1
U.S. Treasury Department, Public Health Service, Annual Report of the
Surgeon General of the Public Health Service of the United States,
Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1911, p. 78.
2
NIH Almanac, 1992, NIH Publication 92-5, pp. 121-25, 116.
3
Donald S. Fredrickson, ms, Values and the Advance of Medical Science,
Proceedings of Conference on Integrity in Institutions, University
of Texas Health Center, May 25, 1989, p. 7.
4
Colliers, August 30, 1952, p. 33.
5
PHS proposed 10-year budget for NIH, October 23, 1944, exhibits H, I,
in MS C 204, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine
(hereafter NLM); The Reminiscences of Charles V. Kidd, Columbia
University Oral History Collection (hereafter CUOHP), 13-14; Reminiscences
of Norman H. Topping, 17-18; Reminiscences of
Leonard A. Scheele,
22-24; Reminiscences of Vane M. Hoge, 21, National Library of Medicine
Oral History Collection (hereafter, NLMOHC).
6
David P. Adams, Wartime Bureaucracies and Penicillin Allocation:
The Committee on Chemotherapeutic and Other Agents, Journal of
the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 44: 196-201, 209, 1989;
Milton Wainwright, Miracle Cure: The Story of Penicillin, Oxford:
Blackwell, 1990, pp. 63, 122-27.
7
Parran testimony, House Committee on Appropriations, 79th Congress, 1st
Session, Hearings, Dept. of Labor/FSA, part 2, FY 1946 (April 18,
1945), pp. 269-77; NIH postwar program outline, National Advisory Health
Council (hereafter, NAHC), agenda notes for June 19-20, 1945, meeting,
in folder 0240, box 1, Accession 90-62A-490 [Records of the Public Health
Service, Office of the Surgeon General], Washington National Records Center
(hereafter WNRC), Suitland, MD.
8
Minutes, NAHC meeting, September 28, 1945, box 1, Acc. 90-62A-490, WNRC;
Harry M. Marks, Notes from Underground: The Social Organization
of Therapeutic Research, in Russell C. Maulitz and Diana E. Long,
eds., Grand Rounds: One Hundred Years of Internal Medicine, Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988, pp. 299-312, 319-20.
9
Lewis Thomas, The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine Watcher,
New York: Viking Press, 1983, pp. 27-35.
10
Parran testimony, House Appropriations Subcommittee, 80th Congress, 1st
Session, Hearings, Dept. of Labor/FSA part 2, FY 1948 (February
7, 1947), p. 477.
11
MSC 204, History of Medicine Division, NLM.
12
Allan Drury, A Senate Journal,
1943-1945, New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1963, pp. 4-5, 395-410.
13
Martha Lenz Walker, Beyond Bureaucracy: Mary Elizabeth Switzer and
Rehabilitation, New York: University Press, 1988, pp. 112-17.
14
Memoranda, Dyer to J.K. Hoskins, Asst. Surgeon General (SG), December
17, 1946, Buildings and Grounds File, Office of the Director, NIH; PHS
building proposals, transmitted with Crabtree to W.E. Reynolds, Commissioner
of Public Buildings, January 19, 1947, in Acc. 90-62A-490, box 1, PBA
Correspondence. Of 45 projects proposed nationwide, 31 were to be located
on the Bethesda site.
15
House, Report #178, 80th Congress, 1st Session, March 21, 1947,
pp. 24-26; Agenda for July 30, 1947, SG Conference, attached to memoranda,
Parran to Dyer, Clinical Research Facility... ," July 25, 1947,
Buildings and Grounds File, Office of the Director, NIH.
16
Daniel Fox, The Politics of the NIH Extramural Program, 1937-1950,
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 42: 458-65,
1987.
17
Truman statement, October 8, 1947, in Public Papers of the Presidents,
Harry S Truman, 1947, Washington, DC: GPO, 1965, pp. 473-74; Federal
Board of Hospitalization, Resolution 320, November 4, 1947, Official File,
Harry S Truman Library (hereafter, HSTL); Summary of minutes, Federal
Board of Hospitalization meeting, November 4, 1947, Acc. 90-62A-490, box
17.
18
A. Siepert, planning review, 1952, Historians Office Papers, History
of Medicine Division, NLM; House, Report #1519, 80th Congress,
2nd Session, March 5, 1948, pp. 29-30.
