SPECIES: Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia
SPECIES: Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia Introductory
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION : Uchytal, Ronald J. 1989. Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [].
ABBREVIATION : ALNINCT SYNONYMS : Alnus tenuifolia Alnus tenuifolia var. occidentalis Alnus incana subsp. rugosa var. occidentalis SCS PLANT CODE : ALTE2 COMMON NAMES : thinleaf alder thin-leaved alder mountain alder river alder TAXONOMY : Thinleaf alder is a member of a huge circumboreal complex distributed throughout much of North America and Europe. Subtle differences in botanical characteristics exhibited across this plant's wide geographic distribution have caused taxonomic disagreement. Members of the taxon are universally accepted as Alnus incana (L.) Moench, but disagreement exists as to the proper classification below the species level. Currently two classifications which differentiate members of this taxon exist: Alnus incana (L.) Moench - Circumboreal distribution subsp. incana - Old World plants subsp. rugosa (DuRoi) Clausen - New World plants var. rugosa - speckled alder - eastern U.S. and Canada var. occidentalis (Dippel) Hitchcock - thinleaf alder - western U.S. and Canada [22,55] And Alnus incana (L.) Moench - Circumboreal distribution subsp. incana - Old World plants subsp. rugosa (DuRoi) Clausen - speckled alder - eastern U.S. and Canada subsp. tenuifolia (Nuttall) Breitung - thinleaf alder - western U.S. and Canada [12,15,27] This discussion recognizes the entity Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia (Nuttall) Breitung. LIFE FORM : Tree FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS : No special status OTHER STATUS : NO-ENTRY
SPECIES: Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION : Thinleaf alder is the most widely distributed alder in western North America and is the most common alder of the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the east side of the Cascades [53]. It is found on a wide variety of sites, from near sea level to nearly 10,000 feet (3,048 m) in Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico [25]. Thinleaf alder is found from central Alaska and the Yukon Territory, southeast to western Saskatchewan and British Columbia, and south throughout the Mountain States to New Mexico and California [34]. Throughout much of Saskatchewan, the ranges of thinleaf alder and speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) overlap, with plants in this region exhibiting intermediate botanical characteristics [24]. Thinleaf alder seldom overlaps with red alder (Alnus rubra) habitat and probably never overlaps with white alder (A. rhombifolia) [25]. ECOSYSTEMS : FRES20 Douglas-fir FRES21 Ponderosa pine FRES23 Fir - spruce FRES26 Lodgepole pine FRES29 Sagebrush FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub STATES : AK AZ CA CO ID MT NV NM OR UT WA WY AB BC MB SK YT BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS : 2 Cascade Mountains 4 Sierra Mountains 5 Columbia Plateau 6 Upper Basin and Range 8 Northern Rocky Mountains 9 Middle Rocky Mountains 10 Wyoming Basin 11 Southern Rocky Mountains 12 Colorado Plateau 13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS : K005 Mixed conifer forest K007 Red fir forest K011 Western ponderosa forest K012 Douglas-fir forest K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest K019 Arizona pine forest K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland K037 Mountain mahogany - oak scrub K038 Great Basin sagebrush K055 Sagebrush steppe SAF COVER TYPES : 201 White spruce 203 Balsam poplar 204 Black spruce 207 Red fir 210 Interior Douglas-fir 211 White fir 213 Grand fir 215 Western white pine 216 Blue spruce 217 Aspen 218 Lodgepole pine 229 Pacific Douglas-fir 230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock 235 Cottonwood - willow 237 Interior ponderosa pine 243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer 244 Pacific ponderosa pine - Douglas-fir 245 Pacific ponderosa pine SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES : NO-ENTRY HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES : Thinleaf alder typically forms narrow bands along midelevation streams and rivers, or around springs of moist mountain slopes [17,31,41]. Adjacent upland communities are typically dominated by coniferous forests or big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) [17,41,58]. Published classification schemes listing thinleaf alder as an indicator species or as a dominant part of the vegetation in community types (cts), habitat types (hts), plant associations (pas), riparian zone associations (rzas), dominance types (dts), or riparian site types (rst) are presented below: Area Classification Authority FS Region 2:WY, general veg. pas Johnston 1987 SD,NE,CO,KS FS Region 2:WY, general veg. hts Wasser & Hess 1982 SD,NE,CO,KS MT riparian veg. dts Hansen & others 1988 sw MT riparian veg. rst, hts, cts Hansen & others 1988 ne OR riparian cts Kauffman & others 1985 e OR,se WA:Blue Mt general veg. cts Hall 1973 OR:Deschutes,Ochoco, riparian veg. rzas, cts Kovalchik 1987 Fremont&Winema NF's e ID,w WY riparian veg. cts Youngblood & others 1985a n UT,ID riparian veg. cts Youngblood & others 1985b s UT riparian veg. cts Padgett & Youngblood 1986 Crater Lake NP general veg. hts, cts McNeil 1975 se WY:Medicine Bow forest veg. hts, cts Wirsing & Alexander NF 1975 se WY:Medicine Bow forest veg. hts, cts Alexander & others NF 1986 CO:Gunnison & general veg. hts Komarkova 1986 Uncompahgre NF's AB,Canada:Peace- general veg. cts Dirschl & others 1974 Athabaska Delta
