Abstract
This publication looks at marketing channels for and assesses the economics of
small-scale organic production of fresh-cut herbs. Certified organic production differs
from conventional methods chiefly in fertility management and pest control. Propagation
methods differ for annuals and perennials. For information on producing potted herb plants,
see the ATTRA publications Sustainable Small-scale Nursery
Production and Plug and Transplant Production for Organic
Systems.
Table of Contents
Related ATTRA Publications
Enterprise Planning
Marketing/Research
Hoophouses
Supplies
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Strictly speaking, there is no longer a greenhouse herb industry in the U.S.
(1) Commercial-scale greenhouse production is simply not economically
feasible for fresh-cut herbs, when the entire U.S. market can be supplied from outdoor
operations in favorable climates and from foreign greenhouse producers. Two large organic
herb farms now supply the Seattle produce terminal serving the Pacific Northwest. Neither
USDA's Agricultural Marketing Service nor USDA's National Agricultural Statistics Service
collects greenhouse herb information as a separate category. AMS collects information on
fresh-cut herbs sold at 16 national terminal markets, and NASS collects information on
organic vegetable production. Potted plants are lumped together with other nursery
production (mostly in greenhouses). The hope raised 10 or 15 years ago that local growers
would be supplying large amounts of fresh-cut herbs to the restaurant trade has been
undercut by developments in transportation and global marketing systems, making even
USDA-certified organic herbs readily and cheaply available from elsewhere.
Small farmers who have greenhouses grow herbs along with winter salad greens, potting plants,
vegetable starts, and ornamentals—some for direct market sales and some for home use.
(2) Direct-marketed herbs are more likely to be sold as potted plants than
as fresh-cuts. In parts of the U.S. east of California, fresh-cut herb sales make up only a
minor portion of direct market sales. The potential for local sales of fresh-cut herbs to
upscale restaurants has been largely overstated. Chefs can now have whatever organic herb
they want within 24 hours, at prices lower than those of 10 years ago, although some do
frequent their local farmers' markets.
A 45-acre Tilth-certified herb farm, Herbco, accounts for most of the organic herbs coming
through the Seattle produce terminal. (Organic herb sales at selected terminals are now
reported by NewFarm.com.) The supply is supplemented
by Jacobs Farm—growing on 300 certified organic acres at Pescadero, California.
Working with a network of certified organic growers in Baja Sur (Mexico), Jacobs Farm
advertises on its Web site that it can supply any quantity of any temperate or
tropical herb to anywhere in the U.S. or the world. Operations are certified by
Washington Tilth. Jacobs Farm, as well as CCOF-certified California growers, supplies
organic herbs to Melissa's, a wholesale produce vendor to whole foods chains and co-ops
around the country.
Technology and industry practices have also leaped forward. Heated wood-and-glass
greenhouses are things of the past. Using the newer plastic products, walk-in hoophouses
have become the industry standard for U.S. greenhouse crops. See ATTRA's very detailed
publication about hoophouse production entitled Season
Extension Techniques for Market Gardeners. Hoophouses generally do not require heat,
but supplemental heat can be provided. Acres of state-of-the-art, climate-controlled,
glass-and-steel greenhouses in Mexico are providing most organic herbs sold in the U.S.,
according to Tilth and USDA/NASS. Occasional sales at farmers' markets and through CSA
baskets account for the rest.
In the past farmers have been advised to "research any niche market carefully" before
investing. Finding reliable production statistics and economic information is admittedly
difficult, however, for a limited-resource land owner, especially one without Internet
access. To assess the potential market, do a risk-benefit analysis, and find a viable niche
requires evaluation of statistics buried in government reports and produce industry sites,
picking through Web pages, and finding privately held information. Recent attempts by the
states of New Jersey and Montana to secure a place for their farmers in supplying herbs on
a large scale (specifically greenhouse production in New Jersey) have not been successful.
While New Jersey herbs showed up for a while in the late 1990s in East Coast terminal
market reports, they have been replaced by low-cost imports. The primary obstacle to
greenhouse herb production in the U.S. is low-cost competition. At present, the only
profitable greenhouse winter vegetable crop in the U.S. is tomatoes.(1)
The ATTRA publication Sustainable Small-Scale Nursery
Production provides an in-depth overview of production and marketing of potted
perennials. Many of the finer culinary herbs—especially the Mediterranean group
(sage, marjoram, Greek oregano, the savories, thyme, rosemary, French tarragon, and
lavender)—are perennials raised from cuttings. Purely ornamental varieties of these
herbs exist, as well. Potted perennials raised from seed, rather than cuttings, include
common lovage, alliums (such as garlic chives), fennel, and some of the Mexican herbs.
One or two wholesale nurseries supply the entire U.S. nursery and garden store industry.
Organic potted herbs are a seasonal item found at farmers' markets and a few specialized
venues. The status of organic production of ornamentals is still under review.
Organic production of annual herbs such as basil is similar to that for most vegetables.
For more information, see the ATTRA publication
Organic Crops Workbook or the research studies summarized in the ATTRA publication
Herb Production for Organic Systems. Most annual herbs
have short enough growing seasons to be raised in beds outdoors for local markets. Some are
started under cold frames, row covers, or hoophouses.
The International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM) has initiated a
Participatory Guarantee System in the U.S. under the name "Certified Naturally Grown."
(3) This will benefit small, local growers. Locally Grown® is
another new certification that does not entail the expense of organic certification.
(4)
Fresh-cut organic herbs at farmers' markets generally sell for 4 to 10 times the price,
by weight, of bulk supermarket herbs, but demand is limited. Vendors hesitate to bring more
than a few bunches, for fear they will not sell. The strategy of offering pre-ordering to
regular customers via e-mail shows promise and has been tried by a Georgia grower.
Anyone considering raising herbs and seasoners in a greenhouse should do a cost-benefit
analysis. Not everything can be raised anywhere at a reasonable return for the producer.
The food and agriculture industry is changing very rapidly. For more help with enterprise
planning, please request the ATTRA publication
Agricultural Business Planning Templates and Resources.
