What are Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSDs)?
Although definitions vary, the general term "musculoskeletal disorders" describes
the following:
Disorders of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage,
or spinal discs
Disorders that are not typically the result of any instantaneous or
acute event (such as a slip, trip, or fall) but reflect a more gradual
or chronic development (nevertheless, acute events such as slips and
trips are very common causes of musculoskeletal problems such as low
back pain)
Disorders diagnosed by a medical history, physical examination, or other
medical tests that can range in severity from mild and intermittent to
debilitating and chronic
Disorders with several distinct features (such as carpal tunnel syndrome)
as well as disorders defined primarily by the location of the pain (i.e.,
low back pain)
The term "WMSDs" refers to (1) musculoskeletal disorders to
which the work environment and the performance of work contribute significantly,
or (2) musculoskeletal disorders that are made worse or longer lasting
by work conditions. These workplace risk factors, along with personal
characteristics (e.g., physical limitations or existing health problems)
and societal factors, are thought to contribute to the development of
WMSDs [Armstrong et al. 1993]. They also reduce worker productivity or
cause worker dissatisfaction. Common examples are jobs requiring repetitive,
forceful, or prolonged exertions of the hands; frequent or heavy lifting,
pushing, pulling, or carrying of heavy objects; and prolonged awkward
postures. Vibration and cold may add risk to these work conditions. Jobs
or working conditions presenting multiple risk factors will have a higher
probability of causing a musculoskeletal problem. The level of risk depends
on the intensity, frequency, and duration of the exposure to these conditions
and the individual s capacity to meet the force or other job demands
that might be involved. These conditions are more correctly called "ergonomic
risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders" rather than "ergonomic
hazards" or "ergonomic problems." But like the term "safety
hazard," these terms have popular acceptance.
Why are WMSDs a Problem?
Many reasons exist for considering WMSDs a problem, including the following:
WMSDs are among the most prevalent lost-time injuries and illnesses
in almost every industry [Bureau of Labor Statistics 1995, 1996; National
Safety Council 1995; Tanaka et al. 1995].
WMSDs, specifically those involving the back, are among the most costly
occupational problems [National Safety Council 1995; Webster and Snook
1994; Guo et al. 1995; Frymoyer and Cats-Baril 1991].
Job activities that may cause WMSDs span diverse workplaces and job
operations (see Table 1; see also Tray 1-A of the Toolbox).
WMSDs may cause a great deal of pain and suffering among afflicted workers.
WMSDs may decrease productivity and the quality of products and services.
Workers experiencing aches and pains on the job may not be able to do
quality work.
Because musculoskeletal disorders have been associated with non work
activities (e.g., sports) and medical conditions (e.g., renal disease,
rheumatoid arthritis), it is difficult to determine the proportion due
solely to occupation. For example, in the general population, non occupational
causes of low back pain are probably more common than workplace causes
[Liira et al. 1996]. However, even in these cases, the musculoskeletal
disorders may be aggravated by workplace factors.
What is Ergonomics?
Ergonomics is the science of fitting workplace conditions and job demands
to the capabilities of the working population. Effective and successful "fits" assure
high productivity, avoidance of illness and injury risks, and increased
satisfaction among the workforce. Although the scope of ergonomics is
much broader, the term in this primer refers to assessing those work-related
factors that may pose a risk of musculoskeletal disorders and recommendations
to alleviate them.
What is the Purpose of this Primer?
Many organizations have published primers and manuals describing programs
and techniques to control ergonomic hazards [National Safety Council
1988; Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety 1988; Putz-Anderson
1988; UAW-GM Center for Health and Safety 1990; Oxenburgh 1991; American
Meat Institute and ErgoTech, Inc. 1990; Occupational Safety and Health
Administration 1993]. Some primers are tailored to particular industries;
others are more general.
This primer outlines the approach most commonly recommended for identifying
and correcting ergonomic problems. This document offers practical information
(based on NIOSH experience in a variety of settings) for applying elements
of this approach in workplaces. The steps typically used to describe
ergonomics programs are used here to tap and organize the NIOSH database
of relevant experience.
Information about the techniques, instruments, and methods mentioned
in examples of NIOSH work and other reference materials appear in the
appendix, referred to as a Toolbox. Included in the Toolbox is a master
chart listing details of NIOSH evaluations involving WMSDs reported over
the past 15 years. Finding work settings or jobs in this chart that are
related to the readers jobs may help the reader capitalize on the information
contained in these reports, which are available from the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS).
This primer is geared to those who need knowledge of ergonomics because
of their roles as employers or as persons responsible for ensuring safe
and healthful work conditions in their companies. Use of numerous examples
from real workplaces emphasizes practical approaches. Organizations with
established ergonomics programs or with a staff having advanced training
in ergonomics may find more limited value in this primer.
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