Index of Species Information

SPECIES:  Casuarina spp.

Introductory

SPECIES: Casuarina spp.




AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : 
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Casuarina spp. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. 
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). 
Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [].




ABBREVIATION : 
   CASSPP
   CASCUN
   CASEQU
   CASGLA


SYNONYMS : 
   Casuarina litoria L.


NRCS PLANT CODE [16]: 
   CASUA
   CACU8
   CAEQ
   CAGL11


COMMON NAMES : 
   sheoak
   she-oak
   river sheoak
   river-oak
   Cunningham casuarina
   Australian-pine
   horestail casuarina
   grey sheoak
   ironwood
   longleaf casuarina
   whistling pine


TAXONOMY : 
The scientific name for the sheoak genus is Casuarina (Casuarinaceae) [12,19].  
Three species of sheoak are common in the United States.  All will be treated 
in this report because of their similar status as invader species and 
across-the-board management plans to eradicate the genus from the continent.  
These species are [6,19]:

Casuarina cunninghamiana Miq. river sheoak
Casuarina equisetifolia L.  Australian-pine
Casuarina glauca Seiber  gray sheoak

These species hybridize with each other [14].


LIFE FORM : 
Tree


FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : 
NO_ENTRY


OTHER STATUS : 
All 3 species of sheoak are list as noxious weeds (prohibited aquatic 
plants, Class 1) in Florida [16].





DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE

SPECIES: Casuarina spp.




GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : 
Sheoak was introduced to the United States near the turn of the
century [14].  It is widely distributed in southern Florida and is also
found in California, Arizona, and Hawaii [12,17].


ECOSYSTEMS : 
   FRES12  Longleaf - slash pine
   FRES13  Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES16  Oak - gum - cypress
   FRES30  Desert shrub
   FRES41  Wet grasslands
   FRES42  Annual grasslands


STATES : 
     AZ  CA  FL  HI  MEXICO



BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 
   3  Southern Pacific Border
   7  Lower Basin and Range


KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : 
   K080  Marl - Everglades
   K091  Cypress savanna
   K092  Everglades


SAF COVER TYPES : 
    70  Longleaf pine
    75  Shortleaf pine
    80  Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
    81  Loblolly pine
    83  Longleaf pine - slash pine
    84  Slash pine
   111  South Florida slash pine


SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : 
NO-ENTRY


HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : 
Sheoak is listed as a component in the following vegetation
types:

Area                 Classification             Authority
Mariana Is,           veg. type                 Falanruw & others 1989
S. Pacific
Palau,                veg. type                 Cole & others 1987
S. Pacific









MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

SPECIES: Casuarina spp.




WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : 
Sheoak wood has many uses, including fuelwood, poles, posts,
beams, oxcart tongues, shingles, paneling, fence rails, furniture,
marine pilings, tool handles, and cabinets [3,12].  The wood, however,
is subject to cracking and splitting [14].


IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : 
Sheoak poses a serious threat to some wildlife species.  Nest
sites of three endangered species, the American crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus), the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta ssp. caretta), and the
gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), are all threatened by Australian
pine invasion [9,10].  Also, this invader creates sterile foraging and
breeding environments for small mammals [3,14].  It does, however,
provide food for migrating goldfinches which feed on sheoak
seeds [3].


PALATABILITY : 
NO-ENTRY


NUTRITIONAL VALUE : 
Tannins in the leaves of sheoak are carcinogenic and could be
fatal to foraging cattle, which sometimes eat the leaves [3].


COVER VALUE : 
NO-ENTRY


VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : 
Sheoak was once used in the United States for reclaiming eroded
areas, but many land managers condemn its use because it threatens
indigenous plants and animals [12].  Some African and Asian countries
use it to combat desertification [17].


OTHER USES AND VALUES : 
Sheoak has various medicinal uses and is also used for dyes, as
an ornamental, and in windbreaks [12].  C. cunninghamiana (the most
cold-hardy) can be planted in citrus groves to protect fruit trees from
cold [14].


OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Sheoak is extremely fast growing, crowding out many native
plants and creating sterile environments for both plants and animals
[10].  It forms dense roots, which deplete soil moisture and break water
and sewer lines.  It is also susceptible to windthrow during hurricanes
[3].  Cutting often induces sprouting, so it is not an effective control
method.  Chemicals, such as 2,4,5-T, 2,4-D, or Garlon 3A, can be used to
eradicate sheoak [10,14].









BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIES: Casuarina spp.




GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : 
Sheoak is a medium to tall evergreen tree.  It has a stout
trunk with rough bark and erect or semispreading main branches and
drooping twigs [12].  Its leaves are jointed and scalelike.  Its fruits
are round and warty with winged seeds.  Trees can be dioecious or
monoecious; male flowers are borne at the tips of twigs, while female
flowers form on nonshedding branches [3,14].  Sheoak fixes
nitrogen with the aid of Frankia spp. fungi.

Characteristics of individual species are as follows:

C. cunninghamiana - 80 feet (25 m) in height, 2 feet (6 m) d.b.h.,
                    dioecious, nonsprouter.
C. equisetifolia - 50 to 100 feet (15-30 m) in height, 1.0 to 1.5 feet
                   (3-5 m) d.b.h., monoecious, nonsprouter.
C. glauca - 40 to 50 feet (10-15 m) in height, 1.5 feet (5 m) d.b.h.,
            dioecious, agressive sprouter, in Florida, usually does not
            produce fruit [12].  


RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : 
   Phanerophyte


REGENERATION PROCESSES : 
Sheoak regenerates by seed as well as vegetatively through
sprouting [3,12,14].  It is fast growing (5 to 10 feet [1.5-3 m] per
year) [14].  Seeds average 300,000 per pound.  No pregermination
treatment is necessary.  Seeds can remain fertile for a few months to a
year and will germinate in moist and porous soil, sometimes within 4 to
8 days of dispersal [14].


SITE CHARACTERISTICS : 
Because of its nitrogen-fixing capability, sheoak can colonize
nutrient-poor soils [12].  It can grow in sloughs, sawgrass (Cladium
jamaicensis) glades, wet prairies, saltmarshes, pinelands, along rocky
coasts, on sandbars, dunes, and islands, and in water-logged clay or
brackish tidal areas [3,10,14,17,18].  C. equisetifolia is found only in
south Florida because of its cold intolerance.  It is resistant to salt
spray but not to prolonged flooding.  C. cunninghaminana grows along
freshwater streambanks and is not salt tolerant [3].  It is more
resistant to cold temperatures than C. equisetifolia [12].  C. glauca
grows on steep slopes as well as in intermittently flooded or poorly
drained sites.  It is salt tolerant [3].

Some associates of sheoak include eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.),
melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervia), lovegrass (Eragrostis spp.), muhly
grasses (Huhlenbergia spp.), beard grasses (Andropogon spp.), plume
grass (Erianthus giganteus), saltbush (Baccharis halimifolia), wax
myrtle (Myrica cerifera), willow (Salix spp.), sweetbay (Magnolia
virginiana), redbay (Persia borbonia), and coco plum (Chrysobalanus
icaco) [18].  Native associates in the Northern Mariana Islands include
Neisosperma, Barringtonia, Terminalia, Heritiera, Cynometia, and Cordia
[5,6].


SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : 
Sheoak is listed as a dominant species in some South Pacific
island's vegetation types [2,5,6].  It is a warm weather species, not
native to North America.  It can be a primary or secondary colonizer in
disturbed areas of Florida [3,10].


SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : 
Sheoak can flower and fruit year-round in warm climates [3].
Its peak flowering time is between April and June, and its peak fruiting
time is between September and December.  The minimum seed-bearing age is
4 to 5 years, and it produces a good seed crop annually.  C.
equisetifolia usually flowers and fruits two times a year:  between
February and April, and September and October.  It produces fruit in
June and December.  The fastest growth occurs in the first 7 years with
maximum growth reached in 20 years.  The maximum lifespan of Australian
pine is 40 to 50 years [3].









FIRE ECOLOGY

SPECIES: Casuarina spp.




FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : 
Sheoak less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter can sucker
following fire [3].


POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : 
   survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex
   off-site colonizer;seed carried by wind; postfire years 1 and 2
   off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2
   secondary colonizer; off-site seed carried to site after year 2









FIRE EFFECTS

SPECIES: Casuarina spp.




IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : 
Trees greater than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter are killed by fire [3].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : 
A May wildfire killed 60 to 70 percent of sheoak in Florida [10].  A 
smoldering controlled burn in Florida killed 90 percent of the sheoaks 
on the study plot [14].  A second attempt in the same area killed 
all the sheoaks; trunk diameters were between 5 and 8 inches (13-20 cm). 
Another tree, with a d.b.h. of 2 feet (0.66 m), was killed after 
charcoal was left to smolder at its base [14].


PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : 


Trees less than 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter may sprout following fire.
Trees larger than this usually die [3,14].


DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : 
NO-ENTRY


FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : 
Periodic fires coupled with the use of herbicides may be an effective
method of controlling sheoak.  However, too frequent, intense
fires that kill overstory native pines may actually encourage Casuarina
species to establish [18].  Morton [14] warns that burning Australian
pine in peat soils may be hazardous.  Elfer [3] suggests that fire may
be an effective control method for trees greater than 3 inches (8 cm) in
diameter and in dense stands.  Burning could be potentially harmful if
the soil pH is changed such that native species cannot establish [3].









REFERENCES

SPECIES: Casuarina spp.




REFERENCES : 

 1.  Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals,
       reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's
       associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO:
       U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. 
       [434]

 2.  Whitesell, Craig D.; Falanruw, Marjore C.; MacLean, Colin D.; [and
       others]. 1987. Vegetation survey of the Republic of Palau. Res. Bull.
       PSW-22. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
       Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 13 p.  [16147]

 3.  Elfers, Susan C. 1988. Casuarina equisetifolia. Unpublished report
       prepared for The Nature Conservancy on Australian pine. Winter Park, FL:
       The Nature Conservancy. 14 p. On file at: U.S. Department of
       Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire
       Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT.  [17376]

 4.  Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and
       Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p.  [905]

 5.  Falanruw, Marjorie C.; Cole, Thomas G.; Ambacher, Alan H. 1989.
       Vegetation survey of Rota, Tinian, and Saipan, Commonwealth of the
       Northern Mariana Islands. Resource Bulletin PSW-27. Berkeley, CA: U.S.
       Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research
       Station. 11 p.  [15707]

 6.  Falanruw, Marjorie C.; Maka, Jean E.; Cole, Thomas G.; Whitesell, Craig
       D. 1990. Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs of Mariana,
       Caroline, and Marshall Islands. Resource Bulletin PSW-26. Berkeley, CA:
       U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest
       Research Station. 91 p.  [15706]

 7.  Flores, Eugenia M. 1980. Shoot vascular system and phyllotaxis of
       Casuarina (Casuarinaceae). American Journal of Botany. 67(2): 131-140. 
       [17373]

 8.  Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others].
       1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range
       ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
       Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p.  [998]

 9.  Klukas, Richard W. 1973. Control burn activities in Everglades National
       Park. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1972
       June 8-9; Lubbock, TX. Number 12. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research
       Station: 397-425.  [8476]

10.  Klukas, Richard W. 1969. The Australian pine problem in Everglades
       National Park. Part 1. The problem and some solutions. Internal Report.
       South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park. 16 p.On file
       with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain
       Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT.  [17375]

11.  Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation
       of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York:
       American Geographical Society. 77 p.  [1384]

12.  Little, Elbert L., Jr.; Skomen, Roger G. 1989. Common forest trees of
       Hawaii (native and introduced). Agric. Handb. 679. Washington, DC: U.S
       Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 321 p.  [9433]

13.  Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession
       following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall
       Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council
       fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No.
       14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373.  [1496]

14.  Morton, Julia F. 1980. The Australian pine or beefwood (Casuarina
       equisetifolia L.), an invasive "weed" tree in Florida. In: Proceedings,
       Florida State Horticultural Society. 93: 87-95.  [17343]

15.  Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant
       geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p.  [2843]

16.  U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Resource Conservation Service. 
       2003. PLANTS database (2003), [Online]. Available: http://plants.usda.gov/.  [42968]

17.  Vietmeyer, Noel. 1986. Casuarina: weed or windfall?. American Forests.
       Feb: 22-26; 63.  [17345]

18.  Wade, Dale; Ewel, John; Hofstetter, Ronald. 1980. Fire in South Florida
       ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-17. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of
       Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 125
       p.  [10362]

19.  Wunderlin, Richard P. 1998. Guide to the vascular plants of Florida.
       Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. 806 p.  [28655]

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