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Various research questions and technology transfer needs are suggested for alley cropping.

The Association for Temperate Agroforestry (AFTA 2000) recently delineated strategic questions and needs for the major agroforestry practices that are equally applicable in subtropical areas. Research questions that need to be addressed for alley cropping focus on compatible crop rotations with tree-shrub species, yields in different combinations, optimal row spacing, weed control at crop-tree row interfaces, and integrated pest management components. Technology transfer needs include region-specific ratings for species combinations, management guidelines, marketing information, financial analysis models, and plant materials information.

Forest farming utilizes forested areas for producing specialty crops that are sold for ornamental, culinary or medicinal uses.

Reviews of forest farming practices in North America (Hill & Buck 2000; Dix et al. 1997; Williams et al. 1997; Thomas & Schumann 1993; Smith 1953) and texts on forest gardens (Hart 1991) and homegardens (Nair 1993; Soemarwoto 1987) explain many of the principles of the cultivation systems along with providing examples of which forms these systems take. There are also excellent treatments of nontimber forest products (Jones et al. 2002), forest medicinals (Duke 1997; Davis 1993; Foster 1993; Miller 1988) and their markets in specific regions including the Pacific Northwest (Schlosser & Blatner 1997; Hagen et al. 1996), the Mid-Atlantic (Chamberlain & Hammett 1998; Hill & Webster 1996), the Midwest (Gold & Godsey 2002; Josiah 1999, 2001b; Baughman 1996; Mater 1994), the Rocky Mountains and Southwest (Belonogova 1993; Hernandez & Abud 1987) and the Northeast (Teal & Buck 2002; Buck 1999). Jones et al. (2002) include a brief but commendable description of Florida and the Caribbean area (Weigand 2002) that highlights indigenous cultural uses and the potential for development of medicinal plant cultivation in the U.S. subtropics.

Researchers have identified four major categories of NTFPs: edible and culinary products, medicinal and dietary supplements, floral and decorative products, and specialty wood products.

Chamberlain and Hammett (2002) have identified four major categories of nontimber forest products: edible and culinary products, medicinal and dietary supplements, floral and decorative products, and specialty wood products. Blueberries, huckleberries, honey and mushrooms are examples of the most common edible and culinary products. Witch hazel (Hamamelis spp.), digitalis (Digitalis spp.), camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), saw palmetto and ginseng are all well-known medicinal plants from forested areas. Decorative and floral products include greenery, Spanish moss, dried plants, berries and flowers, wreath materials, and aromatic oils. Products produced from parts of trees, saplings or woody vines, such as furniture, musical instruments, and utensils, are considered specialty wood products.

Apiculture and forest management combine well in forest farming. A number of forest species such as blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), persimmon, tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) and gallberry (Ilex glabra), for example, produce nectar and pollen attractive to bees who in turn serve as pollinators and help assure tree seed production for forest regeneration (Alexander & Alexander 2002; Hill & Buck 2000). In addition to honey, a number of products can be developed from beehives, and moving bees and hives on short-term contract as pollinators can be a lucrative business.

Production and marketing of mushrooms has been studied in the Southeast, e.g., shiitake on oak logs under pines in western Alabama (NARC&DC 2000). In addition, cooperative efforts between statewide producers' associations in Alabama and Florida have been developed with partners in Soil and Water Conservation Districts and university extension (Alabama A&M University, Auburn, and University of Florida). In this instance, developing a market for the product was a challenge. Producers who retained steady markets and flexibility with seasonal production and labor demands were able to continue production and in some cases developed year-round enterprises (NARC&DC 2000; Stamets 2000; Sabota 1993; Rathke & Baughmann 1993). Farmer-to-chef markets have been promoted for herbs, mushrooms and specialty vegetables grown in managed forest settings. In south Florida, producers are using melaleuca as a growth substrate for the medicinal Rishi mushroom (Ganoderma sp.) and are cultivating oyster and other edible mushrooms on sawmill waste.

Plant-derived medicines and herbs from forest settings are likely the highest valued trade items.

Markets for herbal supplements have grown significantly over the past ten years. In fact, plant-derived medicines and herbs from forest settings are likely the highest valued trade items (Chamberlain & Hammett 1998, 2002) though formal tracking of marketing is difficult (Alexander et al. 2002). Witch hazel, digitalis, camphor, saw palmetto and ginseng are all well-known medicinal plants from forested areas. Additional forest plants in the Southeast that are used as medicinals include bloodroot (Sanquinaria canadensis), mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum L.), and yellow jasmine (Gelsemium sempervirens). Several medicinal plants that are used in Ayurvedic and homeopathic medicine are native to the West Indies and subtropical America. These species include pond apple (Annona glabra), herb-of-grace (Bacopa monnier), false daisy (Eclipta alba), and llima (Sida cordifolia), among others (Weigand 2002; Demurs 1997; Morton 1981). Markets fluctuate, however, and it is important to understand projected demand and identify buyers for these specialty products (Chamberlain & Hammett 2002; Alexander et al. 2002).

The most widely recognized forest farming activity in the Southeast is gathering pine straw.

