Disclaimer: These guidelines were developed under contract using generally accepted secondary sources. The protocol used by the contractor for surveying these data sources was developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Department of Energy (DOE). The information contained in these guidelines is intended for reference purposes only. None of the agencies have conducted a comprehensive check of the information and data contained in these sources. It provides a summary of information about chemicals that workers may be exposed to in their workplaces. The secondary sources used for supplements 111 and 1V were published before 1992 and 1993, respectively, and for the remainder of the guidelines the secondary sources used were published before September 1996. This information may be superseded by new developments in the field of industrial hygiene. Therefore readers are advised to determine whether new information is available.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH GUIDELINE FOR ETHYLENE DIBROMIDE
INTRODUCTION
This guideline summarizes pertinent information about ethylene dibromide for
workers and employers as well as for physicians, industrial hygienists, and
other occupational safety and health professionals who may need such
information to conduct effective occupational safety and health programs.
Recommendations may be superseded by new developments in these fields;
readers are therefore advised to regard these recommendations as general
guidelines and to determine whether new information is available.
SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION
* Formula
C(2)H(4)Br(2)
* Structure
(For Structure, see paper copy)
* Synonyms
1,2-Dibromoethane, ethylene bromide, Bromofume, Dowfume EDB,
Soilbrom 40, DBE, EDB, glycol bromide, blycol dibromide
* Identifiers
1. CAS No.: 106-93-4
2. RTECS No.: KH9275000
3. DOT UN: 1605 55
4. Specific DOT label: Poison
* Appearance and odor
Ethylene dibromide is a colorless, heavy, nonflammable liquid with a
mild, chloroform-like odor. The minimum air odor threshold concentration is
10 parts per million (ppm) parts of air.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
* Physical data
1. Molecular weight: 187.9
2. Boiling point (at 760 mm Hg): 131 degrees C (268 degrees F)
3. Specific gravity (water = 1): 2.17 at 25 degrees C (77 degrees F)
4. Vapor density: 6.5
5. Freezing point: 9 degrees C (48.2 degrees F)
6. Vapor pressure at 25 degrees C (77 degrees F): 11 mm Hg
7. Solubility: Slightly soluble in water; soluble in alcohol, ether,
acetone, and benzene.
8. Evaporation rate: Data not available.
* Reactivity
1. Conditions contributing to instability: Heat and/or light cause
ethylene dibromide to decompose slowly to produce hydrogen bromide, and
moisture causes it to hydrolyze slowly.
2. Incompatibilities: Ethylene dibromide reacts with chemically active
metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, powdered aluminum, zinc, and
magnesium, with liquid ammonia, and with strong oxidizers.
3. Hazardous decomposition products: Toxic gases and vapors (such as
hydrogen bromide, bromine, and carbon monoxide) may be released in a fire
involving ethylene dibromide.
4. Special precautions: None reported.
* Flammability
The National Fire Protection Association has assigned a flammability
rating of 0 (no fire hazard) to ethylene dibromide.
1. Flash point: Nonflammable
2. Autoignition temperature: Nonflammable
3. Flammable limits in air: Nonflammable
4. Extinguishant: Use an extinguishant that is suitable for the materials
involved in the surrounding fire.
Fires involving ethylene dibromide should be fought upwind from the
maximum distance possible. Isolate the hazard area and deny access to
unnecessary personnel. Firefighters should wear a full set of protective
clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus when fighting fires involving
ethylene dibromide.
EXPOSURE LIMITS
* OSHA PEL
The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
permissible exposure limits (PELs) for ethylene dibromide are 20 parts per
million (ppm) parts of air ()as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA)
concentration, 30 ppm() as an acceptable ceiling concentration with a maximum
duration of 5 minutes, and 50 ppm as an acceptable maximum peak [29 CFR
1910.1000, Table Z-2].
