Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Maesen & S. M. Almeida, Fabaceae

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Present on Pacific Islands?  yes

Primarily a threat at high elevations?  no

Risk assessment results: 

Reject, score: 9 (Go to the risk assessment (Australia))
High risk, score: 24 (Go to the risk assessment (Pacific))
Risk assessment from the Government of Queensland, Australia (PDF format).
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization risk analysis and report.

Other Latin names:  Dolichos lobatusWilld.; Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi; Pueraria thunbergiana(Sieb. & Zucc.) Benth.; Pueraria triloba (Houtt.) T. Makino

Common name(s): [more details]

Chinese: ge ma mu

English: Japanese arrowroot, kudsu, kudzu

Fijian: nggariaka, wa yaka, yaka

Niuean: aka, aka fala, fou gau

Samoan: a‘a, a‘a

Tongan: aka, akataha, fue‘ae puaka

Wallisian: aka, aka

Yapese: dedai, deday

Habit:  vine

Description:  "Coarse, twining or creeping vine with thickened or tuberous roots. Stems up to 10 m long, somewhat woody, covered with long, yellow-brown hairs. Leaves alternate, trifoliate, with a rachis 8-20 cm long. Leaf margins wavy, leaf surfaces softly pubescent. Flowers in many-flowered axillary racemes 15-40 cm long. Calyx long-hairy, divided more than half way into five unequal lobes; corolla papilionaceous, violet with a yellow spot, and 14-20 mm long. Stamens ten, diadelphous. Fruit a densely brown-hairy, flat, oblong-linear pod 9-12 cm long, 8-12 seeded"  (Whistler, 1983; p. 53).

Description from Flora of China online.

Habitat/ecology:  "Riparian habitats, forest edges, woodland.  A native of forest margins, occurring up to 2,000 m elevation.  This nitrogen-fixing and fast growing vine can quickly cover shrubs and trees with a dense tangle of stems, smothering them and shading out all other vegetation.  Stems easily root at nodes and form mats that may be more than 2 m tick.  The vine is able to smother trees up to 35 m tall, eventually killing them"  (Weber, 2003; p. 351).  Wild forms grow between 30 and 1860 m. Cultivated forms are more common in high altitude areas up to 2700 m altitude (GPPIS).

In Hawai‘i, "naturalized in low elevation disturbed areas, at least up to 700 m"  (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 693-695). In Tonga, "frequent in thickets" (Yuncker, 1959; pp. 147-148).

Propagation:  Primarily by runners and rhizomes. Limited spread by seed.  "Seeds are dispersed by birds and mammals"  (Weber, 2003; p. 351).

Native range:  Eastern and southern Asia, into the Pacific as far as Tonga (GRIN).

Presence:

Pacific
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 43)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Olosega Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2001) (voucher ID: PTBG 35124) Taxon name on voucher: Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 47)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1990) Vouchers cited: Garber 651, Whistler 1377
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1945) (p. 42) Voucher cited: Garber 651 (BISH)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island	introduced abo. intro.	Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. (2003) (p. 53)
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2002) (voucher ID: PTBG 38839) Taxon name on voucher: Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. var. var. lobata (Willd.) Maesen & S. M.
American Samoa Manu‘a Islands	Ta‘u Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (1990) (voucher ID: PTBG 9140) Taxon name on voucher: Pueraria montana var. lobata
American Samoa Tutuila Islands	Tutuila Island	probably introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 37)
Australia (Pacific offshore islands) Norfolk Islands	Norfolk Island	introduced invasive	Orchard, Anthony E., ed. (1994) (p. 9) "Introduced and naturalised in the Hundred Acre Reserve". Voucher cited: W.R. Sykes NI 529 (CHR)
Federated States of Micronesia Chuuk Islands	Chuuk Islands	native	Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 96)
Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei Islands	Pohnpei Island	introduced invasive	Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. (2010) (p. 96) Vouchers cited: T. Hosokawa 5845 (BISH), M. Takamatsu 597 (BISH) Naturalized
Federated States of Micronesia Yap Islands	Yap (Waqab) Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 117)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Fiji Islands		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 96)
Fiji Fiji Islands	Kambara Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 226-227) Voucher cited: Smith 1268
Fiji Fiji Islands	Lakemba Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 226-227) Voucher cited: Garnock-Jones 823
Fiji Fiji Islands	Taveuni Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 226-227) Voucher cited: Gillespie 4703
Fiji Fiji Islands	Vanua Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 226-227) Vouchers cited: Seemann 114, DA 13909, Bierhorst F167
Fiji Fiji Islands	Viti Levu Island	introduced invasive cultivated abo. intro.	Smith, Albert C. (1985) (pp. 226-227) Vouchers cited: Greenwood 161, Degener 14942, Smith 9668, Greenwood 161A, DA 5629, DA 11746, DA 10791, DA 3371
French Polynesia Society Islands	Moorea Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 159) Voucher cited: Florence 4931
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced	Meyer, Jean-Yves (2000) (p. 94) "Potential invader".
French Polynesia Society Islands	Raiatea (Havai) Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 159) Vouchers cited: Fosberg & Sachet 63135, Florence 3797, BRY 26681
French Polynesia Society Islands	Taha‘a Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 159) Voucher cited: BRY 26539
French Polynesia Society Islands	Tahiti Island	introduced invasive	Welsh, S. L. (1998) (p. 159) Vouchers cited: Fosberg 67758, Florence 7726
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Hawai‘i (Big) Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 693, 695, 1879)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Kaua‘i Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 693, 695, 1879)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	Maui Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 693, 695, 1879)
State of Hawaii Hawaiian Islands	O‘ahu Island	introduced invasive	Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. (1999) (pp. 693, 695, 1879)
Japan (offshore islands) Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands		Kato, Hidetoshi (2007) As Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
Kiribati Tungaru (Gilbert) Islands	Tarawa Atoll		Swarbrick, John T. (1997) (p. 96) Presence not verified.
New Caledonia Îles Loyauté (Loyalte Islands)	Île Maré	probably native cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 88-89) Voucher cited: Virot 1573
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
New Caledonia New Caledonia	New Caledonia Islands	native	Jaffré, T./Morat, P./Veillon, J-M./Rigault, F./Dagostini, G. (2001) (p. 78)
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Grande Terre	probably native cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 88-89) Vouchers cited: Montrouzier 54 (LY), Vieilard 377, Pancher s.n. s.loc., Balansa 3330, Pennel 44, Cribs 1206, Compton 605, Gifford 3, MacKee 4249, Blanchon 1477 (NOU), Botton in Veillon 1114 (NOU), Corbasson in MacKee 20287
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île des Pins (Isle of Pines)	probably native cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 88-89) Vouchers cited: Virot 1018, MacKee 23553
New Caledonia New Caledonia Archipelago	Île Yande	probably native cultivated	MacKee, H. S. (1994) (pp. 88-89) Voucher cited: Däniker 2971
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced abo. intro.	Sykes, W. R. (1970) (p. 159) Voucher cited: CHR 150547
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 27)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2000) (p. 25)
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Whistler, W. A./Atherton, J. (1997) (p. 35) Voucher cited: 10871
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive	Yuncker, T. G. (1943) (p. 65) Vouchers cited: Yuncker 9711 (BISH), Yuncker 10124 (BISH), Yuncker 10227 (BISH) "Common along roadsides, in plantations, waste areas, and clearings".
Niue Niue	Niue Island	introduced invasive abo. intro.	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate (2004) (p. 50)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce (1979) (p. 117)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island	native	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 102)
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.) (1981) (voucher ID: BNM 3056) Taxon name on voucher: Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
Palau Palau (main island group)	Babeldaob Island		National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.) (2007) (voucher ID: PTBG 47520) Taxon name on voucher: Pueraria montana var. lobata
Palau Palau (main island group)	Koror Island	native	Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar (2003) (p. 98)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Papua New Guinea Bismarck Archipelago	Bismarck Archipelago		Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty] (1984) (p. 255)
Papua New Guinea Bougainville Islands	Bougainville Island		Foreman, D. B. (1971) (p. 45)
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	Papua New Guinea (eastern New Guinea Island)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Philippines Philippine Islands	Philippine Islands	native	Merrill, Elmer D. (1923) (p. 312) As Pueraria thunbergiana. In open grasslands and thickets at low and medium altitudes, in Benguet ascending to 2,000 m.
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Savai‘i Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 71)
Samoa Western Samoa Islands	Upolu Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2002) (p. 68)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Solomon Islands Solomon Islands	Solomon Islands	native	Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. (1988) (p. 104)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Ha‘ano Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 74)
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Lifuka Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 147-148) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15984
Tonga Ha‘apai Group	Tofua Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 31) Voucher cited: Scarth-Johnson 12
Tonga Tonga Islands	Tonga Islands		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 147-148) "Frequent throughout Tonga".
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 62)
Tonga Tongatapu Group	‘Eua Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 147-148) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15556
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 31) Vouchers cited: Lister s.n., Soakai 267
Tonga Tongatapu Group	Tongatapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 147-148) Voucher cited: Yuncker 15176
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Niuatoputapu Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 147-148) Voucher cited: Hürlimann 354
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island	introduced invasive	Space, James C./Flynn, Tim (2001) (p. 68)
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Whistler, W. A. (1992) (p. 31) Voucher cited: Crosby 35
Tonga Vava‘u Group	Vava‘u Island		Yuncker, T. G. (1959) (pp. 147-148) Cited: Crosby.
Vanuatu New Hebrides Islands	Vanuatu (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Futuna Island	native	Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. (1985) Morat & Veillon, 1985, cited in Meyer, 2007
Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna (Horne) Islands	Wallis and Futuna Islands		Whistler, W. A. (1988) (p. 27)