The most widely recognized forest farming activity in the Southeast is gathering pine straw, which has increased in popularity since the 1980s (Brauer & Burner 2001; Duryea 1988; McLeod et al. 1987). Under optimal conditions with fertilization management (Morris et al. 1992), this NTFP alternative combined with hunting or other fee uses could add about 20% more income for landowners with mid-rotation longleaf pine stands (Bean 2002). Longleaf and slash pines are preferred for straw because they have longer needles that bale most easily for landscaping mulch and they retain a red or brown color longer than other pines. Though needles can be raked annually, most managers recommend raking only four to five times after year eight during the tree rotation. Maximum needle yield at age 15 is estimated to be 200 to 300 bales per acre (Duryea 2000). Baled pine straw delivered to the seller may earn $750-1000 per acre per year (wide sale range per bale, $0.50 or greater) or $75-150 per acre gathered by a supplier. Once stands are thinned they are seldom used for pinestraw, but they may generate an additional $15 per acre (or more with incorporation of wildlife food plots) from a hunting lease versus $2 per acre in unmanaged forestland (Bean 2002).
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Other examples of forest farming include cultivating ferns, palmettos for fronds, or other ornamentals under shade (e.g., oak forest). Greenery products gathered from forests are sold for floral and holiday markets. Tips from lower limbs of conifer trees serve as raw materials for loose greenery, garlands, centerpieces, and wreaths or swags (Hammett & Chamberlain 2002). Numerous broadleaf evergreens and other herbaceous ornamentals exist in the coastal plain vegetation. Early in the 20th century for example, a fern grower's association developed out of Apopka, Florida, to supply asparagus-fern (Asparagus setaceus) to stores in the northeastern U.S. This foliage industry grew as a contract grower-brokerage business and evolved with changing modes of transportation and markets promoting leatherleaf (Rumohra adiantiformis) and asparagus-fern. In 1997 the industry grew floral greens on over 7,300 ac of land in Florida, with sales totaling $85.5 million (FFGA 2001). These fern growers continue today as profitable enterprises with an expanded offering of floral greens, grown under shade of native or managed oak forest.

The history of crafting items from forest-collected materials (wildcrafting), the foliage industry, and the use of medicinals, especially within specific cultural groups, provides an open door for development of forest farming practices in the region (Teal & Buck 2002). However, assessing which understory cropping practices are compatible with timber stand improvement/management and which cultivars are available for use, are questions that need to be addressed (AFTA 2000). We need to compile information on which shade-tolerant species and NTFPs in the region have economic potential, document their growth and management requirements, and determine market strategies with producers. It is also possible NTFPs can be managed on native range (Tanner et al. 1999; Bennett & Hicklin 1998) or integrated into fence lines and riparian forest buffers. The potential for development of NTFP enterprises holds promise not only for the Southeast but also in the Caribbean.

Various research questions and technology transfer needs are suggested for forest farming.

Strategic research questions outlined for forest farming (AFTA 2000) focus on which tree densities and regulated shade levels provide appropriate microclimate and growing conditions for specialty crops, growth requirements for valued NTFPs, start-up/operating costs, compatible forest management strategies, influence of shade levels and genotypes on chemical activity and production gains, evolving markets, and how forest farming compares with other forest land uses. There is also a need to assess the relationships between forest management practices, nontimber forest products, and biodiversity of forest populations (IFCAE 2003).

Technology transfer needs identified for forest farming practices include: wholesale and retail marketing information at region-specific levels; production guidelines that outline species/cultivar information, plant material sources, and compatible forest management regimes; and financial analysis models and enterprise budgets for practices and common specialty crops (AFTA 2000). Promise of buyer, and possibly harvester, involvement in inventorying and monitoring specialty forest products holds effective potential impact for NTFP longevity (IFCAE 2003).

Riparian forest buffers are strips of trees and annual vegetation along stream channels or aquatic shorelines.

Riparian buffers protect streambanks, slow flood flows, and filter sediment and other contaminants from water.

Riparian buffers provide numerous environmental benefits. In general, they play an important role in the hydrologic cycle between surface and ground water, and the movement of non-point source pollution into water bodies (Lowrance et al. 1997; Verchot et al. 1997; Welsch 1991; Lowrance et al. 1985). Specifically, they provide vegetative resistance that serves to trap sediment, slow flood flows, and provide waterbreaks in floodplain areas (Wallace et al. 2000; Daniels & Gilliam 1996). They filter and process runoff, storm water, and drainage from lawns, roads and other urban sites. They also help hold water and control stream bank and in-channel erosion to help stabilize water corridors (Qiu & Prato 1998; Dosskey et al. 1997a,b; Correll 1983).

Riparian buffers also have the capacity to sequester large amounts of carbon through active tree growth (Pallardy et al. 2002; NAC 2000a,b) and play a critical role in maintenance of regional biodiversity (Naiman et al. 1993). In addition, they provide wildlife and aquatic habitat, influence shade, modify winds, screen out noise, and provide aesthetic benefits (Schultz et al. 2000). Riparian zones can thus be managed for environmental services as well as a variety of products, including fruit, nut, and ornamental combinations (Robles-Diaz & Kangas 1999).

Design of riparian buffers will depend on BMP guidelines, site and waterway conditions, and landowner objectives.

The width of the riparian forest buffer depends on BMP guidelines, the condition of the waterway/wetland, and site characteristics such as slope and the type of soil. Landowner objectives may even call for buffer strips wider than BMP guidelines. In agricultural settings, buffer strips can be managed intensively or can be restored by planting strips of perennial vegetation between fields and water. Strips may often be planted in multi-layer patterns where unprotected waterways cross agricultural land (Workman et al. 2002b) (Figure 4). Bioengineering techniques are available for streambank stabilization and restoration in degraded areas (Wells 2002).