* NIOSH REL
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
has established a recommended exposure limit (REL) for ethylene dibromide of
0.045 ppm ()as a TWA for up to a 10-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek and
0.13 ppm as a 15-minute ceiling. NIOSH considers ethylene dibromide a
potential occupational carcinogen [NIOSH 1992].
* ACGIH TLV
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) has designated ethylene dibromide as an A2 substance (suspected human
carcinogen) and has not assigned a numerical limit. The ACGIH assigns a
"Skin" notation, which indicates that the cutaneous route of exposure
(including mucous membranes and eyes) contributes to overall exposure [ACGIH
1994, p. 21].
* Rationale for Limits
The NIOSH limit is based on the risk of potential for cancer;
mutagenesis; damage to the skin, eyes, heart, liver, spleen, central
nervous system, and reproductive and respiratory systems [NIOSH
1992].
The ACGIH designation is based on the potential for cancer [ACGIH
1991, p. 607].
HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION
* Routes of Exposure
Exposure to ethylene dibromide can occur through inhalation,
ingestion, and eye or skin contact, and absorption through the skin [Sittig
1991, p. 758].
* Summary of toxicology
1. Effects on Animals: Ethylene dibromide is a severe mucous membrane,
eye, and skin irritant. It is a liver, kidney, and lung toxin, and a
reproductive toxin in experimental animals. Ethylene dibromide has been
determined to be carcinogenic by the inhalation, ingestion, and dermal routes
of exposure. In rats, the lowest lethal concentration by inhalation is 400
ppm for 2 hours; the oral LD(50) is 108 mg/kg. The dermal LD(50) in rabbits
is 300 mg/kg [NIOSH 1995]. In experimental animals, a single exposure to
ethylene dibromide vapor led to cell damage and swelling of the lungs, liver,
and kidneys. Depression of the central nervous system was also noted. Rats
were unable to survive exposure to 3,000 ppm for longer than 6 minutes. Death
from high concentrations occurs within 24 hours as a result of central
nervous system depression and cardiopulmonary failure. Low-level exposures
may cause fatal pneumonia and death within 12 days. Chronic exposure to
ethylene dibromide affects the lungs, liver, spleen, and circulatory system.
In cats exposed 30 minutes per day for 10 days to 100 ppm ethylene dibromide,
some deaths were caused by damage to the circulatory system and spleen
enlargement [ACGIH 1991]. In another chronic exposure study involving
several species, some rats and mice exposed to 100 ppm died within 2 weeks
from damage to the lungs, liver, and spleen; at 50 ppm, half of the exposed
rats died of pneumonia. Exposure to 25 ppm was tolerated by rats, guinea
pigs, and rabbits for 6 months without noticeable effect [Clayton and Clayton
1982]. Dermal exposure to undiluted ethylene dibromide or to a 10 percent
solution caused death in rabbits within 24 hours [Hathaway et al. 1991].
Repeated skin exposure to 1 percent ethylene dibromide in butylcarbitol
acetate caused redness, swelling, cell death, and sloughing of the
superficial layers of skin of rabbits. Eye exposure to undiluted ethylene
dibromide caused pain and irritation, which cleared within 2 days, and
superficial corneal necrosis, which healed completely [Clayton and Clayton
1982]. The mutagenic potential of ethylene dibromide is well established in
both plant and animal systems [ACGIH 1991]. Animal studies have shown
reproductive effects in exposed males; these effects consist of testicular
atrophy in rats, and sperm abnormalities and decreased sperm count in bulls.