Premium pricing can be critical to the viability of organic greenhouse operations,
because production costs are often higher than those for conventional greenhouses.
Organic pest control, particularly in labor costs, is generally more expensive than
conventional practices. Yield and quality can vary widely, depending on the growing
season and management practices. To achieve a satisfactory return on investment,
organic growers must be prepared to develop innovative production and marketing
strategies.
There are tradeoffs in every marketing strategy. A successful grower must develop
markets in which the price for organic produce adequately compensates for all
production costs. Additionally, the marketing process must be compatible with the
grower's personality and business skills. The particular combination of components in
any grower's marketing strategy will depend on local marketing opportunities, as well
as the grower's desire to be directly involved in marketing, tolerance for stress, and
ability to balance a variety of risk factors. For more information, request the ATTRA
publications Agricultural Business
Planning Templates and Resources, Keys to
Success in Value-Added Agriculture, and Direct
Marketing.
If you are considering building greenhouse facilities for organic production, research
the market to assess the economic feasibility. Once you have made the most realistic
cost estimates possible, you can develop a plan to adjust your production system,
revise your marketing plan, or walk away while you still have your shirt.
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ATTRA's greenhouse publication series provides in-depth
discussions of fertility, pest control, and other topics from an organic standpoint.
Additional resources for greenhouse herb production are listed at
the end of this publication. The New Organic Grower, by Eliot Coleman, has a
chapter on "winter gardening" that provides information for USDA hardiness Zones 3 to 6 on
technologies helpful in modifying a home-garden system for commercial production.
(5)
ATTRA Greenhouse Publications
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Producing potted herb plants, plugs, and starts is part of the nursery business. See the
ATTRA publications Plug and Transplant Production for
Organic Systems and Sustainable Small-scale Nursery
Production. Potted plants are typically perennials, often Mediterranean herbs intended
for permanent pot culture or for transplants that may serve both practical and ornamental
uses in the garden.
Dried herbs found in grocery stores do not come from greenhouse production, but are field
raised and sometimes wildcrafted outside the U.S. It is not economical to use controlled
atmosphere space to produce dried herbs. The transcript of a presentation by Alan De Young,
who represents the largest industrial herb producer and processor in the U.S., at the Fifth
(and final) Richters Commercial Herb Growing Conference, Ontario, Canada, may be found in
the proceedings of that meeting. It is the best account, by far, of contemporary Good
Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)—including
certified organic—for herb products.(6)
Back to top
Propagation Material
Herbs intended for fresh-cut sales are started either from seed or by a species-appropriate vegetative method—often as plugs—then grown out in bags of growing medium or in a hydroponic system. For information on the propagation method for a specific herb, see Table 1. For more information on organic plug production, see the ATTRA publications Plug and Transplant Production for Organic Systems and Potting Mixes for Certified Organic Production.
Organically grown seed of all types is currently in short supply. To produce organic seeds, an operation must be certified by a USDA-accredited certifier (see current list at www.ams.usda.gov/nop)
Table 1. Popular Herbs |
Herb |
Type or Cultivar |
Recommended Propogation Method |
Comments |
Sweet basil (A) |
Genovese, Italian Large Leaf, Thai, Mammoth |
Seed |
The most popular herb. Be careful not to start too early. Remove flowers as they appear
for greater leaf production. |
Dwarf basil (A) |
Spicy Globe |
Seed |
See above. |
Purple basil (A) |
Dark Opal, Purple Ruffles |
Seed |
See above. |
Chives (P) |
Grolau |
Seed |
Be careful not to start too early. Rose-pink flowers borne in spring/summer. Chefs
prefer fine-leaves types, but thick-leaved types hold up better in packages. |
Cilantro (A) |
Santo, Jantar |
Seed |
Easier to harvest if planted in clusters. |
Dill (A) |
Fernleaf |
Seed |
Ready for sale at 6–8 inches high. 'Dukat' is extra bushy. |
Lavender (M)(P) |
Munstead, Grosso |
Cuttings |
Seed does not come true to type. |
Sweet marjoram (M)(P) |
|
Cuttings |
Best to use cuttings of true Origanum majorana. USDA has released hybrid Origanum x
majoricum hardy to Zone 6. |
Mint (P) |
Peppermint,spearmint,pineapple mint |
Cuttings |
May be erect or trailing. Many foliage variations. Can be invasive. Variegated good as
ornamentals. |
Oregano (M)(P) |
Greek |
Cuttings |
Those with white flowers are preferred. |
Parsley (A) |
Curly |
Seed |
Can be used in containers. Makes a good edging plant. Technically a biennial, it's
grown as an annual. |
Parsley (A) |
Flat leaf, cv. Italian Dark Green |
Seed |
Best for culinary use. Because of its fine flavor, prices are usually higher than for
curly type. |
Rosemary (M)(P) |
|
Cuttings of a good-flavored variety |
Erect and trailing forms available. Erect forms are best for culinary use. 'Arp,' while
winter-hardy, is not recommended for culinary use. |
Sage (M)(P) |
Dalmation is best for fresh-cut herbs. |
Seed or cuttings |
Common sage is usually grown from seed; those with colored foliage are usually grown
from cuttings. Erect and spreading forms. Suitable for containers. Try 'Purpurescens,'
'Tri-color,' or 'Aurea' for potted ornamentals. |
Scented geraniums (A) |
Lemon, peppermint, rose |
Cuttings |
Flowers of scented geraniums are smaller and less showy than those of bedding
geraniums. |
Tarragon (P) |
French |
Cuttings |
Requires dormancy. Unusual growth pattern. "Russian" tarragon is of no commercial
value. |
Thyme (M)(P) |
Lemon, French, English, silver, creeping, winter. |
Cuttings |
Cuttings ensure true-to-type. Best flowering is on older plants. Slow to grow back
after cutting. |
M = Mediterranean herb; A = Annual; P = Perennial |
If organic seed is not available, conventionally produced non-GMO untreated seed may be used
for an organic annual herb crop, according to §205.204(a)(1) of the National Organic
Program rules. Perennials must be raised for at least a year under organic management in
order to be considered organic. See text of the Final Rule on sources of
propagation material for organic production, below. For a list of companies selling
certified organic and untreated seed, see the new ATTRA Web-only database
Suppliers of Seed for Certified Organic Production.