Species used in riparian buffers need to be tolerant of occasional flooding or wet soil conditions.

The trees, shrubs and grasses that are suggested for use in riparian buffer strips and streamside management zones need to be tolerant of occasional flooding or wet soil conditions. Those with a well-developed, shallow root system will be more efficient in uptake of nutrients and agrochemicals. Tree species used in these buffers range from cypress (Taxodium spp.) and tupelo (Nyssa spp.) to willows (Salix spp.), maples, poplars, ash and oaks. Shrubs can include wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), viburnum (Virburnum spp.), gallberry or other hollies (Ilex spp.). While switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is often used for a grass buffer strip, any number of native species can also be used in the grass/herb component.

Various research questions and technology transfer needs are suggested for riparian forest buffers.

Research questions that need attention for riparian forest buffer practices include: carbon storage and movement dynamics above- and below-ground; design criteria of age, width and vegetation type; management influences on buffer capacity to process sediments, nutrients and agrochemicals; site characteristics and hydrology influences on buffering capacity and flood protection; variability of buffer effectiveness in different seasons and contaminant loadings; and inclusion of species valued for wildlife habitat or income-generating products (AFTA 2000).

Silvopasture intentionally combines trees with livestock and forage production.

For silvopasture, trees are planted or thinned to provide sufficient light for good forage production. High value timber species can be intensively managed in widely spaced rows, and are most often grouped in double or triple rows to improve form (e.g., double-rows 8 ft apart, 4 ft between trees within a row, and 40 ft to next set of trees). Some landowners have adopted these systems using bahiagrass as a summer forage and clover, ryegrass or rye as a winter forage. Some orchards and woodlots incorporate rotational grazing with cattle, goats, sheep or other livestock.

Various studies have looked at silvopasture in terms of timber production, livestock production, and forage production.

Providing management of the three components of livestock, forage and trees, silvopasture has historically occurred as shade trees in pasture, as grazed orchards or woodlands, and as rangelands that include a managed tree or shrub component (Clason & Sharrow 2000; Robinson & Clason 1997; Williams et al. 1997) (Figure 5). Silvopasture in the Southeast has traditionally included forest grazing with cattle, such as flatwoods rangeland (Pearson 1997), pine managed for turpentine and sawlogs with forage (Byrd et al. 1984; Cary 1928), and tree pasture practices with pecan (Reid 1991). Combinations with goats are of interest for meat production and vegetation management (Burton & Scarfe 1991). The biological limitations and management of each component, and the desired interactions, must be considered during design and species selection (Robinson et al. 2001; Clason & Sharrow 2000; Clason 1999).

The long-term benefits of timber production may attract landowners if it combines easily with their annual livestock and haying operations and provides annual income from wildlife and recreation enterprises.

Other benefits of silvopasture include increased tree growth, forage production, shade for animals, diversified recreation options, and other products such as pine straw. The long-term benefits of timber production may attract landowners if it combines easily with their annual livestock and haying operations and provides annual income from wildlife and recreation enterprises. The initial tree density or designed thinning can be managed to control canopy cover of less than 30% for good forage production. Site disturbance after clearcutting and before replanting can provide an opportunity for planting of forage grasses and legumes.

Lewis and other researchers (Hart et al. 1970) demonstrated that combining the production of southern pines and beef on improved pastures offers an opportunity for multiple product yields. Integrating forestry with ranching may increase profitability and help buffer year-to-year variability in income through the sale of forest products and increased opportunities for sale of hunting leases brought about by the creation of wildlife habitat. Scientists (Lewis et al. 1983; Halls et al. 1957) initiated warm season forage studies under pines in south Georgia in the 1940s that in time showed Pensacola bahiagrass to be the most shade tolerant of the 23 grasses studied (Lewis & Pearson 1987; Pearson 1975). Several legume species have shown potential for production under partial shade (McGraw et al. 2001). In the Georgia trials, annual lespedeza (Kummerowia spp.) and white clover (Trifolium repens) were promising forage species for silvopasture. Double rows of pines at 8 ft between rows and 4 ft between trees and 40 ft wide alleys produced more forage and as much wood as the single 8 ft x 12 ft rows (Lewis et al. 1985), and this remains the most popular spacing for silvopasture across the region today (Clason & Sharrow 2000). Newer varieties of bahiagrass (Tifton-9 and Argentine), with additional research, may show themselves to be even better warm season forage in silvopasture (Nowak & Blount 2002).

Studies from across the southern pine region (e.g., Louisiana, Mississippi, and Georgia), report the possibility of productive livestock grazing while maintaining, or even improving, high value timber production. Silvopastoral practice in Louisiana has shown an internal rate of return that was higher (13%) than managed timber (9%) or open pasture (6%) (Clason 1995). In southern Mississippi, land expectation values of silvopasture combinations of steers/cows compared favorably with pasture and were higher than timber production. Under varied cost and revenue regimes, including fee hunting, silvopasture and pasture both had positive cash flows with pasture overall highest under the short time period evaluated (Grado et al. 2001).

In Georgia, there are examples of enhanced pine growth with controlled grazing (Lewis et al. 1985), and models show loblolly-cattle-forage practices on the Coastal Plain may have a 70% greater net present value than a pure forestry operation per unit area (Dangerfield & Harwell 1990). Silvopasture trials using simultaneous timber with forage or livestock production are underway in Alabama (Brantley 1998). Researchers have found mimosa and leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) grown without fertilizers can be cut for fodder at 6-8-week intervals in Alabama (Bransby et al. 1996), while leucaena has been grown in mass and used for feed pellets in Texas (Felker et al. 1998). Another viable combination could be livestock-forage-Christmas tree production, as Pearson et al. (1990) suggested.