SPECIES: Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE : Thinleaf alder is generally not used as a wood source because of its small size. It is occasionally used for firewood [33]. IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : Cattle, sheep, and goats all eat thinleaf alder. Varying degrees of use have been reported, ranging from near zero to moderate. In Montana, livestock generally do not browse thinleaf alder [18]. But in the Blue Mountains of Oregon, cattle use of thinleaf alder is considered to be moderate [47]. Utilization by livestock seems to depend on stand accessibility, stand density, and the palatability of other browse species present. In Montana, dense stands hinder access and are of limited value for livestock [17]. Cattle tend to avoid thinleaf alder stands found on the mucky soils associated with mountain springs [31]. The twigs and leaves of younger thinleaf alder plants are eaten by deer, elk, and moose [21,28,53]. Light to moderate use by elk was observed primarily in summer and fall in portions of the Rocky Mountains [60]. Moderate use of thinleaf alder by moose occurred during late winter in Montana [29]. It is a moderately important browse for Rocky Mountain mule deer [32]. Muskrats, beavers, cottontails, and snowshoe hares all eat alder (Alnus spp.) twigs and leaves [21]. Beavers eat the bark and build dams and lodges with the stems [53]. Alder seeds, buds, and catkins are eaten by redpolls, siskins, chickadees, and goldfinches and are considered to be an important winter food source [2,15,36]. PALATABILITY : Thinleaf alder generally has a poor to fair palatability rating for livestock [8,53]. Cattle may use thinleaf alder more than sheep or horses, as they frequent riparian habitats where plants grow [53]. In Wyoming, thinleaf alder was found to be relatively unpalatable to big game animals and was browsed very little, and thus was considered an increaser [3]. In the Blue Mountains of Oregon, research showed that thinleaf alder comprised 57 percent of available shrubs for browse in the study area but made up only 47 percent of shrub use [47]. The relish and degree of use shown by livestock and wildlife species for thinleaf alder in several western states is rated as follows [3,6,8]: CO ID MT UT WY Cattle poor ---- poor fair poor Sheep fair fair poor fair ---- Horses poor ---- poor poor ---- Pronghorn ---- ---- ---- poor poor Elk ---- ---- ---- fair poor Mule deer ---- ---- ---- fair poor White-tailed deer ---- ---- ---- ---- poor Small mammals ---- ---- fair fair good Small nongame birds ---- ---- ---- poor good Upland game birds ---- ---- ---- fair good Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- fair poor NUTRITIONAL VALUE : Thinleaf alder's energy value has been rated fair and its protein value poor [8]. COVER VALUE : Thinleaf alder communities provide hiding and thermal cover for big game animals such as white-tailed and mule deer [17] and often serve as travel corridors for these and other big game animals [18]. Many bird species use thinleaf alder communities for nesting and brood rearing [28]. When thinleaf alder overhangs a streambank, plants provide cover and shade for salmonids [31]. The degree to which thinleaf alder provides environmental protection during one or more seasons for wildlife species is as follows [8,17]: CO MT UT WY Pronghorn ---- ---- poor poor Bighorn ---- ---- ---- ---- Elk fair ---- good fair Mt.goat ---- ---- ---- ---- Mule deer good good good fair White-tailed deer poor good ---- ---- Small mammals good fair good good Small nongame birds good good good good Upland game birds fair fair good good Waterfowl ---- ---- fair poor VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES : Thinleaf alder is recommended for use in revegetating disturbed riparian areas. Since thinleaf alder is easy to establish on disturbed sites and has a rapid growth rate, it can quickly stabilize disturbed streambanks [43]. Plants can be established along streambanks from direct seeding, container-grown seedlings, or bareroot stock [43,44], but propagation from stem cuttings is not recommended. Once established, plants spread well vegetatively and by natural seeding [44]. To obtain seed, proven cone collection and seed extraction procedures should be followed [21,50]. A closely related alder, Hazel alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa), yielded 1 pound (0.45 kg) of seed per 2.5 gallons (9.5 l) of cones [21]. OTHER USES AND VALUES : Native Americans reportedly pounded the wood of thinleaf alder into a powder to produce a red dye [33]. OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Streambanks anchored by thinleaf alder are stable and can withstand relatively severe spring runoff [31]. However, overgrazing and excessive trampling by livestock can seriously reduce thinleaf alder's ability to maintain streambank stability during spring runoff and flooding [30,31]. Thinleaf alder improves soil fertility through the addition of nitrogen to the soil from nitrogen-fixing root nodules and a nitrogen-rich leaf litter [15,31]].