An Internet search on specific herbs is also advisable.
NOP Rule §205.204 Seeds and
planting stock practice standard
(a) The producer must use organically grown seeds, annual seedlings, and planting
stock: Except, That,
(1) Nonorganically produced, untreated seeds and planting stock may be used to
produce an organic crop when an equivalent organically produced variety is not
commercially available, Except, That, organically produced seed must be used for
the production of edible sprouts;
(2) Nonorganically produced seeds and planting stock that have been treated with a
substance included on the National List of synthetic substances allowed for use in
organic crop production may be used to produce an organic crop when an equivalent
organically produced or untreated variety is not commercially available;
(3) Nonorganically produced annual seedlings may be used to produce an organic crop
when a temporary variance has been granted in accordance with §205.290(a)(2);
(4) Nonorganically produced planting stock to be used to produce a perennial crop
may be sold, labeled, or represented as organically produced only after the planting
stock has been maintained under a system of organic management for a period of no
less than 1 year; and
(5) Seeds, annual seedlings, and planting stock treated with prohibited substances
may be used to produce an organic crop when the application of the materials is a
requirement of Federal or State phytosanitary regulations.
National Organic Program Final Rule,
www.ams.usda.gov/nop |
For vegetatively propagated perennial herbs, greenhouse herb producers often take cuttings
from their own "mother plants." This practice gives producers already certified a decided
advantage over start-up businesses, since they can procure organic starts at any time
without any waiting period. Economies of scale have caused rapid consolidation in organic
herb production. Growers seeking first-time organic certification or switching to a new
certifier, as well as individuals planning to construct greenhouses for organic production,
do well to secure their perennial herbs early in the mandatory three-year transitional
period. After certification of a greenhouse operation, any new perennial plant stock must
come from a certified organic source or be raised for at least one year under an approved
organic management system before products derived from those plants can legally be sold as
organic. This applies to foundation stock for potted plant production, as well as perennials
for fresh-cut herb production. Section 205.204 is subject to interpretation by the
accredited certifier for a given operation.
Back to top
Marketing and Economics
Industry Overview
New producers interested in the organic greenhouse herb business should take the following
into consideration.
The organic premium in wholesale markets seems to be running about 33%. However, the market
is segmented to such a degree that direct-marketed fresh-cuts can bring an organic premium
of 400% or more.
USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA/AMS) reports weekly wholesale prices for
conventionally grown culinary herbs at 18 U.S. terminal produce markets.
(See www.ams.usda.gov. The Web site has in spring 2005
become more user friendly.) The Web-based e-zine New Farm now reports weekly prices for organic herbs and, through its network of volunteer
reporters, plans to report information on farmers' market prices for organic herbs.
On March 1, 2005, the only organic product reported through wholesale terminal market
reports was basil, with conventionally grown basil selling for $9.60 (per dozen bunches),
compared to $13.25 for organic basil (per dozen bunches) at the Seattle, Washington,
terminal. (The New Farm site does not archive organic
prices for comparison.)
![Potted herbs for sale at the USDA Farmers' Market in Washington, D.C.](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/web/20081204195526im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/gh-herbhold/pottedHerbs.jpg)
Potted herbs for sale at the USDA Farmers' Market in Washington, D.C.
Photo by Bill Tarpenning, USDA
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The National Agricultural Statistics Service reported that, as of 2002, certified organic
accounted for 30% of all U.S.-grown fresh culinary herbs in regular commercial channels.
The Organic Price Index published online by New Farm,
compares organic and conventional fresh culinary herb prices, using USDA organic data
"gathered by AMS [USDA/Agricultural Marketing Service] employees" but reported separately
from the National Wholesale Herb Report. Price comparisons over time (for conventional basil
only) reveal that in November 1999, at the Philadelphia terminal, 15 bunches wholesaled for
$13.00, and at the same terminal on June 3, 2002, for $10.00, or $11.00 to $13.00
airfreighted from Israel. On March 1, 2005, at the Philadelphia terminal, comparable
amounts were $12.00 airfreighted from Israel and $12.00 from Florida. This demonstrates
level or decreasing wholesale prices for fresh-cut herbs since 1999, despite slow increases
for most food prices, due to inflation.
According to a West Coast organic wholesale produce vendor, the organic herbs coming
through the Seattle Produce Terminal are from two sources: Herbco, a 45-acre certified
organic farm in Washington state, and Jacobs Farm, a 300-acre certified organic farm in
Pescadero, California. Jacobs Farm also sells for the 250-member Del Cabo Cooperative
growing certified organic basil year-round in Mexico (Baja Sur).
Prices for the same herb the same week can vary among terminal markets. An unexplained
anomaly is that an herb from Israel can sell for more than twice as much at an East Coast
terminal than at a California terminal. West Coast terminal prices, under pressure from
Mexican and Central American supplies, have decreased dramatically since 1999.
On March 1, 2005, at Boston and Philadelphia, the only organic herbs available were cilantro
and parsley. At the San Francisco terminal, organic herbs available did not include basil
but did include marjoram, oregano, tarragon, and chives. In Seattle, besides basil, herbs
included lemon thyme, marjoram, oregano, peppermint, rosemary, sage, tarragon, chives,
sorrel, spearmint, and thyme. USDA/ERS has just begun publishing organic prices (and
corresponding conventional prices) for some produce from the Boston and San Francisco
wholesale markets. Herbs could be added in the future.
(See
www.ers.usda.gov/data/organicprices.)
Grocery distributors depend heavily on wholesale sources for herbs. Food manufacturers rely
on intermediate products such as essential oils, herb pastes and essences, and herb blends
to season consumer products. Upscale urban restaurants meet their needs for the
Mediterranean herbs (thyme, marjoram, summer savory, French tarragon, Greek oregano) from
terminal markets, though they sometimes find the quality of local organic herbs very
attractive. The prepping of herbs used as a food ingredient in meals served by restaurant
chains and large institutions typically occurs far from the premises. Most public schools
do not do food prep and cooking on site anymore. Due to concerted efforts by farmer groups
in some states, some school systems have been re-educated about the advantages of buying
produce from local sources. Farmer groups then must set up food preparation centers and
deliver produce according to specification (washed, pre-cut, bagged, etc.).