There is increasing interest in goat production as a means of controlling weeds and providing income from meat.

There is also increasing interest in goat production in the region (McGowan et al. 1999). Goats have been used by the forest industry in the South as an alternative to using chemical or mechanical weed control in pine plantations (Solaiman & Hill 1991) because vegetation management is a major factor in water and nutrient competition (Nambiar et al. 1993). The goats can be an effective practice for reducing competing vegetation and can also provide rural forest-based operations with enhanced economic options through goat meat production. Evidence from studies in Arkansas and Alabama indicate that goats can help reduce vegetation, especially kudzu (Pueraria lobata (Willd.)), during site preparation for pine plantations (Pearson & Martin 1991; Bonsi et al. 1991). On-going investigations to support development of efficient goat production and management systems by Florida A&M University (FAMU) under their statewide Goat Program include feeding and nutrition components (McGowan et al. 1999).

Windbreaks are rows of trees around homesteads, farms, and fields that are managed as part of crop or livestock operations.

Windbreaks provide numerous benefits. They reduce wind erosion and protect crops and animals sensitive to wind, with minimal area taken out of production.

Windbreaks and line plantings can be integrated easily into existing horticulture and animal production systems.

Windbreaks are also planted to protect buildings, work areas, roads and community spaces (Figure 6). Virtually any tree or shrub species can be used to establish windbreaks, although each should be evaluated for the planting site and project objective. Evergreens such as pines and eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) are ideal for year-round protection. Other effective windbreak species are cottonwood (Populus spp.), boxelder (Acer negundo), and shrubs such as hollies, crabapple (Malus spp.), hawthorns (Crataegus spp.), laurelcherry (Prunus spp.), and flowering ornamentals.

Windbreaks provide numerous benefits. They reduce wind erosion and protect crops and animals sensitive to wind, with minimal area taken out of production.

Windbreaks provide numerous other benefits. Windbreaks are recognized as a way to reduce wind erosion and soil loss, protect fruit and vegetable crops sensitive to wind (Brandle et al. 2000; Norton 1988), and enhance pastures, most notably in dry climates (Bird 1998; Kort 1988), as well as yield both nontimber and wood products (Josiah 2001c; Cannon 1998; Brandle et al. 1994; Bagley 1988). Increased yields from sheltered crop fields afford positive economic returns to producers with minimal area (5-6%) taken out of production (Brandle et al. 2000; Brandle et al. 1992b). The presence of windbreaks and hedgerows influences the distribution of crop pests, their predators, and beneficial insects in agroforestry settings (Brandle et al. 2000; Dix et al. 1999; Burel 1996). Protection for livestock and confinement areas with windbreaks is especially effective for young animals and for maintenance of body temperature under cold/heat stress (Dronen 1988; Primault 1979). Many of these benefits, such as enhancement of wildlife habitat and control of crop pests (Stamps et al. 2002; Forman 1995; Dix 1991) produce additional economic returns from potential hunting and integrated pest management strategies (Dix 1996; Altieri 1991).

Many other special applications are possible, including fruit production with intercropping and windbreaks.

Funding and technology transfer needs are suggested for windbreak systems.

One obstacle to establishment or renovation of windbreaks has been the lack of cost-share incentive programs to help defray landowner costs. Lack of awareness of windbreak features in the landscape means more educational programs are needed for professionals and landowners about windbreak technologies and how they can be used to increase incomes--through yield increases, potential for reduced impacts of pests and diseases, and planning for harvestable products. Thus, there is a need to develop species recommendations and economic fact sheets for windbreak benefits to crop and animal production. This education will necessitate formulation of management guidelines for the region and specific situations.

There are a great variety of practices that can be termed special applications of agroforestry in the U.S.

One of the most appealing special applications may be the inclusion of woody plants on farms as landscape corridors for

One of the most appealing special applications may be the inclusion of woody plants on farms as landscape corridors for wildlife habitat and movement (Tanner 2002) (Figure 7). These corridors provide valuable habitat for wildlife, birds and insects, and can help diminish the fragmentation of forest habitat as well as increase aesthetic value of the area (NAC 1998). They may also serve to enhance land value and valuation of property by prospective buyers. Another example is the production of short rotation woody biomass, such as poplars, which can be promoted as a component for treatment of animal waste lagoons (Kuhn & Nuss 2000). These and other tree applications can serve as visual screens or as barriers to decrease effects of odor or noise around farmlands and urban interfaces (Tyndall & Colletti 2002; Wright & Ranney 1991).

There are numerous other tree-crop combinations. At the Kenari Grove in Palm Beach County, Florida, for example, lychee (Litchi chinensis) and longan (Dimocarpus longan) are grown with banana (Musa sp.) and plantain (Plantago spp.) as windbreaks, and some pommelo (Citrus maxima), with wax melon (Benincasa hispida), roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), and lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus), among other specialty intercrops (pers. observation). Edible landscapes (Josiah 2001a) and multi-strata patio or homegardens are increasingly popular, especially among urban residents. Participants in programs such as Master Gardeners and Neighborhood Yards and Gardens also cultivate butterfly garden species and other specialty plants to increase wildlife habitat and diversity in urbanized settings.