SPECIES: Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Thinleaf alder is a deciduous multistemmed shrub or small tree which tends to form thickets and may grow up to 40 feet (12 m) tall [2,42]. More typically, mature plants are 6 to 15 feet (2-5 m) tall, with 4 to 8 inch (10-20 cm) diameter trunks [45,53,55]. The bark is thin, smooth, and green-gray, grayish-brown, or reddish-brown [22,42,45]. The leaves are broadly elliptic or ovate-oblong, mostly 1 to 3 inches (3-7 cm) long, dull green on both sides, with doubly dentate margins [22,42]. Male and female flowers occur on the same plant in catkins. The drooping staminate catkins are clustered at the end of a twig, each about 1 to 4 inches (3-10 cm) long [22]. Clusters of three to nine pistillate catkins (which develop into cones) are on short stout stalks. Each catkin is about 0.4 to 0.6 inch (9-13 mm) long [22,42]. The cones remain on plants for about a year after seeds are shed, aiding in identification during winter. RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM : Undisturbed State: Phanerophyte (microphanerophyte) Burned or Clipped State: Hemicryptophyte REGENERATION PROCESSES : Thinleaf alder reproduces both sexually and vegetatively. Sexual Reproduction: Male and female flowers of thinleaf alder occur in catkins on the same plant. The female catkins are small, 0.4 to 0.6 inch (9-13 mm) long, semiwoody, conelike, and wind pollinated. The fruit is a small, single-seeded nutlet, with narrow lateral wings which aid in dispersal by wind and water [15,39,50]. Thinleaf alder produces abundant seed which is dispersed during fall and winter [15,59]. There are about 675,000 cleaned air-dried seeds per pound (1,488,000/kg) [50]. Annual seedfall observations in Alaska showed that 3,305 seeds/m sq were found in soil under thinleaf alder stands, but of these, only 745 were viable [59]. In fact, seed viability can be quite low; as many as 95 percent of thinleaf alder seeds have been found empty [15,50]. In Oregon and Washington, female cones are often disfigured with disease, but the effects on seed viability have not been reported [20]. Seeds require no treatment or prechilling to break dormancy and can be expected to germinate immediately after dispersal when conditions are favorable [15]. Seed of the closely related speckled alder has remained viable in storage for up to 10 years when stored in sealed containers at 34 to 38 degrees F (1-3 C) [50]. Germination and seedling establishment seems better on exposed mineral soils than on organic substances [59]. Vegetative Reproduction: Thinleaf alder often occurs in dense thickets, which reportedly result from underground rhizomes or suckers [6]. However thinleaf alder is a prolific seeder, and thickets could be produced by natural seeding alone [11]. More recent studies suggest that plants found in thickets are not clones [51]. However, sprouting of exposed thinleaf alder roots in streams has been noted, and submerged branches sometimes form adventitious roots [11,15]. If plants are damaged, sprouting can occur from the root collar or stump [15]. After top-removal by beavers, plants have been observed to sprout heavily from the cut [28]. Plants can also sprout from the root crown following fire [59]. SITE CHARACTERISTICS : Thinleaf alder seldom grows away from water and is typically confined to rivers, moist stream borders, overflow channels, or moist mountain springs or seeps and only occasionally occurs in broad floodplains [2,17,30]. Most sites are seasonally flooded, and water tables normally remain within 3 feet (1 m) of the ground surface [17,28,31]. Restricted to high water tables, thinleaf alder communities often form continuous narrow stringers immediately adjacent to perennial streams [28,58]. Thinleaf alder has a high flood tolerance and thus stabilizes streambanks. Quite shade tolerant, it is frequently found growing in the understory of coniferous forests on moist sites [2,15]. Soils: Thinleaf alder typically grows on poorly developed soils of cobbles, gravels, or sands [17,31]. Soils usually remain moist yearround due to high water tables. As stands develop along moving water, finer fluvial deposits are trapped, which eventually develop into surface soil textures of loams to sandy loams overlying coarser substrates [17,28,31]. Mountain springs and seeps in Oregon have surface soils 6 to 20 inches (15-50 cm) deep, composed of organic mucks or organic loams over a stony subsoil [31]. Soils under thinleaf alder are normally higher in available nitrogen than adjacent communities, since