The two top U.S. fresh-cut herbs year-round—parsley and cilantro—come from large,
high-tech greenhouses in California, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Countries airfreighting
fresh herbs and related specialty crops to the U.S. now include Mexico (lately Baja Sur),
Peru, Costa Rica, Colombia, The Philippines, Canada, and France, as well as Israel, where
dry desert air and mineral-laden water provide a competitive advantage for Mediterranean
herbs. Peru has the advantage of a complementary season. California, Florida, and Hawaii
lead among U.S.-based suppliers—although an undetermined share of California
production may be repackaged herbs from Mexico and Central America.
The New Jersey Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with Rutgers University, devoted
significant time and money in the mid-1990s to development of a greenhouse herb industry,
and for a time New Jersey greenhouse growers wholesaled horseradish, mint, cilantro, and
basil to East Coast terminal markets. Now year-round herb farms have turned to direct
marketing (see www.plochfarms.com), and
Rutgers (the state university
of New Jersey) has turned its attention to the economics and production of greenhouse
flowers. The New Jersey Fresh
program lists (by county) twenty farms with greenhouses offering herbs through roadside
markets and one pick-your-own herb farm with a greenhouse. None are certified organic.
It is estimated that a city the size of Kansas City, Missouri, would need only one
three-greenhouse operation to supply all of its culinary herb needs year-round—if the
metropolitan area depended totally on local production. As in other aspects of herb raising,
when the wholesale market expands, existing growers get bigger; improvements in
transportation have facilitated imports of fragile crops from distant locations. However,
volatility in oil prices is an unknown factor in projecting future markets for locally
produced greenhouse herb crops.
New Farm is building a network that can report
direct-marketed weekly organic produce sales (including fresh herbs). For updates, go to
www.newfarm.com and follow the dashboard links.
New Farm estimates that alternative marketing methods
account for at least 50% of sales of organic fresh herbs. For an overview of direct
marketing methods, see the ATTRA publication Direct
Marketing.
Key Success Factors
- Industry research (as reported in the media, including cookbooks that influence
consumer awareness) will continue to dictate the market environment and determine
the popularity and sales volume of individual herbs.
- Grower development of marketing and research must be pursued diligently in order
to identify changing environments and emerging opportunities.
- Growers must be able to produce and handle multiple products, preferably from a
variety of crops, in order to reduce dependence on market fluctuations for any
single crop.
- Developing a sales network of multiple buyers will reduce dependence on any single
purchaser and increase the producer's relative bargaining power.
- Due to labor-intensive practices of small operators—who cannot afford the
high-tech, computerized greenhouses characteristic of foreign competitors in
greenhouse production—growers must be able to secure a consistent labor
supply at relatively low cost.
Adapted from Watts and Associates. 2002. Market Opportunities and Strategic
Directions for Specialty Herbs and Essential Oil Crops in Montana. Prepared for:
Montana Department of Agriculture, Billings, MT; USDA Federal-State Marketing
Improvement Program, Washington, D.C. p. 42.
www.ams.usda.gov/TMD/FSMIP/FY2000/MT0294.pdf
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Local Producers
Wholesaling Organic Fresh-cut Herbs
![Herbs for sale at the Crescent City Farmers' Market in New Orleans, Lousiana.](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/web/20081204195526im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/gh-herbhold/herbsFM.jpg)
Herbs for sale at the Crescent City Farmers' Market in New Orleans, Louisiana.
Photo by Bill Tarpenning, USDA.
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It is now customary for supermarkets to charge produce vendors "slotting fees" for shelf
space. In addition, vendors may be asked for advertising and promotion allowances that can
add up to thousands of dollars. There has been tremendous consolidation in the retail food
sector in recent years, emphasizing economies of scale. Few independent grocers exist who
can make their own decisions on stocking local produce; chains stock their retail stores
from regional warehouses, where volume and price rule the terms for vendors. At a USDA
conference in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 2001, the produce buyer for a major national
chain—which advertises its "buy local" program—acknowledged that his stores buy
local produce only when a sudden, temporary shortage of the item occurs. Natural and health
food stores, which buy more organic produce, are under essentially the same constraints,
since they must commit to a wholesale supplier to ensure year-round supplies. Moreover,
even when a local store commits, as matter of policy, to reserve slots for local organic
herbs, no one can guarantee sales volume in advance of planting. The risk
inevitably is borne by the grower.
Desmond Jolly, who directs the University of California-Davis Small Farm Program, urges
small growers to investigate alternative business models in keeping with the rapidly
changing U.S. economy. Forming a marketing cooperative (7) is one way for
small growers to generate the economies of scale necessary to bargain with supermarket
chains or institutional buyers.(8) USDA's Rural Business–Cooperative
Service can provide publications and guidance on forming a producers' cooperative. Request
these RBS publications from ATTRA.
Some enterprising growers integrate greenhouse production with retail sales, services,
entertainment, and community participation. For more information on rural tourism and farm
profiles, see the ATTRA publications Entertainment
Farming and Agritourism and Lavender Production,
Products, Markets, and Entertainment Farming. Also see herb farms participating in the
Jersey Fresh Program.
New Product Directions
Ethnic cuisines, with their own particular herb preferences, are becoming extremely popular.
With an increasing Hispanic population, U.S. vendors now supply culinary herbs that only a
few years ago were considered exotic. Sales figures for epazote recently appeared for the
first time on the National Wholesale Herb Report. As demand for Thai herbs and seasoners
levels off, demand for Vietnamese herbs picks up. Less common herbs include chervil, curry
leaf, salad burnet, sorrel, ajmud, West Indian culantro, Mexican mint marigold, hojo santo,
garlic chives, lemon balm, shungiku (garland chrysanthemum), Mexican oregano (Lippia
graveolins), bergamot, rue, and summer savory. When possible, ethnic communities in
the U.S. import their traditional herbs, but potential exists for supplying such herbs to
local ethnic markets, or to wider markets if a trend develops. Urban areas across the U.S.
with any significant Hispanic population soon have their own bodegas selling traditional
herbs and seasoners. Herbs raised for an ethnic market must be propagated from the exact
cultivar used in the ethnic cuisine.