Information about agroforestry must be regional and site specific, to be effective.

CSTAF has begun the process of documenting agroforestry practices and perceptions of people in the field.

Perceptions of Agroforestry from the Field

Accordingly, beginning in the spring of 2001, CSTAF extension staff began to document observations of agroforestry practices in use throughout the southeastern region (Workman et al. 2002a). Information was gathered from field observations, interviews with extension agents, foresters, university faculty, and from farm visits with producers. These initial observations helped in formulation of the agroforestry opinion polls for the extension program. The information gathered will be helpful in tailoring research, professional training for technology transfer, and extension programs to assist landowners in adopting agroforestry.

Agroforestry practices observed in the southeastern USA in 2001 during CSTAF field activities, are shown in Table 2 .

According to the CSTAF survey of natural resource professionals, streamside management zones or woody riparian buffers were the most widely observed practice in Alabama, Florida and Georgia. Overall, almost one-half of the professional respondents indicated they knew over 20 landowners who used streamside buffer practices. The next most observed practices were patio or homegardens, especially in Florida, with about one-fourth of professionals indicating they knew over 20 people using the practice. Just as many respondents, however, knew no one who uses this multi-strata garden practice. Forest farming and nontimber forest products were also prominent, most notably in Georgia where 28% of the professionals knew 20 or more people involved in this activity.

Florida landowners responding to a question about practices identified patio gardens as their most widely used practice (48%) and windbreaks (46%) as the second most widely used. Streamside management zones or woody riparian buffers (27%) and silvopasture (26%) were used by approximately one-fourth of the landowners. A smaller percentage, 14%, managed alley cropping or forest farming of nontimber forest products.

The primary factor motivating landowners to adopt agroforestry was improved on-farm economics and economic gain.

Reasons for Adoption of Agroforestry

Results from another survey showed that silvopasture, riparian buffers, and special agroforestry applications were the most widely recognized practices in Alabama, Florida and Georgia.

Results from a survey by the National Association of Resource Conservation and Development (RC&D) Councils (NARC&DC 2000) showed that silvopasture, riparian buffers, and special agroforestry applications were the most widely recognized practices in Alabama, Florida and Georgia. The RC&D staff surveyed noted various issues addressed by these agroforestry practices in the three states (see Figure 8). Of the overall 115 councils in 28 states that responded, 52% reported special agroforestry applications in their work areas. More than one-third of these areas were in the Southeast. These professionals identified eight issues that special agroforestry applications can address: Animal Waste, Dust, Municipal Waste, Noise, Odor, Community Interface/Greenbelts, Visual Screening, and Wood Fiber (NARC&DC 2000). Visual screening and community interface/greenbelts were the most common practices (greater than 50% frequency), followed by agroforestry for noise control (34%), municipal waste, animal waste, dust, and odor management (all about 20%).

Wildlife habitat and water quality were the most important benefits of agroforestry, according to natural resource professionals.

Aesthetic value and shade for livestock were the most important benefits of agroforestry, according to Florida landowners.

Various constraints to adoption of agroforestry have been noted in literature.

Constraints to adoption of agroforestry practices that have been noted in literature include lack of management skills and technical knowledge; incompatibility between multiple outputs; high establishment or annual management costs; negative impacts of livestock on tree seedlings and soil productivity (Cannon 1998; Zinkhan & Mercer 1997; Kettler 1995; Barnes 1984; Lewis 1984); potential for weedy species and pest interactions (Dix et al. 1999); economic planning for intensity and timing of inputs and outputs; meager institutional and policy support including finances and incentives (Buck 1995; Kettler 1995; Muller & Scherr 1990); and market development, landowner information and public education (Kurtz 2000; NARC&DC 2000; Kettler 1995). The valuation of non-market benefits or non-economic values is evident to many practitioners and motivates a number to implement practices; however, it is often a constraint at higher levels of institutional and social policy (Merwin 1997).

Lack of familiarity and lack of demonstrations were the most important constraints to use of agroforestry, according to natural resource professionals.

Competition between components was the most important constraint to use of agroforestry, followed by lack of information and lack of markets, according to Florida landowners.

Various methods for overcoming constraints to agroforestry have been identified.

To be successful, agroforestry needs organizational and governmental support, technical assistance, trained extension personnel, and an institutional home.

Participants acknowledged the lack of information about and familiarity with agroforestry. The groups agreed organizational and governmental support, such as federal programs for local research and technical assistance, could provide subsidies that would be needed if costs and risks, real and perceived, are greater than economic returns and benefits to landowners. The workshop emphasized agroforestry's potential to furnish greater opportunities and economic diversity to landowners provided that trained extension personnel and an institutional home for agroforestry exist. These ideas echo nascent thoughts on agroforestry in the southern United States that were expressed in an earlier workshop in Louisiana a decade before (Abruzzese & Byington 1984; Linnartz & Johnson 1984).

A 1998 agroforestry conference at Alabama A&M University held for Exploring Agroforestry Opportunities in the South was developed under the premise that more farmers would be willing to try agroforestry if they knew how to make it successful (Cannon 1998). There were 22 presentations that reviewed research on agroforestry practices begun over the previous decade. The specific research and experiences presented at that conference pointed out the continued need to document how defined agroforestry combinations work under stated conditions, what benefits and economic considerations exist, and what cultivation and scheduling details can be recommended. A major limitation to adoption was seen as lack of well-documented local agroforestry experiments and positive experiences (Cannon 1998).

