Hazard Survey). Sources of potential worker exposure to cadmium include ore smelting operations, mist from cadmium-containing electroplating baths, calcination (drying) of cadmium pigments, and handling of powdered cadmium oxide in production of cadmium soaps that are used to stabilize plastics.

  • TOXNET for Cadmium Compounds. The National Library of Medicine Hazardous Substance Database.

  • Report on Carcinogens (RoC). US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Toxicology Program (NTP). Identifies and discusses agents, substances, mixtures, or exposure circumstances that may pose a health hazard due to their carcinogenicity. The listing of substances in the RoC only indicates a potential hazard and does not establish the exposure conditions that would pose cancer risks to individuals.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks for Humans [61 KB PDF, 21 pages]. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Classification: Carcinogenic to humans (Group 1).

  • Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Register (ATSDR), (2008, September).

  • ToxFAQs for Cadmium. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), (2008, September). Answers the most frequently asked health questions about cadmium.

  • Cadmium (CASRN 7440-43-9). Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Discusses the health effects of cadmium.

  • Cadmium Compounds. Environmental Protection Agency. Lists cadmium compounds as a Hazardous Air Pollutant (HAP) under the National Emissions Standard Hazardous Air Pollutants section of its Clean Air Act.

  • Cadmium [626 KB PDF, 6 pages]. New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services, Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet, (1998, July). Provides a summary source of information of all potential and most severe health hazards that may result from cadmium exposure.

  • International Chemical Safety Cards: Cadmium. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), (2005, April 22). Summarizes essential health and safety information on cadmium.

  • Worker Notification Program - Cadmium Recovery Workers (Cadmium). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Includes sections on the following subjects: NIOSH Kidney Study, NIOSH Mortality Study, charts that show the risk of dying from lung cancer for cadmium workers at the plant, Steps to Protect Your Health, Estimated "Relative" Risk of Dying from Lung Cancer, and Additional Resources.

  • MJ Thun, et al. "Mortality among a cohort of U.S. cadmium workers--an update." Journal of the National Cancer Institute 74, no. 2 (1985): 325-33.

  • Potential Hazards Associated With The Refurbishing of Gas Meters. OSHA Health Information Bulletin (HIB), (2001, December 21). Also available as a 26 KB PDF, 3 pages. Warns of potential cadmium dust exposure for employers and employees who repair or refurbish gas meters. Cleaning the threaded male gas inlet and outlet fitting on gas meters, called "ferrules" or "spuds", with high-speed rotating wire brushes may release cadmium dust. Employers at gas meter repair shops should determine whether meters being worked on are plated with cadmium and, if so, determine if workers are exposed.

  • Cadmium Overexposure in the Aircraft Repair Industry. OSHA Health Information Bulletin (HIB), (1989, February 21). Identifies a potential health hazard in the aircraft servicing, repairing, and maintenance industry resulting from exposure to cadmium dust. An inspection of an Eastern Airlines landing gear shop revealed employee exposures to 85 times the ceiling limit (0.5 mg/m(3)). Unventilated grinding activities to cadmium plated landing gear components were the cause.

  • Shipyard Employment. OSHA eTool.

Exposure Evaluation

It is important that once the potential exposures are identified, an exposure assessment be conducted. Standard particulate and fume sampling techniques are used to evaluate cadmium exposures. Potential for cadmium ingestion may be indicated by wipe sampling. Biological monitoring for urinary cadmium biomarkers is also useful.

  • Cadmium [491 KB PDF*, 29 pages]. OSHA Publication 3136-06R, (2004). Provides a general overview of cadmium related to OSHA standards.

Analytical Methods

OSHA

OSHA has developed and validated methods for use by the Salt Lake Technical Center (SLTC) laboratory. The following method has been adopted by many laboratories for the analysis of chemical compounds. Exposures should be evaluated with standard total dust sampling techniques for comparison to the OSHA permissible exposure limits (PEL).

For additional information, see OSHA's Sampling and Analysis Safety and Health Topics Page.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

Biological Standards

Interpreting Biological Sampling

OSHA regulates cadmium under 29 CFR 1910.1027 for general industry and 29 CFR 1926.1127 for the construction industry. The standards include biological monitoring (29 CFR 1910.1027 Appendix F). If cadmium in urine exceeds 3 µg/g creatinine, or if Beta-2 microglobulin (indicating excessive protein excretion) exceeds 300 µg/g creatinine, or if Dc in whole blood exceeds 5 µg/liter, a reassessment of the employee's exposure and follow up medical surveillance is required. Note: The medical action/removal levels have been reduced as of January 1, 1999. See 29 CFR 1910.1027 Appendix A, Table A for the new levels (scroll to find Table A). There are OSHA Separate Engineering Control Airborne Limits (SECALs) for certain processes.