thinleaf alder can fix between 41 and 349 pounds/acre (43-360 kg/ha) of nitrogen annually [15]. Associates: Thinleaf alder is commonly found with shrubs such as re-dosier dogwood (Cornus serices), Hudson Bay currant (Ribes hudsonianum), prickly currant (R. lacustre), woods rose (Rosa woodsii), Douglas spirea (Spiraea douglasii), and common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus). Common associated herbs include bullrush (Scirpus spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), timothy (Phloem pratense), fowl bluegrass (Poa palustris), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) [17,28,31,58]. In the Great Basin, thinleaf alder is most commonly associated with water birch (Betula occidentalis) and willows (Salix spp.) [33]. Elevation: Thinleaf alder is typically a low to middle elevation species. Elevational ranges for the following western states are presented below [8,25,31,55]: from 5,000 to 10,000 feet (1,524-3,048 m) in CO 2,500 to 8,000 feet (762-2,438 m) in ID 2,500 to 8,000 feet (762-2,438 m) in MT 2,200 to 5,700 feet (671-1,737 m) in OR 4,500 to 8,000 feet (1,372-2,438 m) in the Sierra Nevada Mtns. 4,100 to 9,000 feet (1,250-2,745 m) in UT 6,200 to 9,000 feet (1,890-2,745 m) in WY SUCCESSIONAL STATUS : Thinleaf alder is an early seral species [28,59]. Seasonal disturbances from flooding provide suitable seedbeds for establishment of new plants. Many thinleaf alder communities appear to be seral to cottonwood (Populus spp.) and willow (Salix spp.) [28,31]. SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT : Both staminate and pistillate catkins of thinleaf alder are produced during the gowing season prior to blooming and are exposed during the winter. Catkins then expand before the leaves emerge in the spring. Flowering generally begins during March and April in the northwestern United States [15]. Cones ripen in the fall, after which dispersal occurs. The empty cones remain on plants for about a year. Leaves remain green until they are dropped in the fall. The average dates of phenological events in Montana and Idaho are presented below [49]: East of Continental West of Continental Divide: Montana Divide: Montana & Idaho Leaf bud burst May 19 May 7 Leaves full green June 18 June 8 Flowering starts April 15 May 15 Flowering ends May 6 May 30 Fruit ripe August 3 August 24 Seed fall starts June 6 Sept 10 Leaves start to wither Sept 11 Sept 5 Leaves begin to fall Sept 22 Sept 20 Leaves fallen Oct 5 Oct 14 The flowering dates for several western states are presented below [8,15,39,42,49,50]: Flowering Begins Flowering Ends Location May ---- AK April August CO March July ID March August MT March ---- OR February ---- Great Basin March June WY
SPECIES: Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia FIRE ECOLOGY
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS : Generally thinleaf alder has the ability to sprout from its root crown following fire [4,59]. Its numerous wind-dispersed seeds are also important in revegetating areas following fire [38,59]. Fire tends to occur infrequently on the moist sites colonized by thinleaf alder communities [4,31]. Nonflammable bark and nonresinous leaves provide alders some protection from low intensity fires [5]. POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY : survivor species; on-site surviving root crown or caudex off-site colonizer; seed carried by wind; postfire years one and two off-site colonizer; seed carried by animals or water; postfire yr 1&2
SPECIES: Alnus incana subsp. tenuifolia FIRE EFFECTS
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT : Severe fires can completely remove organic soil layers, leaving alder roots exposed and charred and thus eliminating basal sprouting. Low severity fires kill only aboveground plant parts [19,31,59]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT : NO-ENTRY PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE : Thinleaf alder often sprouts from its root crown following fire. Several new sprouts may arise from each burned plant, thus increasing stand density [4,5]. Off-site plants are important in revegetating burned areas through the dispersal of numerous wind- and water-transported seeds. Since thinleaf alder disperses its seeds in the fall, favorable seedbeds created by late summer fires are immediately colonized [59]. DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE : NO-ENTRY FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS : Riparian areas in which thinleaf alder occurs can serve as natural fire breaks [4,5].
