Disclaimer: These guidelines were developed under
contract using generally accepted secondary sources. The protocol used by the
contractor for surveying these data sources was developed by the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), and the Department of Energy (DOE). The information contained in these guidelines
is intended for reference purposes only. None of the agencies have conducted a comprehensive
check of the information and data contained in these sources. It provides a summary of
information about chemicals that workers may be exposed to in their workplaces. The secondary
sources used for supplements 111 and 1V were published before 1992 and 1993, respectively, and for
the remainder of the guidelines the secondary sources used were published before September 1996. This
information may be superseded by new developments in the field of industrial hygiene. Therefore readers
are advised to determine whether new information is available.
INTRODUCTION
This guideline summarizes pertinent information about ethyl chloride for
workers and employers as well as for physicians, industrial hygienists, and
other occupational safety and health professionals who may need such
information to conduct effective occupational safety and health programs.
Recommendations may be superseded by new developments in these fields;
readers are therefore advised to regard these recommendations as general
guidelines and to determine whether new information is available.
SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION
* Formula
C(2)H(5)Cl
* Structure
(For Structure, see paper copy)
* Synonyms
Chloroethane, monochloroethane, hydrochloric ether, muriatic ether,
chlorethyl, chloryl anesthetic
* Identifiers
- CAS No.: 75-00-3
- RTECS No.: KH7525000
- DOT UN: 1037 27
- DOT label: Flammable gas
* Appearance and odor
Ethyl chloride is a gas at room temperature and a volatile liquid
when compressed, or at lower temperatures. It has a pungent, ether-like
odor. The air odor threshold concentration for ethyl chloride has been
reported as 4.2 parts per million (ppm) parts of air.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
* Physical data
- Molecular weight: 64.52
- Boiling point (at 760 mm Hg): 12.3 degrees C (54.14 degrees F)
- Specific gravity: 0.92 at 0 degrees C (32 degrees F)
- Vapor density: 2.22
- Melting point: -138.7 degrees C (-217.66 degrees F)
- Vapor pressure at 20 degrees C (68 degrees F): 1064 mm Hg
- Solubility: Slightly soluble in water; miscible with most organic
solvents.
- Evaporation rate (butyl acetate = 1): Greater than 1.0
* Reactivity
- Conditions contributing to instability: Heat, sparks, or open flames.
- Incompatibilities: Contact between ethyl chloride and chemically
active metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, powdered aluminum, zinc,
and magnesium may cause fires and explosions. Ethyl chloride reacts
vigorously with oxidizing materials. Contact with water, steam, or alkalis
may produce toxic and corrosive fumes.
Hazardous decomposition products: Toxic gases and vapors (such as
hydrogen chloride, phosgene, and carbon monoxide) may be released in a fire
involving ethyl chloride.
Special precautions: None reported.
* Flammability
The National Fire Protection Association has assigned a flammability
rating of 4 (extreme fire hazard) to ethyl chloride.
- Flash point: -43 degrees C (-45.4 degrees F) (open cup)
- Autoignition temperature: 519 degrees C (966 degrees F)
- Flammable limits in air (percent by volume): Lower, 3.8; upper, 15.4
- Extinguishant: Dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray, or standard
foam for small fires. Use water spray, fog, or standard foam for large
fires. Do not use a stream of water because it will scatter and spread the
fire; however, water spray may be used to cool cylinders or containers.
Fires involving ethyl chloride should be fought upwind from the
maximum distance possible. Keep unnecessary people away; isolate the hazard
area and deny entry. Isolate the area for 1/2 mile in all directions if a
tank, rail car, or tank truck is involved in the fire. For a massive fire in
a cargo area, use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles; if this is
impossible, withdraw from the area and let the fire burn. Emergency
personnel should stay out of low areas and ventilate closed spaces before
entering. Vapors may travel to a source of ignition and flash back. Vapors
are an explosion and poison hazard indoors, outdoors, or in sewers.
Containers of ethyl chloride may explode in the heat of the fire and should
be moved from the fire area if it is possible to do so safely. If this is
not possible, cool fire exposed containers from the sides with water until
well after the fire is out. Do not get water inside the containers. Stay
away from the ends of containers. Personnel should withdraw immediately if a
rising sound from a venting safety device is heard or if there is
discoloration of a container due to fire. Firefighters should wear a full
set of protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus when
fighting fires involving ethyl chloride.
