Antioxidants and Cancer Prevention: Fact Sheet
1. What are antioxidants?
Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from the damage caused by
unstable molecules known as free radicals. Free radical damage may lead to
cancer. Antioxidants interact with and stabilize free radicals and may prevent
some of the damage free radicals otherwise might cause. Examples of
antioxidants include beta-carotene, lycopene, vitamins C, E, and A, and other
substances.
2. Can antioxidants prevent cancer?
Considerable laboratory evidence from chemical, cell culture, and animal studies
indicates that antioxidants may slow or possibly prevent the development of
cancer. However, information from recent clinical trials is less clear. In
recent years, large-scale, randomized clinical trials reached inconsistent
conclusions.
3. What was shown in previously published large-scale clinical trials?
Five large-scale clinical trials published in the 1990s reached differing
conclusions about the effect of antioxidants on cancer. The studies examined
the effect of beta-carotene and other antioxidants on cancer in different
patient groups. However, beta-carotene appeared to have different effects
depending upon the patient population. The conclusions of each study are
summarized below.
The first large randomized trial on antioxidants and cancer
risk was the Chinese Cancer Prevention Study, published in 1993. This trial
investigated the effect of a combination of beta-carotene, vitamin E, and
selenium on cancer in healthy Chinese men and women at high risk for gastric
cancer. The study showed a combination of beta-carotene, vitamin E, and
selenium significantly reduced incidence of both gastric cancer and cancer
overall. (1)
A 1994 cancer prevention study entitled the Alpha-Tocopherol
(vitmain E)/Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study (ATBC) demonstrated that lung
cancer rates of Finnish male smokers increased significantly with beta-carotene
and were not affected by vitamin E. (2)
Another 1994 study, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol (vitamin A)
Efficacy Trial (CARET), also demonstrated a possible increase in lung cancer
associated with antioxidants. (3)
The 1996 Physicians' Health Study I (PHS) found no change in
cancer rates associated with beta-carotene and aspirin taken by U.S. male
physicians. (4)
The 1999 Women's Health Study (WHS) tested effects of vitamin
E and beta-carotene in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease
among women age 45 years or older. Among apparently healthy women, there was no
benefit or harm from beta-carotene supplementation. Investigation of the effect
of vitamin E is ongoing. (5)
4. Are antioxidants under investigation in current large-scale clinical trials?
Three large-scale clinical trials continue to investigate the effect of
antioxidants on cancer. The objective of each of these studies is described
below. More information about clinical trails can be obtained using
www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials, www.clinicaltrials.gov,
or the CRISP database at www.nih.gov.
The Women's Health Study (WHS) is currently evaluating the
effect of vitamin E in the primary prevention of cancer among U.S. female
health professionals age 45 and older. The WHS is expected to conclude in
August 2004.
The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT) is
taking place in the United States, Puerto Rico, and Canada. SELECT is trying to
find out if taking selenium and/or vitamin E supplements can prevent prostate
cancer in men age 50 or older. The SELECT trial is expected to stop recruiting
patients in May 2006.
The Physicians' Health Study II (PHS II) is a follow up to the
earlier clinical trial by the same name. The study is investigating the effects
of vitamin E, C, and multivitamins on prostate cancer and total cancer
incidence. The PHS II is expected to conclude in August 2007.
5. Will NCI continue to investigate the effect of beta-carotene on cancer?
Given the unexpected results of ATBC and CARET, and the finding of no effect of
beta-carotene in the PHS and WHS, NCI will follow the people who participated
in these studies and will examine the long-term health effects of beta-carotene
supplements. Post-trial follow-up has already been funded
by NCI for CARET, ATBC, the Chinese Cancer Prevention Study, and the two
smaller trials of skin cancer and colon polyps. Post-trial follow-up results have been published for ATBC, and as of July 2004 are in press for CARET and are in progress for the Chinese Cancer Prevention Study.
6. How might antioxidants prevent cancer?
Antioxidants neutralize free radicals as the natural by-product of normal cell
processes. Free radicals are molecules with incomplete electron shells which
make them more chemically reactive than those with complete electron shells.
Exposure to various environmental factors, including tobacco smoke and
radiation, can also lead to free radical formation. In humans, the most common
form of free radicals is oxygen. When an oxygen molecule (O2) becomes
electrically charged or "radicalized" it tries to steal electrons from other
molecules, causing damage to the DNA and other molecules. Over time, such
damage may become irreversible and lead to disease including cancer.
Antioxidants are often described as "mopping up" free radicals, meaning they
neutralize the electrical charge and prevent the free radical from taking
electrons from other molecules.
7. Which foods are rich in antioxidants?
Antioxidants are abundant in fruits and vegetables, as well as in other foods
including nuts, grains and some meats, poultry and fish. The list below
describes food sources of common antioxidants.
Beta-carotene is found in many foods that are orange in color,
including sweet potatoes, carrots, cantaloupe, squash, apricots, pumpkin, and
mangos. Some green leafy vegetables including collard greens, spinach, and kale
are also rich in beta-carotene.
Lutein, best known for its association with healthy eyes, is
abundant in green, leafy vegetables such as collard greens, spinach, and kale.
Lycopene is a potent antioxidant found in tomatoes,
watermelon, guava, papaya, apricots, pink grapefruit, blood oranges, and other
foods. Estimates suggest 85 percent of American dietary intake of lycopene
comes from tomatoes and tomato products.
Selenium is a mineral, not an antioxidant nutrient. However,
it is a component of antioxidant enzymes. Plant foods like rice and wheat are
the major dietary sources of selenium in most countries. The amount of selenium
in soil, which varies by region, determines the amount of selenium in the foods
grown in that soil. Animals that eat grains or plants grown in selenium-rich
soil have higher levels of selenium in their muscle. In the United States,
meats and bread are common sources of dietary selenium. Brazil nuts also
contain large quantities of selenium.
Vitamin A is found in three main forms: retinol (Vitamin A1),
3,4-didehydroretinol (Vitamin A2), and 3-hydroxy-retinol (Vitamin A3). Foods
rich in vitamin A include liver, sweet potatoes, carrots, milk, egg yolks and
mozzarella cheese.
Vitamin C is also called ascorbic acid, and can be found in
high abundance in many fruits and vegetables and is also found in cereals,
beef, poultry and fish.
Vitamin E, also known as alpha-tocopherol, is found in
almonds, in many oils including wheat germ, safflower, corn and soybean oils,
and also found in mangos, nuts, broccoli and other foods.
References:
1) Blot WJ, Li JY, Taylor PR, et al. Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian,
China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer
incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Natl
Cancer Inst 1993;85:1483-91.
2) The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effects
of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other
cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1029-35.
3) Omenn GS, Goodman G, Thomquist M, et al. The beta-carotene and retinol
efficacy trial (CARET) for chemoprevention of lung cancer in high risk
populations: smokers and asbestos-exposed workers. Cancer Res 1994;54(7
Suppl):2038s-43s.
4) Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, Stampfer M, Rosner B, Cook NR, et al. Lack
of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of
malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1145-9.
5) Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE. Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of
cancer and cardiovascular disease: Women's Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst
1999;91:2102-6.
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