1. Alexander, Robert R.; Hoffman, George R.; Wirsing, John M. 1986. Forest vegetation of the Medicine Bow National Forest in southeastern Wyoming: a habitat type classification. Res. Pap. RM-271. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 39 p. [307]
2. Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. 1977. Northwest trees. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers. 222 p. [4208]
3. Beetle, Alan A. 1962. Range survey in Teton County, Wyoming: Part 2. Utilization and condition classes. Bull. 400. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station. 38 p. [418]
4. Crane, Marilyn F. 1982. Fire ecology of Rocky Mountain Region forest habitat types. Final Report Contract No. 43-83X9-1-884. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 1. 272 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [5292]
5. Davis, Kathleen M.; Clayton, Bruce D.; Fischer, William C. 1980. Fire ecology of Lolo National Forest habitat types. INT-79. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 77 p. [5296]
6. Dayton, William A. 1931. Important western browse plants. Misc. Publ. 101. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 214 p. [768]
7. Dirschl, German J.; Dabbs, Don L.; Gentle, Garry C. 1974. Landscape classification and plant successional trends in the Peace-Athabasca Delta. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series 30. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Wildlife Service. 33 p. [6177]
8. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
9. Dorn, Robert D. 1988. Vascular plants of Wyoming. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 340 p. [6129]
10. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]
11. Furlow, John J. 1979. The systematics of the American species of Alnus (Betulaceae) Part 1. Rhodora. 81(825): 1-121. [6195]
12. Furlow, John J. 1979. The systematics of the American species of Alnus (Betulaceae) Part 2. Rhodora. 81(826): 151-248. [8795]
13. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; [and others]. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]
14. Grime, J. P. 1979. Plant strategies & vegetation proceses. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. 222 p. [2896]
15. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D. 1986. Autecological characteristics of selected species that compete with conifers in British Columbia: a literature review. Land Management Report No. 33. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Forests, Information Services Branch. 180 p. [1055]
16. Hall, Frederick C. 1973. Plant communities of the Blue Mountains in eastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. R6-Area Guide 3-1. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 82 p. [1059]
17. Hansen, Paul L.; Chadde, Steve W.; Pfister, Robert D. 1988. Riparian dominance types of Montana. Misc. Publ. No. 49. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station. 411 p. [5660]
18. Hansen, Paul; Pfister, Robert; Joy, John; [and others]. 1989. Classification and management of riparian sites in southwestern Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana, School of Forestry, Montana Riparian Association. 292 p. Draft Version 2. [8900]
19. Hanson, William A. 1979. Preliminary results of the Bear Creek fire effects studies. Proposed open file report. Anchorage, AK: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage District Office. 83 p. [6400]
20. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]
21. Healy, William M.; Gill, John D. 1974. Alders. In: Gill, John D.; Healy, William M., compilers. Shrubs and vines for Northeastern wildlife. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-9. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 6-9. [6208]
22. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1964. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 2: Salicaceae to Saxifragaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 597 p. [1166]
23. Holloway, Patricia; Zasada, John. 1979. Vegetative propagation of 11 common Alaska woody plants. Res. Note PNW-334. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [1183]
24. Hosie, R. C. 1969. Native trees of Canada. 7th ed. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 380 p. [3375]
25. Johnson, D. 1968. Taxonomy and distribution of northwestern alders. In: Trappe, J. M.; Franklin, J. F.; Tarrant, R. F.; Hansen, G. M., ed. Biology of alder; 1967 April 14-15; Pullman, WA. Portland, OR: U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 9-22. [6187]
26. Johnston, Barry C. 1987. Plant associations of Region Two: Potential plant communities of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and Kansas. 4th ed. R2-ECOL-87-2. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 429 p. [3519]
27. Kartesz, John T.; Kartesz, Rosemarie. 1980. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume II: The biota of North America. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press; in confederation with Anne H. Lindsey and C. Richie Bell, North Carolina Botanical Garden. 500 p. [6954]
28. Kauffman, J. Boone; Krueger, W. C.; Vavra, M. 1985. Ecology and plant communities of the riparian areas associated with Catherine Creek in northeastern Oregon. Tech. Bull. 147. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Agricultural Experiment Station. 35 p. [6174]
29. Knowlton, Frederick F. 1960. Food habits, movements and populations of moose in the Gravelly Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 24(2): 162-170. [6245]