EXPOSURE LIMITS
* OSHA PEL
The current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
permissible exposure limit (PEL) for ethyl chloride is 1000 ppm (2600
milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m(3))) as an 8-hour time-weighted average
(TWA) concentration [29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1].
* NIOSH REL
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
has not established a concentration for the recommended exposure limit (REL)
for ethyl chloride, but lists the REL as "handle with caution in the
workplace" [NIOSH 1992].
* ACGIH TLV
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) has assigned ethyl chloride a threshold limit value (TLV) of 100 ppm
(2640 mg/m(3)) as a TWA for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek
[ACGIH 1994, p. 21].
* Rationale for Limits
The NIOSH REL is based on the risk of cancer, cancer effects,
possible liver and kidney effects [NIOSH 1992].
The ACGIH limit is based on the risk of narcosis [ACGIH 1991, p. 595].
HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION
* Routes of Exposure
Exposure to ethyl chloride can occur through inhalation, ingestion,
and skin contact [Sittig 1991, p. 749].
* Summary of toxicology
- Effects on Animals: Ethyl chloride produces narcosis and pathological
alterations in the liver, kidneys, lungs, and heart of exposed animals. The
lowest lethal concentration for rats is 160 gm/m(3) for a 2-hour exposure and
4,500 ppm for a 45-minute exposure in guinea pigs [NIOSH 1991]. Exposure to
23 or 24 percent ethyl chloride in air caused guinea pigs to lose
consciousness in 5 to 10 minutes; some of the animals died from this
exposure. At 9,000 ppm ethyl chloride, all guinea pigs survived, but
histopathological changes were noted in the liver, kidneys, and lungs. In
guinea pigs exposed to 40,000 ppm ethyl chloride, incoordination was seen
after 3 minutes and eye irritation and inability to stand were noted within
40 minutes. However, all animals survived 4.5 hours of exposure at this
level, although some died within 9 hours. Pathological changes in the liver,
lungs, and kidneys were observed [ACGIH 1991]. Rats subjected to a 2-hour
anesthesia with ethyl chloride experienced a complete disappearance of
glycogen in the liver, a decrease in acid phosphatase levels, and increases
in alkaline phosphates and succinic dehydrogenase levels [ACGIH 1991].
Liquid ethyl chloride sprayed into the eyes of rabbits damaged the cornea
[Grant 1986].
- Effects on Humans: Ethyl chloride is a mild irritant of the eyes,
mucous membranes, and respiratory tract and is also a narcotic. It is
absorbed through the mucous membranes and quickly eliminated through the
lungs [Parmeggiani 1983]. The inhalation of a 0.1 percent concentration of
ethyl chloride does not produce narcosis in humans [Parmeggiani 1983].
Intoxication began at 1.3 percent and increased at increasing dosages. At a
dose of 3.36 percent, noisy talkativeness and incoordination was followed by
cyanosis, nausea, and vomiting during recovery. Memory loss was induced at
1.9% and increased at increasing dosages [ACGIH 1991]. In another study,
inhalation of 40,000 ppm by human subjects produced dizziness, eye irritation
and stomach cramp, whereas inhalation of 25,000 ppm caused incoordination
[Hathaway et al. 1991]. During an allergy testing procedure, two individuals
developed acute allergic eczematous dermatitis after ethyl chloride [Clayton
and Clayton 1982]. Liquefied ethyl chloride spilled on the skin or eye may
cause frostbite [Parmeggiani 1983].
* Signs and symptoms of exposure
- Acute exposure: Acute overexposures to ethyl chloride may result in
subjective feeling of intoxication, headache, loss of coordination,
salivation, analgesia, stomach cramps, depression of respiration, and stupor
[Sittig 1991; Genium 1993]. Liquid ethyl chloride spilled on the skin or
into the eye may cause frostbite with whitening of the tissue and numbness,
followed by pain, redness, and blistering.
- Chronic exposure: Chronic exposure to ethyl chloride may result in
allergic eczematous dermatitis [Clayton and Clayton 1982].
EMERGENCY MEDICAL PROCEDURES
* Emergency medical procedures: [NIOSH to supply]
- Rescue: Remove an incapacitated worker from further exposure and
implement appropriate emergency procedures (e.g., those listed on the
Material Safety Data Sheet required by OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard
[29 CFR 1910.1200]). All workers should be familiar with emergency
procedures, the location and proper use of emergency equipment, and methods
of protecting themselves during rescue operations.