19
Oscar E. Ewing, memoranda to Truman, February 12, 1948, file 7B, Official
Files, HSTL. Ewing and Truman believed Parran wanted reappointment
in order to select his own successor, and this would have made the PHS
too powerful. Ewing notes on four possible candidates, same file; minutes,
NAHC meeting October 22-23, 1948, p. 4, in box 2, Acc. 90-62A-490, WNRC.
20
Memoranda, Masur to Dyer and Parran, January 6, 1948, Research Facilities
Planning Committee File (hereafter, RFPC), Office of the Director, NIH;
Masur and N.P. Thompson, A National Clinical Center for Chronic
Disease Research, Hospitals, 1949 (November):1-2; Masur,
Reminiscences, CUOHC, 19-22; Remarks of Dr. Otis L. Anderson, Chief,
PHS Hospital Div., September 15, 1947, Conference of Medical Officers
in Charge, U.S. Marine Hospitals, p.12, in box 18, Acc. 90-62A-490, WNRC.
21
Masur and Thompson, Hospitals, 1949 (November): 3-10; FSA/PHS press
release, June 29, 1948, NIH Historians Papers, NLM; Memoranda, RFPC,
December 31, 1948, Office of the Director, NIH.
22
NIH press release, September 9, 1949; RFPC memoranda #245 and #248, September
21, 1948 and October 7, 1949, RFPC file; Norman Topping, The United
States Public Health Service Clinical Center for Medical Research,
Journal of the American Medical Association, 150: 542-43 (October
11, 1952).
23
NIH memorandum for reference, Conference of Deans..., May
28, 1949, p. 6, attached to Masur to Rev. McNally, June 2, 1949, RFPC
file.
24
Robert Kanigel, Apprentice to Genius: The Making of a Scientific Dynasty,
New York: Macmillan, 1986, 11-30, 65-71; Shannon, Reminiscences,
NLMOHC, pp. 22-30.
25
Shannon to Masur, 10/31/49, RFPC file.
26
RFPC memoranda, Present Status of Organizational Planning for the
Clinical Center, January 11, 1950, RFPC file.
27
Minutes, Institute Directors Meetings, December 9, 1949, p. 6, and December
13, 1949, p. 5, RFPC file.
28
RFPC memoranda, Present Status..., January 11, 1950.
29
RFPC memoranda, Further Discussions at Conf. with Dr. Kaplan,
September, pp. 3-4; minutes, Institute Directors meeting, December 1,
1949, pp. 1-12.
30
Monty M. Poen, Harry S Truman Versus the Medical Lobby: The Genesis
of Medicare, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1979, pp.
161-69.
31
Memoranda #272 to PBA, December 13, 1949, RFPC file. Funding was also
denied for an overpass on Rockville Pike and mechanical equipment for
Building 10.
32
Memoranda, W.E. Reynolds, Commissioner of Public Buildings, to SG Scheele,
June 22, 1950, RFPC file; House, Committee on Appropriations, 81st Congress,
2nd Session, Hearings, FSA part 1, FY 1951 (January 11, 1950),
p. 579.
33
Minutes, PBS conference, June 27, 1950, Project 18-063, RFPC file.
34
Memoranda, K. Nasi to SG, 5/18/50, PHS Building Committee files, folder
0245, Secretary Memoranda, box 1, Acc. 90-62A-490, WNRC; Masur to Nasi,
May 24, 1950, Assessment of Buildings..., RFPC file, Office
of the Director, NIH.
35
Memoranda, C.V. Kidd, Assumptions Underlying NIH Defense Planning,
August 2, 1950, and note to Truman, August 3, 1950, both in Office of
Research Plans, NIH Directors Office, Subject Files, folder Defense,
1950-51, box 2, RG 443, National Archives.
36
Congressional Record, 153: 96, August 3, 1950, pp. 11841-11860,
11876; Memorandum, Justification of $30 million, n.d., Office
of Research Plans, Subject Files, box 2, folder Magnuson Amendment, RG
443.
37
Defense Activities of the NIH, May 13, 1952, p.12, in OPR Subject Files,
same folder.
38
Poen, Harry S Truman Versus the Medical Lobby, pp. 188-92; Harry
S Truman, Memoirs, Vol. II, Years of Trial and Hope, Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1956, pp. 17-23.
39
First Hoover Commission Report, quoted in memorandum, Larsen to Kidd,
May 13, 1952, RFPC file.
40
Speech draft, August 15, 1950, Office of Research Plans, Subject Files,
1948-1956, box 2, RG443.