Pacific Rim
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
Australia Australia (continental)	Australia (continental)	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2010)
Australia Australia (continental)	Queensland	introduced invasive	Queensland Herbarium (2002) (p. 6) As Pueraria lobata (kudzu)
China China	China (People's Republic of)	native	Zhengyi, Wu/Raven, Peter H./Deyuan, Hong (2011) "Mountain forests, thickets, open places".
Indonesia Indonesia	Indonesia (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Japan Japan	Japan (country)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Japan Ryukyu Islands	Ryukyu Islands	native	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2010)
North Korea North Korea	North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
South Korea South Korea	South Korea (Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Malaysia Malaysia	Malaysia (country of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Mexico Mexico	Mexico (United Mexican States)	introduced invasive	Weber, Ewald (2003) (p. 351)
Panama Panama	Panama (Republic of)	introduced	ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre (2010)
Taiwan Taiwan	Taiwan Island	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
Thailand Thailand	Thailand (Kingdom of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (Oregon)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2010)
United States (west coast) United States (west coast states)	USA (Washington)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2010)
Vietnam Vietnam	Vietnam (Socialist Republic of)	native	U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. (2010)

Also reported from
Country/Terr./St. & Island group	Location	Cited status & Cited as invasive & Cited as cultivated & Cited as aboriginal introduction?	Reference & Comments
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	United States (other states)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2010)
United States (continental except west coast) United States (other states)	USA (Florida)	introduced	U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. (2010)

Comments:  A serious environmental weed in the southern US. Proposed as a noxious weed in South Africa.

An aboriginal introduction to Western Polynesia, cultivated for its edible root.

Fosberg et al (1979; p. 117) list as a native species on Palau and Yap.

Control: 

Physical:  Once established, the vine is difficult to control.  Frequent close cutting will exhaust the plant's stored food supply in the roots and will eventually kill it. Control includes grazing by goats and persistent weeding or mowing.  If manually controlled, all roots should be removed to prevent regrowth  (Weber, 2003; p. 351).

Chemical: "An effective herbicide is triclopyr"  (Weber, 2003; p. 351).

Biological: Biological control information from the publication "Biological control of invasive plants in the eastern United States".

Additional information:
Fact sheet on Pueraria lobata var. montana on the web site of the Alien Plants Working Group, "Weeds Gone Wild".
1-pagecolor-illustrated info sheet from HEAR
Kudzu ("Pueraria lobata" [now Pueraria montana]) factsheet  (PDF format) from Virginia Department of Conservation & Recreation's invasive plant species list
Photos and additional information at University of Florida, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants.
Photos and additional information at the Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants.
Information from the Purdue University NewCROP web site.
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization datasheet (PDF format).
Information from the World Agroforestry Centre's AgroForestryTree Database.
Information from the Global Invasive Species Database.
Information from the publication "Nonnative invasive plants of Southern forests: A field guide for identification and control".
Information from the Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council Invasive Plant Manual.
Information from the book "Identification and biology of non-native plants in Florida's natural areas" (PDF format).
Species profile from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Invasive Species Information Center.
Information sheet from Weedbusters New Zealand.

Additional online information about Pueraria montana is available from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR).

Information about Pueraria montana as a weed (worldwide references) may be available from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW).

Taxonomic information about Pueraria montana may be available from the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

References:

Beleu National Museum (Republic of Palau. Koror.). 1981. Voucher specimen #BNM3056(Timberlake, J. 3056).

Foreman, D. B. 1971. A check list of the vascular plants of Bougainville, with descriptions of some common forest trees. Botany Bulletin No. 5. Division of Botany, Department of Forests. Lae, New Guinea. 194 pp.