Since 2004 (until summer 2005) USDA has been rigorously enforcing a 1968 ban on import
of "Szechwan peppercorn" (Zanthoxylum rhetsa) and fresh lime leaves (Citrus x
aurantifolia 'Keffir') used in Thai cooking. These Rutaceae species are suspects in
spreading citrus canker. Local production within the U.S. is still allowed, and imports
are now allowed on a limited basis—if the spice has been heat-treated. 'Keffir'
lime leaves were identified by Lynette Morgan in 2000 (see
Resources) as a promising greenhouse crop for Australia and New Zealand. Lime
trees are easily grown in a greenhouse, and propagation material for 'Keffir' is
available through classified ads placed by Florida growers in the Florida Market
Bulletin (published by Florida
Department of Agriculture online). |
ATTRA occasionally has requests for information on growing very specialized herb/seasoner
crops—such as ajwain, annatto, black pepper, royal cumin, galangal, saffron, ginger,
black tea, coffee, chocolate, and capers. They have all been tried long ago in either
greenhouse or outdoor production in the U.S., but significant constraints emerged in trials.
None proved economically viable. See Resources/Uncommon
Herbs for further information.
Back to top
Production
A Basic Text for Beginning Greenhouse Growers
Sandie Shores' Growing and Selling Fresh-Cut Herbs (8), based on
the fresh-cut herb business she began and operated for 20 years in southern Minnesota, can
serve as a manual for inexperienced greenhouse herb growers. The first part of her book
deals with the business side of growing herbs and includes information on things like
business laws, financing, insurance, finding markets (wholesale, restaurant, supermarket,
farmers' market, etc.), managing employees, and pricing. Part Two discusses greenhouse
planning and operation—including information on the various types, how to choose one,
how to erect one, and what equipment will be necessary (heating, cooling, lighting, fans,
benches, irrigation, etc.).
Parts Three and Four provide general information on production methods and then specific
crop-by-crop information. The author also provides tips on "great growing" and postharvest
and packaging information. See Further Resources for ordering
this book.
Starts
The Mediterranean herbs favored in French cuisine are best started from cuttings (see
Table 2). Greenhouse production preserves culinary quality through
controlled growing conditions. Ornamentals sold as potted plants can be started from seed
or from cuttings. Certified organic production will differ from conventional chiefly in the
areas of fertility and allowable methods of pest control. Organic greenhouse production
practices are discussed in a series of ATTRA publications.
Organic Greenhouse Vegetable Production addresses organic fertility programs, soil and
soilless culture systems (growing in bags, vertical towers, straw bales, and shallow beds),
and economics. Plug and Transplant Production for Organic
Systems addresses container options, seeding and germination, nutrition, temperature,
irrigation, and growth regulation. For organic methods of hydroponic production, see
Greenhouse and Hydroponic Vegetable Resources on the
Internet.
Practices specific to herb production
Greenhouse production methods for herbs are similar to those for greenhouse-grown
vegetables. There are some practices, however, that are specific to herb production.
Fertility and irrigation, for example, must be managed somewhat differently. Too much water
or fertilizer may result in poor establishment of slow-growing seedlings or semi-woody
cuttings, excessive growth of species with rapid growth rates, or lower essential oil
content, resulting in diminished aroma or culinary value.(10)
Greenhouse temperatures for herb production are about the same as for bedding plants: day
temperatures of 70° to 75°F and night temperatures around 60°F. Fast-growing
herbs such as basil, chives, and dill become overgrown if started too early.(
4) Growth control techniques such as brushing and manipulation of day-night
temperatures may be useful. Plugs can be held for a time until sales can begin.
Low light intensity and overcrowding will cause plants to "stretch." In herbs, this problem
may be compounded: low light can also reduce the essential oil content. It is important in
greenhouse herb production to provide maximum light in late winter and early spring. Eliot
Coleman suggests raising winter thyme (mother-of-thyme, Thymus praecox ssp.
arcticus), winter savory (Satureja montana), sage, parsley, sorrel, and dandelion
for greenhouse production in USDA zones 3 to 6.(4)
Growing media
![Rosemary is raised as potted specimen shrubs, and managed quantitatively over the years by reducing plants to the required numbers.](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/web/20081204195526im_/http://attra.ncat.org/images/gh-herbhold/rosemary.jpg)
Rosemary is raised as potted specimen shrubs, and managed quantitatively over the
years by reducing plants to the required number.
Photo by Alex Fiore,
www.sxc.hu |
Although it can be done, few herbs are raised in soil inside greenhouses. More often, they
are raised in a soilless medium. (Some farmers' markets now require this.) Certified
organic greenhouse-grown herbs must be raised in a certified organic potting mix.
Commercial potting mixes typically contain wetting agents and synthetic fertilizers and
are not allowable, requiring organic growers either to mix their own or to purchase a
certified organic mix. (See the ATTRA publication Potting
Mixes for Certified Organic Production.) Most organic potting mixes are based on
good-quality compost amended with peat moss and perlite or vermiculite and supplemented
with organic fertilizers like bone meal, feather meal, and kelp. Such a mix would be
suitable for herb production, with one variation. Since most herbs are native to regions
having neutral or slightly alkaline soils, the optimum pH for herbs is 6.0–7.0.
(8) Most soilless mixes have a pH somewhere between 5.0 and 6.0, so they
will have to be amended with lime before use. For more information on soilless media,
amendments, and suggested mixes, see the ATTRA publications
Potting Mixes for Certified Organic Production,
Plug and Transplant Production for Organic Systems,
and Organic Greenhouse Vegetable Production.