41
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, The Advancement of Medical
Research and Education, Washington, DC: HEW, 1958, pp. 55-56.
42
Masur to Haas, September 1, 1949, RFPC file; N. Topping, JAMA,
October 11, 1952, pp. 541-43.
43
Shannon, Reminiscences, CUOHP, 32.
44
Rough notes on Scheele testimony, House Appropriations Subcommittee, March
3,1954, attached to minutes, April 1, 1954, Institute Directors Meeting,
in Subject File, Office of the Director, NIH, box 3, RG 443.
45
Topping, "The United States Public Health Service Clinical Center
for Medical Research", pp. 544; NAHC minutes, February 20-21, 1953,
Subject File, box 4, RG 443; memorandum, Sebrell to All NIH Employees,
March 4, 1953, Historians File, HMD, NLM.
46
Sebrell, oral history, pp. 57, 160.
47
Hobby speech text, July 2, 1953, Office of the Director, NIH, in Historians
Office File, HMD, NLM.
48
Minutes, Scientific Directors meeting, January 13, 1954, box 3, RG 443.
49
Minutes, Scientific Directors meeting, April 2, 1952.
50
Washington Post, August 9, 1953, lB.
51
Typescript, Proceedings of the Combined Clinical Staffs, NIH Clinical
Center, January 20, 1954, presentation by Dr. James Wyngaarden, in box
Miles, Institutes, folder Clinical Center, 1953, HMD, NLM.
52
Minutes, Medical Board meetings, May 25, 1953 and June 6, 1953, and Report
of Clinical Research Committee, May 25, 1953, Medical Board minutes file;
statement, Admission and Discharge Policies for the Clinical Center, May
8, 1953 box 3, Subject File, RG 443.
53
Jane E. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine, New
York: William Morrow, 1990, pp. 175-87, 248-60, 295-300, 359-68.
54
Congressional Research Service, Congress and the Nation,
1945-1964, pp. 1136-37.
55
Sebrell, oral history, pp. 96-97.
56
Minutes, NAHC meeting, 10/27-28/55, Supp. II,2,4, in box 3, Subject File,
RG 443.
57
Shannon, Reminiscences, CUOHP, 35-39; Congress and the Nation,
1945-1964, p. 1125; Bruce
Merchant, Clinical Research in the National Institutes of Health,
senior thesis, Nebraska Wesleyan University, 1957, pp. 19-20.
58
Conference of the Combined Clinical Staff, 7/1/54, business
session, pp. 3-6, NIH Library.
59
Data Assembled for the Special Committee on Medical Research of the
National Science Foundation, Bethesda: NIH, 1955, NIH Library, no
page numbers.
60
Proceedings of the Combined Clinical Staff Conference, April 11,
1957, pp. 1-2, NIH Library.
61
Memorandum, Executive Officer to Director, NIH, Study of Nursing
Activities..., March 1, 1956, Subject Files, folder Clinical Center Nursing
Study, 1956, box 25, RG 443.
62
U.S. House, Hearings, 84th Congress, 2nd Session, Appropriations
Subcommittee, Depts. of Labor/HEW, FY 1957, pp. 502-5.
63
HEW, Program Operations Report to the Secretary, April-June,
1956, pp. 31-36, Subject File, box 20, RG 443.
64
Minutes, Medical Board, January 11, 1955, meeting, pp. 1-2; Merchant,
Clinical Research, p. 37; HEW, Program Operations,
April-June 1956, p. 36.
65
Shannon, Reminiscences, CUOHP, 31.
66
Sebrell remarks, dedication ceremony, June 25, 1953, NIH Historians
Office papers, HMD, NLM.
67
Proceedings of the Combined Clinical Staff Conference, April 11, 1957,
pp. 7-8.
68
Informal notes, Medical Board, November 6, 1957 meeting.
69
Merchant, Clinical Research, 68-69, citing December 11, 1956
interview. For the viewpoint of those scientists who feared clinical applications
would misdirect basic science, see Arthur Kornberg, For the Love of
Enzymes: The Odyssey of a Biochemist, Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1989, p. 128.
70
Masur, Reminiscences, CUOHP, 28-29. For the contrasting approach,
see James A. Shannon, The Relationship of Laboratory Research to
Clinical Investigation, address delivered 5/21/59, in NIH Historians
Office File, HMD, NLM.
71
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1958, Nursing Dept., pp.
1-5, NIH Library; Medical Board, Professional Services Review,
August 27, 1957, minutes file.