The concurrent exposure to disulfiram (Antabuse) potentiated the reproductive
toxicity of ethylene dibromide [Hathaway et al. 1991]. In another animal
study, minor skeletal abnormalities were observed in the offspring of mice
and rats following gestational exposure of 32 ppm [ACGIH 1991]. Four
long-term bioassays for the carcinogenicity of ethylene dibromide have been
conducted: two by inhalation, one by oral gavage, and the other by skin
painting. After an extensive review of these studies, the International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) found sufficient evidence of the
carcinogenicity of ethylene bromide to animals. This classification was
based on 1) the adenomas and carcinomas of the nasal cavity, hemangiosarcomas
of the spleen, mammary tumors, subcutaneous mesenchymal tumors, an increased
incidence of alveolar/bronchiolar lung tumors in animals of each species, and
an increased incidence of peritoneal mesotheliomas in male rats following
inhalation of ethylene dibromide; 2) squamous-cell carcinomas of the
forestomach in animals of each species, an increased incidence of
alveolar/bronchiolar lung tumors in mice of each sex, liver carcinomas in
female rats, hemangiosarcomas in male rats and esophageal papillomas in
female mice following oral administration; skin and lung tumors in mice
following skin application of ethylene dibromide [IARC 1987; ACGIH 1991].
2. Effects on Humans: Ethylene dibromide is a severe eye, mucous
membrane, and skin irritant, and a liver, kidneys, and lungs toxin. The
epidemiological evidence for ethylene dibromide's carcinogenicity in humans
is inconclusive because of limitations in study design, inadequate latency
periods, and incomplete exposure data [Hathaway et al. 1991; ACGIH 1991].
There is no evidence that ethylene dibromide causes fertility or fetal
problems in workers [NLM 1995]. Human fatalities from ethylene dibromide
exposure have been caused by acute liver and kidney damage. One reported
case involved two workers who collapsed while inside a tank that was later
found to contain a 0.1% to 0.3% ethylene dibromide solution. Both
individuals experienced vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and burning of
the eyes and throat. Acute kidney and liver failure preceded death [ACGIH
1991]. In another case, a woman ingested 4.5 ml of ethylene dibromide and
died after experiencing vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, and kidney failure; at
autopsy, massive liver and kidney damage was seen [Hathaway et al. 1991].
Contact of the skin with ethylene dibromide causes pain, hyperemia, and
blistering, and may cause sensitization [Hathaway et al. 1991].
* Signs and symptoms of exposure
1. Acute exposure: Exposures to concentrations of 100 to 200 of ethylene
dibromide cause abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and eye and respiratory
irritation [ACGIH 1991]. Other signs and symptoms of acute inhalation
exposure are lung congestion and edema, followed by delayed-onset pneumonia
[Parmeggiani 1983] and drowsiness, headache, loss of appetite, and central
nervous system depression [Genium 1989]. The liquid chemical on the skin
causes redness, swelling, burning pain, blisters, and ulceration [Parmeggiani
1983; Clayton and Clayton 1982]. Ingestion causes excitement, headache,
ringing in the ears, generalized weakness, a weak pulse, severe protracted
vomiting, and liver and kidney failure; death may follow severe overexposures
[Parmeggiani 1983; Hathaway et al. 1991].
2. Chronic exposure: Chronic exposure to ethylene dibromide causes
irritation of the conjunctiva, upper respiratory tract irritation, severe
loss of appetite, headache, and depression [ACGIH 1986].
EMERGENCY MEDICAL PROCEDURES
* Emergency medical procedures: [NIOSH to supply]
5. Rescue: Remove an incapacitated worker from further exposure and
implement appropriate emergency procedures (e.g., those listed on the
Material Safety Data Sheet required by OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard
[29 CFR 1910.1200]). All workers should be familiar with emergency
procedures, the location and proper use of emergency equipment, and methods
of protecting themselves during rescue operations.
EXPOSURE SOURCES AND CONTROL METHODS
The following operations may involve ethylene dibromide and lead to worker
exposures to this substance:
* The manufacture and transportation of ethylene dibromide * Use as a
fumigant in preplanting operations, and on grains, fruits, tobacco, seeds,
seed beds, and vegetables; in mills and warehouses * Use in antiknock
fluids and fuels; as a scavenger for lead in gasoline
* Use in production of waterproofing agents, fire extinguishing agents,
and gauge fluids during manufacture of measuring instruments * Use in
organic synthesis in production of dyes, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, vinyl
bromide, and ethylene oxide; used as a specialty solvent for resins, gums,
waxes, celluloid, fats, and oils
Methods that are effective in controlling worker exposures to ethylene
dibromide, depending on the feasibility of implementation, are as follows:
* Process enclosure * Local exhaust ventilation * General dilution
ventilation * Personal protective equipment
Workers responding to a release or potential release of a hazardous
substance must be protected as required by paragraph (q) of OSHA's Hazardous
Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard [29 CFR 1910.120].