Fosberg, F. R./Sachet, Marie-Hélène/Oliver, Royce. 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica 15:1-295.

Hancock, I. R./Henderson, C. P. 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara. 203 pp.

Herrera, Katherine/Lorence, David H./Flynn, Timothy/Balick, Michael J. 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia, in press. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawai‘i. 146 pp.

ILDIS Co-ordinating Centre. 2010. International Legume Database & Information Service. Online searchable database.

Jaffré, T./Morat, P./Veillon, J-M./Rigault, F./Dagostini, G. 2001. Composition and characterisation of the native flora of New Caledonia. Documents Scientifiques et Techniques, II4, IRD, Centre de Noum&#eacute;a, 121 p.

Kato, Hidetoshi. 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo Metropolitan University. Personal communication.

Langeland, K. A./Burks, K. Craddock. eds. 1998. Identification and biology of non-native plants in Florida's natural areas. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida. 165 pp.

MacKee, H. S. 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 164 p.

Merlin, M./Kigfas, A./Keene, T./Juvik, J. 1996. Giddi nge gakiiy nu Wa‘ab: Plants, People and Ecology in Yap State. Program on Environment, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai‘i, 121 pp.

Merrill, Elmer D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 2 [reprint]. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 530 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Countries). In: Sherley, G. (tech. ed.). Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical review and draft regional strategy. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Samoa. 190 pp.

Meyer, Jean-Yves. 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire [unpublished report]. Délégation à la Recherche, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti, Polynésie française. 39 pp.

Miller, James H. 2003. Nonnative invasive plants of Southern forests: A field guide for identification and control. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-62. 93 p.

Morat, Ph./Veillon, J.-M. 1985. Contribution à la connaissance de la végétation et de la flore de Wallis & Futuna. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris, 4e sér., 7, section B. Adansonia 3 : 259-329.

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2001. Voucher specimen #PTBG35124(David H. Lorence 8735).

National Tropical Botanical Garden (U.S.A. Hawaii. Kalaheo.). 2002. Voucher specimen #PTBG38839(David H. Lorence 8873).

Orchard, Anthony E., ed. 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Peekel, P. G. [translated by E. E. Henty]. 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 638 pp. ISBN 9980-66-000-7.

Queensland Herbarium. 2002. Invasive Naturalised Plants in Southeast Queensland, alphabetical by genus. Modified from: Batianoff, George N. and Butler, Don W. (2002). Assessment of Invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland. Appendix. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 27-34. 11 pp.

Ragone, Diane/Lorence, David H. 2003. Botanical and ethnobotanical inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii and Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.

Smith, Albert C. 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Volume 3. 758 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 51 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 34 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern.  USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 78 pp.

Space, James C./Flynn, Tim. 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 83 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara M./Newfield, Melanie/Bull, Cate. 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Space, James C./Waterhouse, Barbara/Miles, Joel E./Tiobech, Joseph/Rengulbai, Kashgar. 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 174 pp.

Swarbrick, John T. 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper no. 209. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 pp.

Sykes, W. R. 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200, Wellington. 321 pp.

U. S. Government. 2010. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) (on-line resource).

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. 2010. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online searchable database.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Nat. Res. Cons. Serv. 2010. The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Van Driesche, Roy/Lyon, Suzanne/Blossey, Bernd/Hoddle, Mark/Reardon, Richard. 2002. Biological control of invasive plants in the eastern United States. USDA Forest Service Publication FHTET-2002-04. 413 pp.

Wagner, Warren L./Herbst, Derral R./Sohmer, S. H. 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication. University of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 1919 pp. (two volumes).

Weber, Ewald. 2003. Invasive plants of the World. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 548 pp.

Welsh, S. L. 1998. Flora Societensis: A summary revision of the flowering plants of the Society Islands. E.P.S. Inc., Orem, Utah. 420 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1983. Weed Handbook of Western Polynesia. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn. 151 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of western Polynesia. Technical Paper No. 194, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 69 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1990. The weeds of Manu‘a [unpublished checklist]. 18 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1991. The ethnobotany of Tonga: The plants, their Tongan names, and their uses. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Botany 2. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 155 pp. ISBN 0-930897-57-9.

Whistler, W. A. 1992. Flora of Tonga [unpublished checklist]. 107 pp.

Whistler, W. A. 1995. Wayside Plants of the Islands. Isle Botanica, Honolulu. 202 pp.

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