EXPOSURE SOURCES AND CONTROL METHODS
The following operations may involve ethyl chloride and lead to worker
exposures to this substance:
* The manufacture and transportation of ethyl chloride
* Use as a local anesthetic and formerly as a general anesthetic; used as
a refrigerant; used as a solvent for fats, oils, waxes, phosphorus, sulfur,
acetylene, and many resins
* Use in organic synthesis of perchloroethane, ester, Grignard reagents,
tetraethyl lead, dyes, drugs, perfumes, and ethyl cellulose
* Use as a propellant in aerosols
* Use as an insecticide
Methods that are effective in controlling worker exposures to ethyl
chloride, depending on the feasibility of implementation, are as follows:
* Process enclosure
* Local exhaust ventilation
* General dilution ventilation
* Personal protective equipment
Workers responding to a release or potential release of a hazardous
substance must be protected as required by paragraph (q) of OSHA's Hazardous
Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard [29 CFR 1910.120].
Good sources of information about control methods are as follows:
- ACGIH [1992]. Industrial ventilation--a manual of recommended
practice. 21st ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists.
- Burton DJ [1986]. Industrial ventilation--a self study companion.
Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
- Alden JL, Kane JM [1982]. Design of industrial ventilation systems.
New York, NY: Industrial Press, Inc.
- Wadden RA, Scheff PA [1987]. Engineering design for control of
workplace hazards. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
- Plog BA [1988]. Fundamentals of industrial hygiene. Chicago, IL:
National Safety Council.
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
OSHA is currently developing requirements for medical surveillance. When
these requirements are promulgated, readers should refer to them for
additional information and to determine whether employers whose employees are
exposed to ethyl chloride are required to implement medical surveillance
procedures.
* Medical Screening
Workers who may be exposed to chemical hazards should be monitored
in a systematic program of medical surveillance that is intended to prevent
occupational injury and disease. The program should include education of
employers and workers about work-related hazards, early detection of adverse
health effects, and referral of workers for diagnosis and treatment. The
occurrence of disease or other work-related adverse health effects should
prompt immediate evaluation of primary preventive measures (e.g., industrial
hygiene monitoring, engineering controls, and personal protective equipment).
A medical surveillance program is intended to supplement, not replace, such
measures. To detect and control work-related health effects, medical
evaluations should be performed (1) before job placement, (2) periodically
during the term of employment, and (3) at the time of job transfer or
termination.
* Preplacement medical evaluation
Before a worker is placed in a job with a potential for exposure to
ethyl chloride, a licensed health care professional should evaluate and
document the worker's baseline health status with thorough medical,
environmental, and occupational histories, a physical examination, and
physiologic and laboratory tests appropriate for the anticipated occupational
risks. These should concentrate on the function and integrity of the liver,
kidneys, respiratory system, and cardiovascular system. Medical surveillance
for respiratory disease should be conducted using the principles and methods
recommended by the American Thoracic Society.
A preplacement medical evaluation is recommended to assess medical
conditions that may be aggravated or may result in increased risk when a
worker is exposed to ethyl chloride at or below the prescribed exposure
limit. The health care professional should consider the probable frequency,
intensity, and duration of exposure as well as the nature and degree of any
applicable medical condition. Such conditions (which should not be regarded
as absolute contraindications to job placement) include a history and other
findings consistent with diseases of the liver, kidneys, respiratory system,
and cardiovascular system.
* Periodic medical evaluations
Occupational health interviews and physical examinations should be
performed at regular intervals during the employment period, as mandated by
any applicable Federal, State, or local standard. Where no standard exists
and the hazard is minimal, evaluations should be conducted every 3 to 5 years
or as frequently as recommended by an experienced occupational health
physician. Additional examinations may be necessary if a worker develops
symptoms attributable to ethyl chloride exposure. The interviews,
examinations, and medical screening tests should focus on identifying the
adverse effects of ethyl chloride on the liver, kidneys, respiratory system,
and cardiovascular system. Current health status should be compared with the
baseline health status of the individual worker or with expected values for a
suitable reference population.