30. Komarkova, Vera. 1986. Habitat types on selected parts of the Gunnison and Uncompahgre National Forests. Final Report Contract No. 28-K2-234. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 270 p. [1369]
31. Kovalchik, Bernard L. 1987. Riparian zone associations: Deschutes, Ochoco, Fremont, and Winema National Forests. R6 ECOL TP-279-87. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 171 p. [9632]
32. Kufeld, Roland C.; Wallmo, O. C.; Feddema, Charles. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. Res. Pap. RM-111. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 31 p. [1387]
33. Lanner, Ronald M. 1983. Trees of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 215 p. [1401]
34. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). Agric. Handb. 541. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 375 p. [2952]
35. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
36. Martin, Alexander C.; Zim, Herbert S.; Nelson, Arnold L. 1951. American wildlife and plants. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 500 p. [4021]
37. McNeil, Robert Curlan. 1975. Vegetation and fire history of a ponderosa pine - white fir forest in Crater Lake National Park. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 171 p. Thesis. [5737]
38. Morgan, Penelope; Neuenschwander, L. F. 1985. Modeling shrub succession following clearcutting and broadcast burning. In: Lotan, James E.; Brown, James K., compilers. Fire's effects on wildlife habitat--symposium proceedings; 1984 March 21; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-186. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 83-90. [1692]
39. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]
40. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]
41. Padgett, W. G.; Youngblood, A. P. 1986. Riparian community type classification of southern Utah. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ecology and Classification Program. 57 p. [Preliminary draft]. [5899]
42. Patterson, Patricia A.; Neiman, Kenneth E.; Tonn, Jonalea. 1985. Field guide to forest plants of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-180. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 246 p. [1839]
43. Platts, William S.; Armour, Carl; Booth, Gordon D.; [and others]. 1987. Methods for evaluating riparian habitats with applications to management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-221. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 177 p. [6171]
44. Plummer, A. Perry. 1977. Revegetation of disturbed Intermountain area sites. In: Thames, J. C., ed. Reclamation and use of disturbed lands of the Southwest. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press: 302-337. [171]
45. Preston, Richard J., Jr. 1948. North American trees. Ames, IA: The Iowa State College Press. 371 p. [1913]
46. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]
47. Roath, Leonard Roy; Krueger, William C. 1982. Cattle grazing influence on a mountain riparian zone. Journal of Range Management. 35(1): 100-103. [6244]
48. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT; RWU 4403 files. 10 p. [20090]
49. Schmidt, Wyman C.; Lotan, James E. 1980. Phenology of common forest flora of the northern Rockies--1928 to 1937. Res. Pap. INT-259. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 20 p. [2082]
50. Schopmeyer, C. S. 1974. Alnus B. Ehrh. alder. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 206-211. [7460]
51. Steele, Frederic L. 1961. Introgression of Alnus serrulata and Alnus rugosa. Rhodora. 63(755): 297-304. [6372]
52. Stickney, Peter F. 1980. Data base for post-fire succession, first 6 to 9 years, in Montana larch-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-62. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 133 p. [6583]
53. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]
54. Wasser, C. H.; Hess, Karl. 1982. The habitat types of Region II, U.S. Forest Service: a synthesis. Final Report Cooperative Agreement No. 16-845-CA. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Region 2. 140 p. [5594]
55. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
56. Wirsing, John M.; Alexander, Robert R. 1975. Forest habitat types on the Medicine Bow National Forest, southeastern Wyoming: preliminary report. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-12. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 11 p. [2591]
57. Youngblood, Andrew P.; Padgett, Wayne G.; Winward, Alma H. 1985. Riparian community type classification of eastern Idaho - western Wyoming. R4-Ecol-85-01. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 78 p. [2686]
58. Youngblood, Andrew P.; Padgett, Wayne G.; Winward, Alma H. 1985. Riparian community type classification of northern Utah and adjacent Idaho. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ecology and Classification Program. 104 p. [Preliminary draft]. [3054]
59. Zasada, J. 1986. Natural regeneration of trees and tall shrubs on forest sites in interior Alaska. In: Van Cleve, K.; Chapin, F. S., III; Flanagan, P. W.; [and others], eds. Forest ecosystems in the Alaska taiga: A synthesis of structure and function. New York: Springer-Verlag: 44-73. [2291]
60. Kufeld, Roland C. 1973. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk. Journal of Range Management. 26(2): 106-113. [1385]
61. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982. National list of scientific plant names. Vol. 1. List of plant names. SCS-TP-159. Washington, DC. 416 p. [11573]