Farmer willingness to spend more time on farm management and learning new skills is limited; thus, outreach must be useful, convenient and innovative.

Resources for Farmers and Landowners

Agroforestry technologies must be recognized as relevant and applicable to clientele needs.

Role of Extension and Forestry Professionals

Extension and forestry professionals are interested in developing skills to serve the needs of their clientele and tend to concentrate their efforts on topics of highest demand. Agroforestry technologies must first be recognized as relevant and applicable to clientele needs, since they are only one set of tools in a suite of several that can be called upon to offer land managers. Then the technologies must be delivered in ways appropriate for given circumstances. This means professionals are continually faced with integrating knowledge from various disciplines with their personal experiences and observations. Training in agroforestry, therefore, must offer professionals background knowledge of how tree-animal and tree-crop combinations can be advantageous for local circumstances.

Professional training must be advertised through effective networks to publicize learning opportunities and be offered at convenient times for participants.

Professional training must be advertised through effective networks to publicize learning opportunities and be offered at convenient times for participants. Since in-service training programs for extension and forestry professionals are coordinated through their state agencies/institutions, (e.g., university and county offices), one- to two-day workshops could be delivered at several district locations throughout each state. Additional "agroforestry modules" could be included in mini-conferences and field days held by various state major programs, (e.g., small farms, sustainable agriculture, pest management, silviculture), or included in programs with Federal, (e.g., NRCS, ARS), private, (e.g., Heifer Project, The Nature Conservancy, Audubon), or professional partner groups, (e.g., Soil and Water Conservation Chapters, Society of American Foresters). These events could also utilize demonstration sites run by university experiment stations and by farmers.

The interest by landowners seeking viable production alternatives, along with the increasing body of knowledge from agroforestry education and research activities, calls for training, technology transfer programs, outreach, and extension activities in agroforestry. Universities in Alabama, Florida, Georgia and Mississippi have agroforestry education and research programs supported by disciplines such as anthropology, landscape architecture, biological systems, botany, horticulture, soil science, animal science and aquaculture. In this regard, agroforestry education fits into the larger philosophy for helping students learn conservation as part of their life's studies (AFTA 2002; Rietveld & Workman 1998; Lassoie et al. 1994; Orr 1991; Jacobson 1990; Nair et al. 1990).

Auburn University, Clemson University, Mississippi State University, University of Florida, and University of Georgia, for example, have strong forestry and agriculture programs in the region. In addition, Tuskegee University (Solaiman & Hill 1991) and sister programs at Florida A&M (Onokpise et al. 2002) and Alabama A&M (Brown 2001), have programs focused on small ruminant production in agroforestry. Other institutions in the southern U.S. and Caribbean, e.g., University of Missouri, Texas A&M, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and University of the Virgin Islands, have agroforestry technology transfer programs and publications. Much of this research and technology transfer is undertaken in partnerships with federal and state agencies.

The interest by landowners seeking viable production alternatives, along with the increasing body of knowledge from agroforestry education and research activities, calls for training, technology transfer programs, outreach, and extension activities in agroforestry.

The USDA Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service, the National Agroforestry Center, Forest Service, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Agricultural Research Service, Resource Conservation and Development Councils (NARC&DC) and State Forestry agencies are central players in the collection and dissemination of research results through technology transfer activities, public services, and education programs for landowners and managers. 

Their efforts are visible with their presence in each state and territory in the region. State agencies, in addition, have a large role in delivery of information to landowners and citizens in rural and urban settings.

Landowners, farmers and professionals need useful information about agroforestry opportunities and tree species.

The Subtropical Tree/Shrub Database, and the Southeastern Agroforestry Decision Support System (SEADSS), are two online decision-making tools available free-of-charge on the CSTAF website, at: http://cstaf.ifas.ufl.edu/

Information and Decision Support Systems

CSTAF's online Geographical Information System (GIS) compiles valuable information on soils, vegetation, land use, and property information that landowners and professionals can freely access. The online database is part of the Agroforestry Information System begun with a prototype Decision Support System (DSS) developed at the county level in Florida. The Agroforestry Information System includes an agroforestry tree/shrub database, the working prototype of the Southeastern Agroforestry Decision Support System, SEADSS (Ellis 2001; Ellis et al. 2000), a collection of agroforestry readings, and a photo gallery.

The information will provide decision-support assistance to landowners, extension agents, foresters, and researchers for agroforestry development and investigation using Internet resources, GIS, and database management systems. The DSS component will offer computer-based tools that integrate GIS with a tree and shrub database and agroforestry features to assess on site characteristics, potential practices, and suitable tree/shrub species. These tools can be used for tree and shrub selection and evaluation on specific soil types, land areas, or properties that are geo-referenced through the GIS. The purpose is to educate the public and to provide landowners and professionals easy Internet access to agroforestry information and planning tools for the subtropical zone.

The emerging pattern of linking farmers within an area together through an information network supports the idea of community-based conservation in action.

The vision for development of agroforestry within the sustainable agriculture and forestry networks calls for skills in several disciplines.