* Termination medical evaluations
The medical, environmental, and occupational history interviews, the
physical examination, and selected physiologic or laboratory tests that were
conducted at the time of placement should be repeated at the time of job
transfer or termination to determine the worker's medical status at the end
of his or her employment. Any changes in the worker's health status should
be compared with those expected for a suitable reference population. Because
occupational exposure to ethyl chloride may cause diseases with prolonged
latent periods, the need for medical surveillance may extend well beyond the
termination of employment.
* Biological monitoring
Biological monitoring involves sampling and analyzing body tissues
or fluids to provide an index of exposure to a toxic substance or metabolite.
No biological monitoring test acceptable for routine use has yet been
developed for ethyl chloride.
WORKPLACE MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT
Determination of a worker's exposure to airborne ethyl chloride is made
using charcoal tubes in series (front tube 400 mg section, back tube 200 mg
section, both 20/40 mesh). Samples are collected at a maximum flow rate of
0.05 liter/minute until a maximum collection volume of 3 liters is reached.
The sample is then treated with carbon disulfide. Analysis is conducted by
gas chromatography using a flame ionization detector (GC/FID). This method
is fully validated and is described in the OSHA Computerized Information
System [OSHA 1994] and in NIOSH Method No. 2519 [NIOSH 1994].
PERSONAL HYGIENE PROCEDURES
If ethyl chloride contacts the skin, workers should flush the affected areas
immediately with plenty of water, followed by washing with soap and water.
Clothing contaminated with ethyl chloride should be removed immediately, and
provisions should be made for the safe removal of the chemical from the
clothing. Persons laundering the clothes should be informed of the hazardous
properties of ethyl chloride, particularly its potential for causing systemic
toxicity.
A worker who handles ethyl chloride should thoroughly wash hands, forearms,
and face with soap and water before eating, using tobacco products, using
toilet facilities, applying cosmetics, or taking medication.
Workers should not eat, drink, use tobacco products, apply cosmetics, or
take medication in areas where ethyl chloride or a solution containing ethyl
chloride is handled, processed, or stored.
STORAGE
Ethyl chloride should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area in
tightly sealed containers that are labeled in accordance with OSHA's Hazard
Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]. Containers of ethyl chloride
should be protected from physical damage and water or steam, and should be
stored separately from chemically active metals such as sodium, potassium,
calcium, powdered aluminum, zinc, and magnesium, oxidizing materials, or
alkalis.
SPILLS AND LEAKS
In the event of a spill or leak involving ethyl chloride, persons not
wearing protective equipment and clothing should be restricted from
contaminated areas until cleanup has been completed. The following steps
should be undertaken following a spill or leak:
- Notify safety personnel.
- Remove all sources of heat and ignition.
- Ventilate potentially explosive atmospheres.
- Do not touch the spilled material; stop the leak if it is possible to
do so without risk.
- Use non-sparking tools.
- Water spray may be used to reduce vapors, but the spray may not prevent
ignition in closed spaces.
- For small liquid spills, take up with sand or other noncombustible
absorbent material and place into closed containers for later disposal.
- For large liquid spills, build dikes far ahead of the spill to contain
the ethyl chloride for later reclamation or disposal.
- Prevent flushing ethyl chloride to sewers, drains, and waterways.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements for emergency
planning, reportable quantities of hazardous releases, community
right-to-know, and hazardous waste management may change over time. Users are
therefore advised to determine periodically whether new information is
available.
* Emergency planning requirements
Ethyl chloride is not subject to EPA emergency planning requirements
under the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) (Title III) in
42 USC 11022.
* Reportable quantity requirements for hazardous releases
A hazardous substance release is defined by EPA as any spilling,
leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting,
escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the
abandonment or discarding of contaminated containers) of hazardous
substances. In the event of a release that is above the reportable quantity
for that chemical, employers are required to notify the proper Federal,
State, and local authorities [40 CFR 355.40].
The reportable quantity of ethyl chloride is 100 pounds. If an
amount equal to or greater than this quantity is released within a 24-hour
period in a manner that will expose persons outside the facility, employers
are required to do the following: - Notify the National Response Center
immediately at (800) 424-8802 or at (202) 426-2675 in Washington, D.C.
[40 CFR 302.6].
* Community right-to-know requirements
Employers who own or operate facilities in SIC codes 20 to 39 that
employ 10 or more workers and that manufacture 25,000 pounds or more of ethyl
chloride per calendar year or otherwise use 10,000 pounds or more of ethyl
chloride per calendar year are required by EPA [40 CFR Part 372.30] to submit
a Toxic Chemical Release Inventory form (Form R) to EPA reporting the amount
of ethyl chloride emitted or released from their facility annually.