Respiratory Exposure Limits

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for cadmium are 10 µg/m3 [8 hour Time-Weighted Average (TWA)] and 2 µg/m3 [8 hour TWA] for respirable fraction. OSHA regulates cadmium under 29 CFR 1910.1027 for general industry and 29 CFR 1926.1127 for construction with an 8 hour Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of 5 µg/m3.

Possible Solutions

Controlling exposure to cadmium can be done through engineering controls, administrative actions, and personal protective equipment (PPE). Engineering controls include such things as isolating the source and using ventilation systems. Administrative actions include limiting the worker's exposure time and providing showers. PPE includes wearing the proper respirator protection and clothing. Primary control should focus on inhalation. Inhaled cadmium is more readily absorbed into the body than is ingested cadmium. Intake of cadmium by ingestion and skin absorption are considered to be of relatively less importance in occupational settings.

  • Cadmium [491 KB PDF*, 29 pages]. OSHA Publication 3136-06R, (2004). Provides a general overview of cadmium related to OSHA standards.

  • NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 2005-149, (2007, September). Provides a physical description, exposure limits, measurement method, personal protection and sanitation, first aid, respirator recommendations, exposure routes, symptoms, target organs, and cancer sites.
  • Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 81-123, (1981, January). Contains information on identification, physical and chemical properties, health hazards, exposure limits, exposure sources and control methods, monitoring, personal hygiene, storage, spills and leaks, and personal protective equipment.

For additional information regarding controlling exposures to cadmium, see the following OSHA's Safety and Health Topics Pages on:

Case Studies

  • Dionne Williams. "Highlighting IH Successes: OSHA's industrial hygienists demonstrate their far-reaching work and its direct impact on workers' safety and health." Job Safety & Health Quarterly (JSHQ) 14.1, Fall (2002). Determines that the facility used coatings that contained cadmium prevent corrosion. Although the coating process was done elsewhere, employees at the facility involved in sandblasting and finished work were exposed to cadmium levels in excess of the OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL). The employer, who had ignored several earlier warnings from a consultant to monitor for cadmium, finally installed a downdraft table for the buffing and polishing operation, as well as a more effective abrasive blasting booth. These actions, combined with improved housekeeping, now protect workers from overexposure to cadmium.

  • Zero-Waste Dry Plating Commercialization. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Describes a unique dry plating concept that has been developed. Electroplating is known to generate large quantities of hazardous waste. Cadmium electroplating in cyanide baths is of significant environmental concern. This alternative Dry Plating method eliminates liquid chemicals and recycles metals in situ without waste. Dry plating uses a novel vapor deposition technique for cadmium or zinc. Cadmium coatings of acceptable quality and uniformity have been plated on batches of steel fasteners.

Additional Information

Related Safety and Health Topics Pages

Training

Other Resources

Cadmium Production

  • Technical Fact Sheet for Cadmium [163 KB PDF, 4 pages]. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (2000, August). Identifies cadmium as a chemical that may be present in industrial hazardous wastes. Most cadmium used in the United States is a soft metal or powder obtained as a by-product from the treatment of copper, lead and iron ores. Uses for cadmium include: plating metal parts, plastic stabilizers, fertilizers, batteries. Manufacturers that may use cadmium include: alloys and fabricated metal parts, plastics, paints and pigments, fertilizer, chemical reagents and/or intermediates. Several different alternatives and processes are available to eliminate or reduce the amount of cadmium used in manufacturing operations.

  • Cadmium [155 KB PDF, 7 pages]. US Geological Survey, (2003). Compares estimated cadmium metal production in the United States in 2002 with 2003 and reports production declined by about 4% in 2003 and apparent domestic consumption declined by about 5% compared with consumption in 2002. Sales from the National Defense Stockpile, operated by the Defense Logistics Agency of the US Department of Defense, ceased at the beginning of 2003 owing to depletion of its inventory. In the United States, only two companies produced cadmium in 2003 - Pasminco Ltd. produced primary cadmium as a byproduct of the smelting and refining of zinc concentrates, the International Metals Reclamation Company Inc (INMETCO) produced secondary cadmium from scrap, almost entirely from spent nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries.

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