Good sources of information about control methods are as follows:
1. ACGIH [1992]. Industrial ventilation--a manual of recommended
practice. 21st ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists.
2. Burton DJ [1986]. Industrial ventilation--a self study companion.
Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
3. Alden JL, Kane JM [1982]. Design of industrial ventilation systems.
New York, NY: Industrial Press, Inc.
4. Wadden RA, Scheff PA [1987]. Engineering design for control of
workplace hazards. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
5. Plog BA [1988]. Fundamentals of industrial hygiene. Chicago, IL:
National Safety Council.
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
OSHA is currently developing requirements for medical surveillance. When
these requirements are promulgated, readers should refer to them for
additional information and to determine whether employers whose employees are
exposed to ethylene dibromide are required to implement medical surveillance
procedures.
* Medical Screening
Workers who may be exposed to chemical hazards should be monitored
in a systematic program of medical surveillance that is intended to prevent
occupational injury and disease. The program should include education of
employers and workers about work-related hazards, early detection of adverse
health effects, and referral of workers for diagnosis and treatment. The
occurrence of disease or other work-related adverse health effects should
prompt immediate evaluation of primary preventive measures (e.g., industrial
hygiene monitoring, engineering controls, and personal protective equipment).
A medical surveillance program is intended to supplement, not replace, such
measures. To detect and control work-related health effects, medical
evaluations should be performed (1) before job placement, (2) periodically
during the term of employment, and (3) at the time of job transfer or
termination.
* Preplacement medical evaluation
Before a worker is placed in a job with a potential for exposure to
ethylene dibromide, a licensed health care professional should evaluate and
document the worker's baseline health status with thorough medical,
environmental, and occupational histories, a physical examination, and
physiologic and laboratory tests appropriate for the anticipated occupational
risks. These should concentrate on the function and integrity of the skin,
eyes, respiratory tract, liver, and kidneys. Medical surveillance for
respiratory disease should be conducted using the principles and methods
recommended by the American Thoracic Society.
A preplacement medical evaluation is recommended to assess medical
conditions that may be aggravated or may result in increased risk when a
worker is exposed to ethylene dibromide at or below the prescribed exposure
limit. The health care professional should consider the probable frequency,
intensity, and duration of exposure as well as the nature and degree of any
applicable medical condition. Such conditions (which should not be regarded
as absolute contraindications to job placement) include a history and other
findings consistent with diseases of the skin, eyes, respiratory tract,
liver, and kidneys.
* Periodic medical evaluations
Occupational health interviews and physical examinations should be
performed at regular intervals during the employment period, as mandated by
any applicable Federal, State, or local standard. Where no standard exists
and the hazard is minimal, evaluations should be conducted every 3 to 5 years
or as frequently as recommended by an experienced occupational health
physician. Additional examinations may be necessary if a worker develops
symptoms attributable to ethylene dibromide exposure. The interviews,
examinations, and medical screening tests should focus on identifying the
adverse effects of ethylene dibromide on the skin, eyes, respiratory tract,
liver, or kidneys. Current health status should be compared with the
baseline health status of the individual worker or with expected values for a
suitable reference population.
* Termination medical evaluations
The medical, environmental, and occupational history interviews, the
physical examination, and selected physiologic or laboratory tests that were
conducted at the time of placement should be repeated at the time of job
transfer or termination to determine the worker's medical status at the end
of his or her employment. Any changes in the worker's health status should
be compared with those expected for a suitable reference population. Because
occupational exposure to ethylene dibromide may cause diseases with prolonged
latent periods, the need for medical surveillance may extend well beyond the
termination of employment.