* Hazardous waste management requirements
EPA considers a waste to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the
following characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or
toxicity as defined in 40 CFR 261.21-261.24. Under the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) [40 USC 6901 et seq.], EPA has specifically listed
many chemical wastes as hazardous. Although ethyl chloride is not
specifically listed as a hazardous waste under RCRA, EPA requires employers
to treat waste as hazardous if it exhibits any of the characteristics
discussed above.
Providing detailed information about the removal and disposal of
specific chemicals is beyond the scope of this guideline. The U.S.
Department of Transportation, EPA, and State and local regulations should be
followed to ensure that removal, transport, and disposal of this substance
are conducted in accordance with existing regulations. To be certain that
chemical waste disposal meets EPA regulatory requirements, employers should
address any questions to the RCRA hotline at (703) 412-9810 (in the
Washington, D.C. area) or toll-free at (800) 424-9346 (outside Washington,
D.C.). In addition, relevant State and local authorities should be contacted
for information on any requirements they may have for the waste removal and
disposal of this substance.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
* Conditions for respirator use
Good industrial hygiene practice requires that engineering controls
be used where feasible to reduce workplace concentrations of hazardous
materials to the prescribed exposure limit. However, some situations may
require the use of respirators to control exposure. Respirators must be worn
if the ambient concentration of ethyl chloride exceeds prescribed exposure
limits. Respirators may be used (1) before engineering controls have been
installed, (2) during work operations such as maintenance or repair
activities that involve unknown exposures, (3) during operations that require
entry into tanks or closed vessels, and (4) during emergencies. Workers
should only use respirators that have been approved by NIOSH and the Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).
* Respiratory protection program
Employers should institute a complete respiratory protection program
that, at a minimum, complies with the requirements of OSHA's Respiratory
Protection Standard [29 CFR 1910.134]. Such a program must include
respirator selection, an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the
work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel,
respirator fit testing, periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator
maintenance, inspection, and cleaning. The implementation of an adequate
respiratory protection program (including selection of the correct
respirator) requires that a knowledgeable person be in charge of the program
and that the program be evaluated regularly. For additional information on
the selection and use of respirators and on the medical screening of
respirator users, consult the latest edition of the NIOSH Respirator Decision
Logic [NIOSH 1987b] and the NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection
[NIOSH 1987a].
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Workers should use appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment
that must be carefully selected, used, and maintained to be effective in
preventing skin contact with ethyl chloride. The selection of the
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., gloves, sleeves,
encapsulating suits) should be based on the extent of the worker's potential
exposure to ethyl chloride. There are no published reports on the resistance
of various materials to permeation by ethyl chloride.
To evaluate the use of PPE materials with ethyl chloride, users should
consult the best available performance data and manufacturers'
recommendations. Significant differences have been demonstrated in the
chemical resistance of generically similar PPE materials (e.g., butyl)
produced by different manufacturers. In addition, the chemical resistance of
a mixture may be significantly different from that of any of its neat
components.
Any chemical-resistant clothing that is used should be periodically
evaluated to determine its effectiveness in preventing dermal contact.
Safety showers and eye wash stations should be located close to operations
that involve ethyl chloride.
Splash-proof chemical safety goggles or face shields (20 to 30 cm long,
minimum) should be worn during any operation in which a solvent, caustic, or
other toxic substance may be splashed into the eyes.
In addition to the possible need for wearing protective outer apparel (e.g.,
aprons, encapsulating suits), workers should wear work uniforms, coveralls,
or similar full-body coverings that are laundered each day. Employers should
provide lockers or other closed areas to store work and street clothing
separately. Employers should collect work clothing at the end of each work
shift and provide for its laundering. Laundry personnel should be informed
about the potential hazards of handling contaminated clothing and instructed
about measures to minimize their health risk.
Protective clothing should be kept free of oil and grease and should be
inspected and maintained regularly to preserve its effectiveness.
Protective clothing may interfere with the body's heat dissipation,
especially during hot weather or during work in hot or poorly ventilated work
environments.
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ACGIH [1994]. 1994-1995 Threshold limit values for chemical substances and
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Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
Amoore JE, Hautala E [1983]. Odor as an aid to chemical safety: odor
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ATS [1987]. Standardization of spirometry -- 1987 update. American
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