Production scheduling
An important factor to keep in mind when scheduling plant production is not only how long
it will take the plants to grow but also how long it will take them to be sold and moved
out of your sales or production area. Other important questions include what plant species
to grow, how much space is needed, and whether the plants will be grown from seeds or
cuttings. If cuttings are to be used, space will be needed for the mother plants, and a
mist chamber may be necessary.
Most herbs will need 6 to10 weeks to reach saleable size. Researchers at Cornell recommend
starting the following in March for May sales: parsley, rosemary, sage, thyme.
(4) Anise, basil, borage, chives, coriander, dill, and fennel should be
sown in April for May sales. Table 2 provides more specifics about
production scheduling for fresh-cut herbs.
For greenhouse-grown fresh-cut herbs, each type has somewhat different requirements. For
example, mint is best grown in a raised bed and cut uniformly, section by section, as
market requirements dictate. Rosemary, on the other hand, is raised as potted specimen
shrubs, and managed quantitatively over the years by reducing plants to the required
number. Sprigs of rosemary are harvested individually.
For more details of production and harvest of specific herbs, study Growing and
Selling Fresh-Cut Herbs, by Sandie Shores.(8)
Table 2. Production Scheduling for Fresh-Cut Herbs
In Growing and Selling Fresh-Cut Herbs, Sandie Shores provides production
schedules for many commonly grown herbs. Four examples are provided here.
|
Herb |
Days from Germination to Potting up |
Days to Transplant-Ready |
Days from Sowing to First Harvest |
Days from Regrowth to Second Harvest |
Basil |
18 to 21 |
21 |
84 to 90 |
7 to 14 |
Chives |
* |
25 to 30 |
105 to 120 |
14 to 21 |
Cilantro |
Direct sown |
Direct sown |
49 to 56 |
10 to 14 |
Sage |
14 to 18 |
14 to 21 |
85 to 98** |
7 to 14** |
* Usually transplanted directly from flat to growing bed
** Small yields in first year
|
Hydroponics
Hydroponics is the production of plants in a soilless medium in which all of the plant
nutrients supplied to the crop are dissolved in water. Hydroponic systems—referred
to by such terms as water culture, nutriculture, solution culture, gravel culture, sand
culture, aeroponics, mist culture, bioponics, aquaponics, and the nutrient film technique
(NFT)—are commonly used in the commercial production of greenhouse herbs.
Most conventional hydroponic units are highly specialized, controlled-environment
production systems. The technology associated with hydroponic production is well documented.
Many good books and Cooperative Extension Service publications are available on this
subject. Some recent literature is available on the highly developed European technology,
including state-of-the-art facilities in the Caribbean serving resort hotels. The primary
difference between organic and chemical hydroponics is the source of fertility and presence
of microorganisms. Microbes are essential to organic systems because they help regulate pH
and the availability of nutrients. Hydro-organics is based on hydroponic solutions derived
from organic fertilizers that will go into solution—such as fish meal, spray-dried
blood, and guano.
There are several advantages to producing herbs hydroponically (11):
- Hydroponics provides growers with control over nutrient and pH levels.
- Greater potential income is realized.
- Most recirculating systems are closed, meaning nutrients and water are recirculated,
and none is lost into the ground.
- Most hydroponic systems are automated, saving labor costs and keeping materials costs
to a minimum.
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Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Insects and diseases are a major challenge to greenhouse production. IPM is an important
tool in the management of these pests. The primary goal of IPM is to optimize pest control
in an economically and ecologically sound way. IPM involves the integration of cultural,
physical, biological, and chemical practices to grow crops with minimal use of pesticides.
Monitoring, sampling, and record keeping are used to determine when controls are needed to
keep pests below an economically damaging threshold. Pest management, not eradication, is
the goal of IPM. For more information, see the ATTRA publication
Integrated Pest Management for Greenhouse Crops and
individual publications on whitefly, aphid, and thrips control. Using less permanent
structures—such as hoophouses—can avoid build-up of pest infestations.
Diseases
The most common diseases in greenhouse herb production are fungal diseases, including
botrytis, damping-off, and root rots. Vascular wilts are also common in herbs. These
diseases can cause tremendous plant loss in just a few days if conditions are favorable
and no control is in place.
Again, using temporary structures—such as hoophouses—can prevent disease
build-up from year to year. Greenhouse conditions that contribute to air stagnation and
poor air circulation, such as dense plant canopies and plant crowding, will increase the
incidence of disease. There are several general practices that are important in disease
prevention (12):
- Use irrigation techniques that minimize leaf wetness. Avoid late afternoon and
nighttime irrigation.
- Maintain good air circulation in the greenhouse.
- Remove diseased plants and plant parts immediately.
- For herbs grown in ground beds, rotate plant families.
- Use only clean stock for propagation.
- Thoroughly clean containers with a bleach and water solution.
- Pasteurize or sterilize growing media.
- Control insects that vector disease.
These and other aspects of greenhouse disease control are discussed at length in ATTRA's
Integrated Pest Management for Greenhouse Crops.
Insects
Whiteflies, aphids, fungus gnats, spider mites, and thrips are the major insect pests
affecting herbs.(8) ATTRA's series of
greenhouse IPM publications includes general and specific information on managing
these pests.
Very few herb crops have either natural or synthetic pesticides labeled for their use,
mostly because herbs are considered a minor or specialty crop. Biorational pesticides
registered for use on herbs include neem, insecticidal soap, horticultural oil, pyrethrins,
Streptomyces griseoviridis (a naturally occurring, soilborne bacterium), and the
fungus Beauveria bassiana. It is important for herb growers to remember that many
of these pesticides taste really bad, so all herbs cut from sprayed plants should be
thoroughly washed.
It is always best to ask your certifier whether specific brands of products are permissible.
Guidance is also available from the Organic Materials Research Institute (OMRI), which
maintains a list of permitted and prohibited products.
For more information on natural pest control in certified organic production, please see
the ATTRA Greenhouse
IPM series.
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References
1) Calvin, Linda, and Roberta Cook. 2005. Greenhouse tomatoes change the dynamics of the
North American fresh tomato industry. AmberWaves. April. Vol. 3, No. 2.
www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/april05/features/greenhousetomatoes.htm
2) Moore, Steve. 2005. The hoophouse in summer. Growing for Market. May. p. 18.