The vision for development of agroforestry within the sustainable agriculture and forestry networks calls for skills in several disciplines. Cooperation between soil, plant, and animal scientists in collaboration with economic and education specialists has been the logical first step. The core CSTAF group has benefited from interaction with scientists in the horticultural and forest sciences, farming systems, veterinary sciences, and extension specialists. Increased interaction with scientists with anthropological, livestock, wildlife, and water management expertise could be of great benefit to the CSTAF activities. Graduate student involvement has increased research effort, especially in quantification of physiological interactions in agroforestry settings and applications for organic methods. There are a number of additional themes ripe for graduate and undergraduate projects throughout the region, including work on specific agroforestry practices, species combinations, agroforestry extension, market analysis and development with producers, and involvement in the Virgin Islands or other subtropical areas.

Additional opportunities can be shaped with extension of materials and future interactions within the Caribbean Basin. The CSTAF component in the U.S. Virgin Islands will serve as a starting point for development of practices and technology transfer in the Caribbean. Activities there can draw upon, complement, and further experiences on neighboring Puerto Rico with a vision for outreach to other island nations in the Caribbean. The strength of Caribbean programs at the University of Florida and the ties and interest between the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal region with the Caribbean can promote development of more international exchange activities for CSREES and other USDA agencies. This opportunity can serve as a platform for greater utilization of CSREES strengths in extension methodologies, program development, and human capacity building in the Caribbean region. The process can serve as a model for international outreach and technology transfer methods and programs.

Interest in agroforestry has grown steadily in the southeastern universities, but more extension efforts are needed in order to communicate agroforestry knowledge to the public.

Agroforestry: What Does the Future Hold?

Cost share and incentive programs can help promote integrative technologies, conservation goals, and adoption of agroforestry.

Policy Considerations

Agroforestry must also consider current forestry policies and conditions.

Agroforestry must also consider current forestry policies and conditions. The trend of decline in timber prices has resulted from recent trade agreements and increased food and fiber importation from Canada, South America, and other regions of the world. Though economical for supply of current need on a national scale, trade policy has distinct consequences about land use here in the southeastern U.S. What incentive do private owners have to invest in replanting for commercial production? Landowners are faced with decisions on how to hold and manage their land or to sell to a commercial developer, timber company, or find another alternative land use. Removal of pine stocks currently exceeds growth on forest industry and non-industrial private lands in the South (Prestemon & Abt 2002). Projections for increasing softwood plantations from the approximately 30 mil ac of today to about 48 mil ac by 2040 was recently reported in the U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest Resource Assessment. It is predicted much of this production will shift away from the increasingly urbanized eastern sector of the region into Mississippi and the western sector of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain (SRS 2002; Prestemon & Abt 2002).

The current political atmosphere is conducive to implementation of good land use planning, conservation, and education and youth programs.

The current political atmosphere is conducive to implementation of good land use planning, conservation, and education and youth programs. A Bush administration policy initiative, for example, outlined in February 2002 commits America to a strategy to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 18% over the next 10 years (Bierly & Eden 2002). The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 increases conservation funding by 80% over 1996 levels and much of this is focused on management of working lands. The Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) mandated in the law calls for funding technical assistance by public and private sector providers (SWCS 2002).

The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) remains the single largest cost-share program funded.

One avenue for these federal appropriations, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), remains the single largest program funded. The program has expanded options for economic use and creates opportunity for land restoration and retirement gains. It contains provisions for Biomass Pilot Projects for harvesting plant material to be used for energy production from enrolled lands (SWCS 2002). Through the CRP, farmers can receive cost-share assistance and annual rent payments to establish long term cover that will help conservation efforts on eligible land. As in the 2002 Farm Bill, conservation efforts will benefit from congressional support and growing citizen demand for sustaining natural resources.

There are various programs for cost-share incentives on private lands. See Appendix 3 for a list of agroforestry incentive programs for Alabama, Florida and Georgia.

Programs for cost-share incentives on private lands to date have included the Forestry Incentive Program, the Conservation Reserve Program, the Wetlands Reserve Program, the Stewardship Incentives Program, the Environmental Quality Incentives Program, and the Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (Groh 2002). The new Forest Land Enhancement Program (FLEP), established by the 2002 Farm Bill replaces several of these programs and provides for agroforestry support. The Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), the Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), Farmland Protection Program (FPP), Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP) and the Conservation Security Program (CSP), among others, can now be used by states in more flexible ways to coordinate implementation of multiple conservation programs. The CSP provides some balance to the commodity-based subsidies in providing stewardship-based entitlements. The CSP compensates producers who have invested in conservation and is tied to environmental performance (SWCS 2002). Policy studies at regional levels are needed to determine how agroforestry practices fit into land use policy application, and how analyses of decision-making and adoption on the part of landowners can feed back into policy formulation (Kurtz 2000; Mercer & Miller 1997; Henderson 1991). See Appendix 2 for a list of agroforestry resources on the Web. Also see Appendix 3 for a list of agroforestry incentive programs for Alabama, Florida and Georgia.

Agroforestry development requires time and careful observation of cash and labor inputs and outputs.

Many economic cost-benefit studies have demonstrated that agroforestry can generate a higher rate of return than conventional agriculture or forestry enterprises.

Agroforestry practices begin with a model and then develop in different directions according to how the farmers adapt the model to their own natural resource and socio-economic situations. This means agroforestry development can take some time, and certainly different practices will be adopted or adapted at different rates. The farmer and land manager determines whether goals are met over time at a reasonable cost based on private cost-effectiveness and management value (Kurtz 2000; Soule et al. 2000; Lohr 1995; Kidd & Pimentel 1990). Considerations of cash and labor inputs, management and returns, and marketing need documentation in order to provide land managers with decision-making information. Limited diversity of farm enterprises makes the farm vulnerable to environmental and economic changes. Thus, alternatives for generating income, such as agroforestry, could provide greater stability and more balanced income flows for small farm size operators.