72
Minutes, Clinical Directors meeting, February 11, 1959, Acc. 443-62-D-0064,
box 100, Washington National Record Center.
73
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1966-67, Nr 2,4; Staffing
figures attached to minutes, Clinical Directors meeting, January 19, 1970,
box 3, RG 443, National Archives.
74
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1966-67, Nr 4.
75
Minutes, Medical Board meeting, March 11, 1958; rough notes, same date,
attached; memorandum, Williams to Shannon, November 28, 1958, Estimate
of Program Activities, FY 1961-1965, box 103, Task Force folder,
RG 90, WNRC.
76
Steering Committee Report, May 13, 1958, with rough notes, Medical Board
minutes file.
77
Jerome B. Block, Clinical Center Contributions to Research, November 20,
1972, Historical File, Clinical Center Communications Office; Annual
Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center, 1966-67,
CP-1.
78
News From NIH, publication of NIH Office of Research Information,
March, 1965, Department of Diagnostic Radiation historical file; Annual
Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center, 1964-65,
serial 35, pp. 1-3.
79
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1966-67, NM 1-14; Annual
Report..., 1967-68,
OD 36.
80
Shannon to Institute Directors, January 14, 1958, Means of Gradually
Re-orienting
Intramural Research Programs, Scientific Directors Meeting file,
box 105, RG 90,WNRC: Report, Office of the Director, NIH, Intramural
Research Activities.. to 1970, April 1959, box 104.
81
Congress and the Nation, 1945-1964,
pp. 1139-41.
82
Department of HEW, Research for Health, PHS Pub.1205, Washington,
DC: GPO, 1964,5-6; Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1964-65, Nursing Dept.,
p. 3.
83
Research for Health, pp. 11-13; Annual Report of Program Activities,
Clinical Center, 1964-65,
Blood Bank Dept., pp. 1-4.
84
Minutes, Medical Board meeting, December 11, 1962, p. 3.
85
Minutes, Medical Board meetings, September 25, 1962, and October 9, 1962.
86
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1966-67, OD-2; minutes,
Normal ControlsCommittee meeting, April 24, 1963, 1-5; minutes, Medical
Board meetings, July 28, 1964, October 11, 1966, and November 8, 1966.
87
New Haven Journal Courier, May 4, 1962.
88
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1964-65.
89
Stewart Alsop, Stay of Execution: A Sort of Memoir, Philadelphia:
J.B. Lippincott, 1973, p. 39.
90
NIH Study Committee, Biomedical Science and Its Administration: A Study
of the National Institutes of Health, Washington, DC: GPO, 1965, pp.
8-9; James A. Shannon, The Advancement of Medical Research: A Twenty-year
View of the National Institutes of Health, Journal of Medical
Education, 42: 102-108 (February, 1967).
91
Congress and the Nation, vol. II, 667-72, 680-90; Masur speech
to New England Hospital Assembly, March 28, 1966, excerpts in Providence
Journal, March 29, 1966; New York Times, May 30, 1966.
92
NIH Record, August 24, 1965.
93
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1966-67, OD-1.
94
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1965-66, OD-5, Nr 3; minutes,
Medical Board Meeting, June 18, 1965; minutes, Clinical Directors meeting,
September 16, 1967, box 3, RG443.
95
Minutes, Clinical Center staff meeting, July 2, 1968, box 3, RG 443; Joseph
Califano, Jr., The Triumph and Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson: The White
House Years, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991, pp. 253-73.
96
Hamilton, Lister Hill; Statesman from the South, pp. 275-81.
97
Masur, Reminiscences, NLM OHP, pp. 27-28.
98
Minutes, Clinical Center staff meetings: May 6, 1969; July 15, 1969; November
18, 1969; April 20, 1971; box 3, RG 443.
99
Minutes, Clinical Directors special meeting, February 25, 1974; minutes,
Medical Board meeting, October 27, 1970.
100
Richard A. Rettig, Cancer Crusade: The Story of the National Cancer
Act of 1971, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977, pp. 30-35;
Science, 183:
1325-26, December 28, 1973.
101
NIH Program Review, 1975, box 8, folder, Clinical Center Reorganization,
1974-1975, RG443.
102
Memorandum, Director, Clinical Center to Director, NIH, 11/20/73, Review
of Institute Contracts. . . Clinical Directors meeting file, box
3, RG 443; Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1972, Nr 6.