* Biological monitoring
Biological monitoring involves sampling and analyzing body tissues
or fluids to provide an index of exposure to a toxic substance or metabolite.
No biological monitoring test acceptable for routine use has yet been
developed for ethylene dibromide.
WORKPLACE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT
Determination of a worker's exposure to airborne ethylene dibromide is made
using a charcoal tube (100/50 mg sections, 20/40 mesh). Samples are collected
at a maximum flow rate of 0.2 liter/minute (for TWA, ceiling, or peak
samples) until a maximum collection volume of 10 liters is reached (TWA) or
for a minimum time of 5 minutes for ceiling or peak samples. The sample is
then treated with xylene. Analysis is conducted by gas chromatography using
an electron capture detector (GC/ECD). This method is fully validated and is
described in the OSHA Computerized Information System [OSHA 1994] and in
NIOSH Method No. 1008 [NIOSH 1994b].
PERSONAL HYGIENE PROCEDURES
If ethylene dibromide contacts the skin, workers should immediately wash the
affected areas with soap and water.
Clothing contaminated with ethylene dibromide should be removed immediately,
and provisions should be made for the safe removal of the chemical from the
clothing. Persons laundering the clothes should be informed of the hazardous
properties of ethylene dibromide, particularly its potential for causing
systemic toxicity through dermal absorption.
A worker who handles ethylene dibromide should thoroughly wash hands,
forearms, and face with soap and water before eating, using tobacco products,
using toilet facilities, applying cosmetics, or taking medication.
Workers should not eat, drink, use tobacco products, apply cosmetics, or
take medication in areas where ethylene dibromide or a solution containing
ethylene dibromide is handled, processed, or stored.
STORAGE
Ethylene dibromide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area in
tightly sealed containers that are labeled in accordance with OSHA's Hazard
Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]. Containers of ethylene dibromide
should be protected from physical damage and should be stored separately from
chemically active metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, powdered
aluminum, zinc, and magnesium, liquid ammonia, and strong oxidizers.
SPILLS AND LEAKS
In the event of a spill or leak involving ethylene dibromide, persons not
wearing protective equipment and fully-encapsulating, vapor-protective
clothing should be restricted from contaminated areas until cleanup has been
completed. The following steps should be undertaken following a spill or
leak:
1. Notify safety personnel.
2. Ventilate to reduce concentration of ethylene dibromide.
3. Do not touch the spilled material.
4. Stop leak if this can be done without risk.
5. Water spray may be used to reduce vapors.
6. For small liquid spills, take up with sand or other noncombustible
absorbent material and place into closed containers for later disposal.
7. For large liquid spills, build dikes far ahead of the spill to contain
the ethylene dibromide for later reclamation or disposal.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements for emergency
planning, reportable quantities of hazardous releases, community
right-to-know, and hazardous waste management may change over time. Users are
therefore advised to determine periodically whether new information is
available.
* Emergency planning requirements
Ethylene dibromide is not subject to EPA emergency planning
requirements under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
(Title III) in 42 USC 11022.
* Reportable quantity requirements for hazardous releases
A hazardous substance release is defined by EPA as any spilling,
leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting,
escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the
abandonment or discarding of contaminated containers) of hazardous
substances. In the event of a release that is above the reportable quantity
for that chemical, employers are required to notify the proper Federal,
State, and local authorities [40 CFR 355.40].
The reportable quantity of ethylene dibromide is 1 pound. If an
amount equal to or greater than this quantity is released within a 24-hour
period in a manner that will expose persons outside the facility, employers
are required to do the following:
- Notify the National Response Center immediately at (800)
424-8802 or at (202) 426-2675 in Washington, D.C. [40 CFR 302.6].
* Community right-to-know requirements
Employers who own or operate facilities in SIC codes 20 to 39 that
employ 10 or more workers and that manufacture 25,000 pounds or more of
ethylene dibromide per calendar year or otherwise use 10,000 pounds or more
of ethylene dibromide per calendar year are required by EPA [40 CFR Part
372.30] to submit a Toxic Chemical Release Inventory form (Form R) to EPA
reporting the amount of ethylene dibromide emitted or released from their
facility annually.