Many economic cost-benefit studies have demonstrated that agroforestry technologies such as alley cropping, forest farming, riparian buffer strips, silvopasture, and windbreaks, can generate a positive private rate of return higher than conventional agriculture or forestry enterprises (Kurtz 2000; Garrett et al. 2000; Clason 1995; Brandle et al. 1992b). Outputs can also be characterized as non-revenue generating yields such as "public goods" or environmental services.

Research is underway to assess market and non-market goods and services of agroforestry systems as well as estimate multiplier effects and distributive impacts of agroforestry.

Research is underway to assess market and non-market goods and services of agroforestry systems as well as estimate multiplier effects and distributive impacts of agroforestry. A factor analysis methodology was tested by CSTAF researchers to measure respondent's preferences and rank the magnitude of their impact for silvopasture in southern Florida (Shrestra & Alavalapati 2002). The first application of this methodology to agroforestry showed promise for its use by decision-makers in targeting factors critical to adoption. Additional studies on hunting revenues relative to silvopasture and peoples willingness to pay for environmental services will provide information for other economic valuations of the market and non-market benefits of agroforestry. A social accounting matrix to measure the economic spin-off effects of agroforestry and an economic model to quantify the effects of carbon sequestration associated with agroforestry practices are being utilized and further developed.

Farmers who are willing to learn are better able to overcome barriers to adoption of alternative production systems.

These economic studies along with the series of economic analyses programmed for the CSTAF research components can help provide information on profitability of agroforestry practices (Alavalapati et al. 2002). Farmers who are willing to learn about the options for new enterprise development, including value-added products and custom specialty products, are better able to overcome barriers to adoption of alternative production systems.

Though we know that agroforestry will not replace most agricultural and forestry practices across the region, it is worthwhile to consider how agroforestry technologies can be incorporated into each at various geographical scales.

Thus, given the information available, we need to compile results about design and placement criteria and how riparian buffers can meet conservation and production objectives. Best management practices for streamside zones and cost share programs are in place to help restore impaired streams and to promote maintenance and establishment of buffers and constructed wetlands (e.g., EPA 319). CSTAF collaborators can contribute research results on sediment control and reduction in phosphorus and nitrate loadings by agroforestry practices. In addition, there is great potential to design decision support tools to help on-farm performance and selection of species. We need further investigation and demonstration of viable species combinations and vegetation zonation to include short rotation woody species and specialty crops of value that have potential to increase buffer width and diversity. Available information must be developed into formats that facilitate use by resource managers and landowners to promote greater adoption of the practices (AFTA 2000).

Lastly, landowners interested in incorporating recreational or scenic criteria into their multiple-use management and stewardship plans (Hubbard et al. 1999; Stein 1998) can utilize agroforestry practices in their design objectives. Streamside management zones, and edges of harvested forest, pasture, or crop fields are ideal places to include wildlife plantings, hedgerows or hiking and horse trails. Windbreaks and fencerow plantings provide additional alternatives for wildlife habitat. Seasonal activities or year round opportunities for wildlife viewing and nature study can be enhanced with plantings that also serve conservation purposes. Incomes from hunting and recreation uses for diversification are increasing in popularity. Land leases for hunting and fee hunting and fishing can provide continuous or seasonal cash flow. These activities are compatible with forest harvesting regimes that provide a diversity of forest age classes and habitats across the landscape, and streamside/riparian buffer zones that provide wildlife cover and movement corridors (Schaefer & Brown 1992).

Agroforestry has the potential to improve environmental quality as well as the diversity and productivity of an agricultural system.

However, successful adoption of agroforestry requires careful planning and management. Feedback from farmers in the Southeast will help in mapping out the impetus and direction of agroforestry for the future.

Concluding Remarks

However, successful adoption of agroforestry practices requires careful planning and management to effectively integrate different trees, crops and animals. In light of the objectives presented in this white paper, farmers and other landowners are encouraged to experiment with the agroforestry practices described in this paper, and to adapt them to their own particular locations and production goals. In turn, feedback from these farmer-initiated activities will be of great benefit in helping define the impetus and direction of agroforestry for the future.

"Southern-Region Competitive Grants Program" (USDA Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program (SARE): http://www.griffin.peachnet.edu/sare/homepage.shtml

Contact: The National Wild Turkey Federation, Phone: (803) 637-3106; E-mail: HYPERLINK "mailto:nwtf@nwtf.net" nwtf@nwtf.net.

White Paper Table of Contents

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Footnotes

1. This document is Circular 1446, one of a series through the Center for Subtropical Agroforestry (CSTAF), School of Forest Resources and Conservation, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First Published: June 2004. For more information, contact CSTAF, PO Box 110831, Gainesville, FL 32611, or http://CSTAF.ifas.ufl.edu. Portions of this material are taken from Workman, Bannister and Nair (2003), Agroforestry Systems 59: 73-83, courtesy of Kluwer Academic Publishers. Please visit the EDIS Web site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

2. Sarah W. Workman, Visiting Assistant Professor, and Samuel C. Allen, Postdoctoral Researcher, School of Forest Resources and Conservation and Center for Subtropical Agroforestry, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Employment Opportunity - Affirmative Action Employer authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension Service office.

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