3) Henderson, Elizabeth. 2005. International group recognizes non-certified organic
growers. Growing for Market. April. p. 13–15. See also, U.S. alternatives to
certification gather steam. p. 14.
4) Locally Grown®
www.locallygrown.com
Originally a marketing tool for the conventional produce industry, the
label can be adapted for low-input and sustainable produce marketing.
5) Nation, Allan. 2004. Buying co-ops vs. marketing co-ops. Stockman GrassFarmer. August.
p. 9–10.
6) De Young, Alan. 2001. Herb field production and processing with GAPs and GMPs. p. 49
–67. In: Helen Snell and Conrad Richter (ed.). Richters Fifth Commercial
Herb Growing Conference, November 4, 2000, Goodwood, Ontario, Canada.
7) Jolly, Desmond. 2002. Director's message. Small Farm News. June. p. 2.
8) Shores, Sandie. 2003. Growing and Selling Fresh-Cut Herbs. 2nd ed. Ball Publishing,
Batavia, IL. 483 p.
9) Coleman, Eliot. 1999. Four Season Harvest. Chelsea Green, White River Junction, VT.
453 p.
10) Cox, Douglas, and Lyle Craker. 1994. Herbs: Grow them and they will sell. Greenhouse
Grower. September. p. 74, 76–77.
11) Creaser, Gordon. 1994. Fresh herb market. Greenhouse Manager. September. p.
53–57.
12) Barnes, L.W. 1993. Disease identification and control in greenhouse herb production.
Herbs Texas Style. Vol. 3, No. 1. p. 10–13.
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Further Resources
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA) Project Reports
www.sare.org
To search the project database, click on Projects in the dashboard, then
use the search engine per instructions.
FNE03-486. Final Report. 2004. Effects of Vermi-compost Applied in a High
Tunnel.
LS03-147. Final Report. 2004. Bioactive Natural Products: A feasible
method of organic disease management in float bed production systems.
FNE03-468. Final Report. 2004. Organic Plug Production: Evaluating
Growing Media, Fertilizer and Economic Feasibility.
LNE02-164. Annual Report. 2004. Biological Control Practices for
High-Tunnel Crop Production.
ONE05-037. 2005. Awarded. Developing Beneficial Insect Habitat for
Greenhouses.
FS00-118. Annual Report. 2000. Developing Marketing Strategies for
Culinary and Medicinal Herbs.
LS94-013. Final Report. 1994. Plant Shelters to Extend the Growing Season
for Herbs.
FNE03-464. Overwintering and season extension of organic culinary herbs
in unheated high tunnels
Michael Glos, Kingbird Farm, Berkshire, NY
Historically, growers in New England can offer only four or five
months of annual and perennial herbs, and farmers there are interested in developing
techniques both to extend the season and to improve the overwintering of tender herbs
like rosemary by using unheated high tunnels. Some plants will be mulched or grown under
hooped row covers, and the harvest results and tender-plant survival will be recorded.
The results will be a presented at a field day, in an Extension newsletter, and through
conferences and media outreach.
Books/Directories
Brester, Gary, Kole Swanser, and Tim Watts. 2002. Market Opportunities and Strategic
Directions for Specialty Herbs and Essential Oil Crops in Montana. Prepared for the
Montana Department of Agriculture and USDA Federal-State Marketing Improvement Program.
Watts & Associates, Billings, MT. 64 p.
www.ams.usda.gov/TMD/FSMIP/FY2000/MT0294.pdf
Coleman, Eliot. 1999. Four Season Harvest. Chelsea Green, White River Junction, VT. 234 p.
Inspired by Scott and Helen Nearing's garden in the late 1960s and
based on the author's success with harvesting fresh vegetables year-round in New England,
this book contains details on design, construction, and management of the outdoor garden,
cold frames, tunnels, and root cellars. It includes growing tips for 50 vegetable crops,
a planting schedule for extended harvests for all locations in the U.S., and sources of
tools and supplies. Available for $24.95 from:
Chelsea Green Publishing
P.O. Box 428
White River Junction, VT 05001
800-639-4099
Edey, Anna. 1998. Solviva: How to Grow $500,000 on One Acre and Peace on Earth.
Trailblazer Press, Martha's Vineyard, MA. 230 p.
This publication features organic vegetable production in a solar
greenhouse. Solviva refers to Edey's award-winning solar-powered and animal-heated
greenhouse on Martha's Vineyard [unfortunately no longer in operation]. The book
discusses greenhouse design, function, construction, and management. Ms. Edey includes
many energy-efficient designs such as water walls and growtubes. She also tells how much
everything costs, which is invaluable for market gardeners. Although her main crop was
lettuce, her techniques could be applied in any greenhouse. Solviva is available for $35
(plus shipping/handling). Order by mail or online from:
GFM Books
P.O. Box 3747
Lawrence, KS 66046
800-307-8949
www.growingformarket.com
Facciola, Stephen. 1998. Cornucopia II: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong
Publications, Vista, CA. 713 p.
Indispensable reference work for food plants worldwide. Includes
cultivar lists. Widely available through commercial publishers and on the Internet.
Morgan, Lynette. 2002. Fresh Culinary Herb Production: A technical guide to the hydroponic
and organic production of commercial fresh gourmet herb crops. Suntec, New Zealand. 132 p.
In the U.S. order Dr. Morgan's book online from
www.growingedge.com/store, or call
toll-free 800-888-6785 or 541-757-8477. Descriptions of organic production do not
necessarily conform to the Final Rule of the U.S. National Organic Program.
Nelson, Paul V. 2003. Greenhouse Operation and Management. 6th edition. Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ. 692 p.
Standard reference text for growers and greenhouse managers. Covers
essential principles, skills, and relationships required to manage most modern
greenhouses. Includes engineering, heating, cooling, and fertilization calculations.
Shores, Sandie. 2003. Growing and Selling Fresh-Cut Herbs. 2nd ed. Ball Publishing,
Batavia, IL. 483 p.