* Hazardous waste management requirements
EPA considers a waste to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the
following characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or
toxicity as defined in 40 CFR 261.21-261.24. Under the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) [40 USC 6901 et seq.], EPA has specifically listed
many chemical wastes as hazardous. Ethylene dibromide is listed as a
hazardous waste under RCRA and has been assigned EPA Hazardous Waste No.
U067. It is approved for land disposal after treatment and only if the
concentration of ethylene dibromide in the waste or treatment residual does
not exceed 15 mg/kg.
Providing detailed information about the removal and disposal of
specific chemicals is beyond the scope of this guideline. The U.S.
Department of Transportation, EPA, and State and local regulations should be
followed to ensure that removal, transport, and disposal of this substance
are conducted in accordance with existing regulations. To be certain that
chemical waste disposal meets EPA regulatory requirements, employers should
address any questions to the RCRA hotline at (703) 412-9810 (in the
Washington, D.C. area) or toll-free at (800) 424-9346 (outside Washington,
D.C.). In addition, relevant State and local authorities should be contacted
for information on any requirements they may have for the waste removal and
disposal of this substance.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
* Conditions for respirator use
Good industrial hygiene practice requires that engineering controls
be used where feasible to reduce workplace concentrations of hazardous
materials to the prescribed exposure limit. However, some situations may
require the use of respirators to control exposure. Respirators must be worn
if the ambient concentration of ethylene dibromide exceeds prescribed
exposure limits. Respirators may be used (1) before engineering controls
have been installed, (2) during work operations such as maintenance or repair
activities that involve unknown exposures, (3) during operations that require
entry into tanks or closed vessels, and (4) during emergencies. Workers
should only use respirators that have been approved by NIOSH and the Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).
* Respiratory protection program
Employers should institute a complete respiratory protection program
that, at a minimum, complies with the requirements of OSHA's Respiratory
Protection Standard [29 CFR 1910.134]. Such a program must include
respirator selection, an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the
work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel,
respirator fit testing, periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator
maintenance, inspection, and cleaning. The implementation of an adequate
respiratory protection program (including selection of the correct
respirator) requires that a knowledgeable person be in charge of the program
and that the program be evaluated regularly. For additional information on
the selection and use of respirators and on the medical screening of
respirator users, consult the latest edition of the NIOSH Respirator Decision
Logic [NIOSH 1987b] and the NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection
[NIOSH 1987a].
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Workers should use appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment
that must be carefully selected, used, and maintained to be effective in
preventing skin contact with ethylene dibromide. The selection of the
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., gloves, sleeves,
encapsulating suits) should be based on the extent of the worker's potential
exposure to ethylene dibromide. The resistance of various materials to
permeation by ethylene dibromide is shown below:
Material |
Breakthrough time (hr) |
|
Polyvinyl Alcohol |
>8 |
Teflon |
>8 |
Viton |
>8 |
Butyl Rubber |
<1(*) |
Nitrile Rubber |
<1(*) |
Polyethylene |
<1(*) |
Polyvinyl Chloride |
<1(*) |
Saranex |
<1(*) |
(*) Not recommended, degradation may occur
To evaluate the use of these PPE materials with ethylene dibromide, users
should consult the best available performance data and manufacturers'
recommendations. Significant differences have been demonstrated in the
chemical resistance of generically similar PPE materials (e.g., butyl)
produced by different manufacturers. In addition, the chemical resistance of
a mixture may be significantly different from that of any of its neat
components.
Any chemical-resistant clothing that is used should be periodically
evaluated to determine its effectiveness in preventing dermal contact. Safety
showers and eye wash stations should be located close to operations that
involve ethylene dibromide.
Splash-proof chemical safety goggles or face shields (20 to 30 cm long,
minimum) should be worn during any operation in which a solvent, caustic, or
other toxic substance may be splashed into the eyes.