103
Science, 179: 546-47, February 9, 1973; 180: 843-44, May 25, 1973;
182: 460-61, September 23, 1973; 183: 1325-26, December 28, 1973; Burroughs
Mider, The Federal Impact on Biomedical Research, in John
Z. Bowers and Elizabeth Purcell, eds., Advances in American Medicine
at the Bicentennial, vol. 2, New York: Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation,
1976, pp. 861-64.
104
Marston to Assistant Secretary for Health, September 5, 1969, attached
to minutes, September 15, 1969, Clinical Directors meeting, box 3, RG
443.
105
Minutes, Medical Board meetings, March 23, 1971, p. 3, and May 25, 1971,
p. 5; draft, proposed memorandum, Medical Record Committee, 1971, Medical
Board file.
106
Memorandum, E. Lawrence, Clinical Center Executive Officer, Meeting
with NCI Clinical Associates..." January 1, 1971, box 7, miscellaneous
minutes folder; Chalmers to Clinical Directors, September 9, 1970, Clinical
Center Rounds..., box 3, Clinical Directors minutes file; minutes,
Department Heads meeting, February 16, 1971, same file.
107
Memorandum, Chalmers to Clinical Directors, September 29, 1972, Nursing
Shortage... , Clinical Directors meeting file.
108
Minutes, Medical Board meetings: February 10, 1970; April 9, 1970; March
13, 1973.
109
Chalmers to Marston, July 27, 1971, minutes file, Clinical Directors meetings,
box 3, RG 443.
110
Minutes, Department Heads meeting, February 15, 1972, box 3; 1975 Program
Review, p. 5-2-2, box 8, RG 443.
111
Science, 180: 1258-61, June 22, 1973; minutes, Clinical Directors
meeting, November 5, 1973; Memorandum, Stone to Weinberger, November 21,
1973, same file.
112
Science, 180: 1157, June 15, 1973; minutes, Clinical Directors
meeting, November 4, 1973, p. 2.
113
Memoranda, Stetten to Stone, Intramural Program for NIGMS... ,
February 7, 1974; J. Doppman to J. Block, February 19,1974; Clinical Pathology
survey, same date; Gordon to Stone, April 23, 1974, all in box 8, folder
Clinical Center Reorganization, 1974-1975, RG 443.
114
Minutes, Medical Board meeting, March 12, 1974, and Clinical Directors
special meeting, June 30, 1975.
115
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
FY 1975, Dir-1.
116
Agenda meeting of Intercouncil Representatives, July 16, 1975, Fredrickson
file, minutes, 1975, folder 3, box 2, RG 443.
117
Minutes, Clinical Center Department Heads meeting, August 13, 1975; draft,
Review of Activities, Director, NIH, July 16, 1976, Fredrickson
file, minutes, 1976; minutes, Medical Board meetings: March 9, 1976; March
16, 1976; April 15, 1976.
118
Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center,
1977, OD-1 ,3,1 0; minutes,
Medical Board meetings: August 3, 1977; September 7, 1977.
119
Minutes, Medical Board meetings: November 2, 1976; December 6, 1976; December
5, 1978; Annual Report of Program Activities, Clinical Center, 1977,
OD-2; Annual Report..., 1979, OD-3.
120
Minutes, Medical Board meetings: October 4, 1977; September 7, 1979.
121
Briefing paper for HEW by Director, NIH, July 17, 1979, pp. 5-6, Fredrickson
files, minutes, 1979, folder 1, box 3, RG 443; Annual Report of Program
Activities, Clinical Center, 1979, OD-8.
122
NIH Record, 34, December 7, 1982.
123
NIH Record, 34, March 29, 1983; Steven A. Rosenberg, The Transformed
Cell: Unlocking the Mysteries of Cancer, New York: G.P. Putnams
Sons, 1992, pp. 179, 201, 265.
124
Minutes, Medical Board meeting, January 15, 1985; memorandum, Surgical
Administrative Committee, January 14, 1985, same file; Report to the Medical
Board, Annual Report, Clinical Center, FY 1990,
pp. 55-57.
125
W. French Anderson, Human Gene Therapy, Science, 256:
808-13 (May 8, 1992).
126
Institute of Medicine, Report of a Study: The AIDS Research Program
of the National Institutes of Health, Washington, DC: National Academy
Press, 1991, p. 85.
127
Robin M. Henig, A Dancing Matrix: Voyages Along the Viral Frontier,
New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1993, xi-xiii..
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