Excellent book on herb production, both in the greenhouse and in the
field. Designed for the beginner. The chapters on specific herb crop production methods
include information on greenhouse production. Widely available for $27.95. It is also
available through the author's Web site,
www.freshcutherbs.com, where she also answers questions from growers.
Staff. 2004. Thomas Food & Beverage Market Place. 3 vols. Grey House Publishing,
Millerton, NY. 8122 p.
Compiled from two respected food industry databases, this directory
provides comprehensive information on more than 40,000 companies supplying the U.S. food
and beverage industry. Good for locating equipment. Available online (by subscription),
or call ATTRA at 800-346-9140 for a specific resource.
Tatum, David. 2001. Starting a Greenhouse Business. Mississippi State University Extension
Service. 5 p.
http://msucares.com/pubs/publications/p1957.htm
Estimated investment cost per sq. ft. for turn-key quonset-style greenhouse in
Mississippi. Tips on retail and wholesale marketing. Reprinted in American Small Farm
magazine, July 2002.
Tucker, Arthur O., and Thomas DeBaggio. 2000. The Big Book of Herbs. Interweave Press,
Loveland, CO. 688 p.
A comprehensive illustrated reference to herbs of flavor and fragrance.
Periodicals
GMPro is a leading trade journal for the greenhouse industry. It is
designed for greenhouse managers.
Contact:
GMPro
P.O. Box 1868
Fort Worth, TX 76101
817-882-4120
817-882-4121 FAX
800-433-5612
www.GreenBeam.com
The Growing Edge is a bimonthly magazine that focuses on hydroponics and
high-tech gardening from an ecological angle. The emphasis is on greenhouses, hydroponics,
artificial lighting, drip irrigation, and other protected culture methods. Special issues
have featured articles on bioponics and organic soilless culture. Back issues are
available.
Contact:
The Growing Edge
New Moon Publishing
341 SW 2nd Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
800-888-6785
www.growingedge.com
$26.95/year
Sample article: Creaser, Gordon. 2002. Antigua Fresh hydroponics. The
Growing Edge. July–August. p. 45–47.
Growing for Market, a newsletter for small producers of vegetables, herbs,
and flowers, provides up-to-date marketing information. Geared to small-scale operations
and focused on sustainable production techniques. Available for $27/year from:
Growing for Market
P.O. Box 3747
Lawrence, KS 66046
800-307-8949
www.growingformarket.com
Fruit & Veg Tech, an Elsevier Intn'l quarterly publication, provides
details on what new technologies the worldwide greenhouse industry is adopting. High-tech
greenhouse production in other countries is a major source of competition for U.S.
greenhouse growers. A related publication is FlowerTech. See
www.HortiWorld.nl. Subscriptions are $54 U.S./yr.
(4 issues); subscribe through Web site with a credit card, or by mail.
HortScience is published seven times a year by the American Society for
Horticultural Science and is available at any land-grant university library system.
Institutional/non-member subscriptions are $400/yr.
113 South West Street, Ste. 200
Alexandria, VA 22314-2851
703-836-4606
703-836-2024 FAX
ashs@ashs.org
Sample article: Russo, V.M. 2005. Organic vegetable transplant
production. HortScience. Vol. 40, No. 3. p. 623–628.
Articles
Reilly, Richard T. 2005. State of the industry: The clichés about things moving
faster and companies being affected by the global economy are certainly true for
greenhouse manufacturers. GMPro. June. p. 47–48.
Both, A.J. 2005. Agriculture management practices aim to help resolve legal conflcts [New
Jersey]. GMPro. June. p. 43–44, 46.
Web Sites
National Ag Risk Education Library
www.agrisk.umn.edu
National Organic Program
www.ams.usda.gov/nop
Organic Materials Research Institute
www.omri.org
Herb Growing and Marketing Network
www.herbnet.com
Missouri Alternatives Center (Click on H for herbs.)
http://agebb.missouri.edu/mac/links/index.htm
North Carolina State University herb factsheets
www.ces.ncsu.edu/hil/
Now has links to other state Extension herb publications.
Richters Herbs
www.richters.com
Uncommon Herbs/Seasoners
Adam, Katherine. 1995. Ajwain: A new spice for U.S. growers. The Business of Herbs.
September–October. p. 40–41.
Faubel, Alfredo. 1990. Chocolate: Food of the gods. Tropical Fruit News [RFCI, Florida].
February. p. 6–7; 12, 14.
Kontaxis, Demetrios. 1997. Caper. Specialty and Minor Crops Handbook. Small Farm Center,
University of California, Davis, CA. 4 p.
Purseglove, J.W. et al. 1981. Spices. Longman, London and New York. Vol. II. (c. 800 p.).
Ginger, turmeric, galangal, etc.
Reichel, Steffen. 1998. Vanilla planifolia Common name: Bourbon vanilla.
California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. May–June. p. 17–20.
Salam, M. Abdul et al. 1991. Thirty-one tree species support black pepper vines.
Agroforestry Today. October–December. p. 16.
Singh, H.B. et al. 1974. Ginger (Zingiber officinale). p. 127–129. In: J.
Leon. (ed.). FAO Handbook of Spices. Rome, Italy.
Smoley, Daniel J. 2001. The saffron crocus as a crop. Small Farm Today. [2 parts]
March–April; May– June. p. 54–58; 66–67.
Souret, Frederic F., and Pamela J. Weathers. 2000. The growth of saffron (Crocus
sativus L.) in aeroponics and hydroponics. Journal of Herbs, Spices, & Medicinal
Plants. Vol. 7, No. 3. p. 25–35.
Spillane, Michael. 1997. Just my cup of tea. The Growing EDGE. November–December. p.
41–47.
Vardin, Patrick. 2004. Organic chocolate. Organic Matters. March–April. p. 27.
Waterman, Martin. 1992. Coffee, tea, or hot chocolate: Hot drinks you can grow. The
Growing EDGE. Winter. p. 24–29, 55.
By Katherine L. Adam
Reviewed by Al Kurki, Lance Gegner
NCAT Agriculture Specialists
Copyright © 2005 National Center for Appropriate Technology
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