In addition to the possible need for wearing protective outer apparel (e.g.,
aprons, encapsulating suits), workers should wear work uniforms, coveralls,
or similar full-body coverings that are laundered each day. Employers should
provide lockers or other closed areas to store work and street clothing
separately. Employers should collect work clothing at the end of each work
shift and provide for its laundering. Laundry personnel should be informed
about the potential hazards of handling contaminated clothing and instructed
about measures to minimize their health risk.
Protective clothing should be kept free of oil and grease and should be
inspected and maintained regularly to preserve its effectiveness.
Protective clothing may interfere with the body's heat dissipation,
especially during hot weather or during work in hot or poorly ventilated work
environments.
REFERENCES
ACGIH [1991]. Documentation of the threshold limit values and biological
exposure indices. 6th ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
ACGIH [1994]. 1994-1995 Threshold limit values for chemical substances and
physical agents and biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, OH: American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
ATS [1987]. Standardization of spirometry -- 1987 update. American
Thoracic Society. Am Rev Respir Dis 136:1285-1296.
CFR. Code of Federal regulations. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.
Clayton G, Clayton F [1981-1982]. Patty's industrial hygiene and
toxicology. 3rd rev. ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
DOT [1993]. 1993 Emergency response guidebook, guide 55. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Hazardous Materials
Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration.
Forsberg K, Mansdorf SZ [1993]. Quick selection guide to chemical
protective clothing. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Genium [1989]. Material safety data sheet No. 492. Schenectady, NY: Genium
Publishing Corporation.
Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, Hughes JP, and Fischman ML [1991]. Proctor and
Hughes' chemical hazards of the workplace. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
IARC [1987]. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of
chemicals to man. Supplement 7. Lyon, France: World Health Organization,
International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Lewis RJ, ed. [1993]. Hawley's condensed chemical dictionary. 12th ed. New
York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Lide DR [1993]. CRC handbook of chemistry and physics. 73rd ed. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc.
Mickelsen RL, Hall RC [1987]. A breakthrough time comparison of nitrile and
neoprene glove materials produced by different glove manufacturers. Am Ind
Hyg Assoc J 48(11): 941-947.
Mickelsen RL, Hall RC, Chern RT, Myers JR [1991]. Evaluation of a simple
weight-loss method for determining the permeation of organic liquids through
rubber films. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 52(10): 445-447.
NFPA [1986]. Fire protection guide on hazardous materials. 9th ed. Quincy,
MA: National Fire Protection Association.
NIOSH [1987a]. NIOSH guide to industrial respiratory protection.
Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-116.
NIOSH [1987b]. NIOSH respirator decision logic. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 87-108.
NIOSH [1992]. Recommendations for occupational safety and health:
Compendium of policy documents and statements. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 92-100.
NIOSH [1994a]. NIOSH pocket guide to chemical hazards. Cincinnati, OH:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers
for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-116.
NIOSH [1994b]. NIOSH manual of analytical methods. 4th ed. Cincinnati, OH:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers
for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-113.
NIOSH [1995]. Registry of toxic effects of chemical substances: Ethylene
Dibromide. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Standards Development and
Technology Transfer, Technical Information Branch.
NLM [1995]. Hazardous substances data bank: Ethylene Dibromide. Bethesda,
MD: National Library of Medicine.
OSHA [1994]. Computerized information system. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
Parmeggiani L [1983]. Encyclopedia of occupational health and safety. 3rd
rev. ed. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organization.
Patnaik P [1992]. A comprehensive guide to the hazardous properties of
chemical substances. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Sax NI, Lewis RJ [1989]. Dangerous properties of industrial materials. 7th
ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Sittig M [1991]. Handbook of toxic and hazardous chemicals. 3rd ed. Park
Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications.
USC. United States code. Washington. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Windholz M, ed. [1983]. Merck Index 10th ed. Rahway, NJ: Merck & Company.
|