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Chapter 8: Enhancing Capabilities to Measure and Monitor Greenhouse Gases
Observations using M&M technologies can be used to establish informational baselines necessary for analytical comparisons, and to measure carbon storage and GHG fluxes across a range of scales, from individual locations to large geographic regions. If such baselines are established, the effectiveness of implemented GHG-reduction technologies can be assessed against a background of prior or existing conditions and other natural indicators. Many of the M&M technologies and the systems they can enable benefit from the ongoing R&D under the aegis of the Climate Change Science Program (CCSP), and from other Earth observation activities that are underway. All such M&M systems constitute an important component of a comprehensive Climate Change Technology Program (CCTP) R&D portfolio and could be improved through further development as outlined below. On February 16, 2005, 55 countries endorsed a 10-year plan to develop and implement the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) for the purpose of achieving comprehensive, coordinated, and sustained observations of the Earth system. The U.S. contribution to GEOSS is the Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS). IEOS will meet U.S. needs for high-quality, global, sustained information on the state of the Earth as a basis for policy and decision-making in every sector of society. A strategic plan for IEOS [1] was developed by the United States Group on Earth Observation (USGEO), a Subcommittee reporting to the National Science and Technology Council's Committee on Environment and Natural Resources; the plan was released in April 2005. Both the GEOSS and the IEOS are focused on societal benefits, including climate variability and change, weather forecasting, energy resources, water resources, land resources, and ocean resources�all of which are relevant to CCSP and CCTP. 8.1 Potential Role of TechnologyM&M systems are important to addressing uncertainties associated with cycling of GHGs through the land, atmosphere, and oceans, as well as in measuring and monitoring GHG-related performance of various existing and advanced climate change technologies. R&D in this area offers the potential to:
Measurement and Monitoring Technologies for Assessing the Efficacy, Durability, and Environmental Effects of Emission Reduction and Stabilization TechnologiesIdeally, an integrated observation system strategy would be employed to measure and monitor the sources and sinks of all gases that have an impact on climate change, using the most cost-effective mix of techniques ranging from local in situ sensors to global remote-sensing satellites. This would involve technologies aimed at a spectrum of applications, including CO2from energy-related activities (such as end use, infrastructure, energy supply, and CO2capture and storage) and GHGs other than CO2(including CH4, N2O, fluorocarbons, ozone, and other GHG-related substances, such as black carbon [BC] aerosol). An integrating system architecture serves as a guide for many of the step-by-step development activities required in these areas. It establishes a framework for R&D that places M&M technologies in context with the Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS) and other CCTP technologies (Figure 8-2). The integrated systems approach provides feedback through which demand-side actors (both in the public and private sectors) contribute to benchmarking results against expectations. Such a framework facilitates coordinated progress evolving over time toward increasingly effective solutions and common interfaces of the gathered data and assessment systems. An integrating architecture would function within the context of, and in coordination with, other Federal programs (e.g., CCSP and the U.S. Group on Earth Observations) and international programs (e.g., the World Meteorological Organization and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) that provide or use complementary M&M capabilities across a hierarchy of temporal and spatial scales. It could, therefore, take advantage of the synergy between observations to measure and monitor GHG mitigation strategies and the research on observation systems for the CCSP, as well as the operational observations systems for weather forecasting, as described more fully in the CCTP report, Technology Options for the Near and Long Term (CCTP 2003). In the near term, opportunities for advancing GHG measuring and monitoring systems present themselves as integral elements of the CCTP R&D programs and initiatives. Efforts must focus on the significant emission sources and sinks and on M&M of carbon sequestration and storage. Technology can be developed to address knowledge gaps in GHG emissions and to improve inventories. In some cases, it is not necessary or cost-effective to measure emissions directly. In such cases, emissions can be measured indirectly by measuring other parameters as proxies, such as feedstock, fuel, or energy flows (referred to as "parametric" or "accounting-based" estimates); or by measuring changes in carbon stocks. Under CCTP, there is a benefit to undertaking research to test, validate, quantify uncertainties, and certify such uses of proxy measurements. The long-term approach is to evaluate data needs and pursue the development of an integrated and overarching system architecture that focuses on the most critical and supplementary data needs. Common databases would provide measurements for models that could estimate additions to and removals from various GHG inventories, forecast the long-term fates of various GHGs, and integrate results into relevant decision support tools and global-scale monitoring systems. This approach would include protocols for calibrated and interoperable (easily exchanged) data products, emissions accounting methods development, and coordination of basic science research in collaboration with CCSP. Tools would be validated by experimentation to benchmark protocols (to quantify the improvements that the tools provide), so that they would be recognized and accepted by the community-of-practice for emissions-related processes. The M&M technologies that are emphasized in the following sections are based on their capacity to address one or more of the following criteria:
Energy Production and Efficiency TechnologiesM&M systems provide the capability to evaluate the efficacy of efforts to reduce GHG emissions through the use of (1) low-emission fossil-based power systems; (2) potentially GHG-neutral energy supply technologies, such as biomass energy systems (see Chapter 6) and other renewable energy technologies, including geothermal energy; and (3) technologies to more efficiently carry and/or transmit energy to the point of use. In this section, the M&M R&D portfolio for energy production and efficiency technologies is presented. Each of these technology sections includes a sub-section describing the current portfolio. The technology descriptions include a link to an updated version of the CCTP report, Technology Options for the Near and Long Term. [2]Proposed R&D Portfolio for Measurement and Monitoring of Energy Production and Use TechnologiesTechnology StrategyM&M technologies can enhance and provide direct and indirect emissions measurements at point and mobile sources of GHG emissions. "Point sources" range from electric generation plants to industrial facilities. The term "mobile sources" typically refers to vehicles. Table 8.1 summarizes the nature of point and mobile sources and the potential roles for M&M technologies, which are broadly applicable across the range of emission sources and scales. The technology strategy emphasizes the potential role of M&M technologies in applications across a range of scales, from the individual vehicle to the larger power plant or industrial facility, as well as the balance between those M&M technologies needed in both the near- and long-terms. Development of software and tools that facilitate further integration of measurement data with emission modeling processes is a key dimension of the overall technology strategy. In the near term, the strategy focuses on technologies that measure multiple gases across spatial dimensions. In the long-term, the strategy focuses on development and evolution of a system of systems for remote, continuous, and global M&M that facilitates emissions accounting from the local to the global level.Current PortfolioR&D programs for M&M technologies spanning the Federal complex are focused on a number of areas, including the following:
Future Research DirectionsThe current portfolio supports the main components of the technology development strategy and addresses the highest priority current investment opportunities in this technology area. For the future, CCTP seeks to consider a full array of promising technology options. From diverse sources, suggestions for future research have come to CCTP's attention. Some of these, and others, are currently being explored and under consideration for the future R&D portfolio.
8.3 CO2Capture and SequestrationAs discussed in Chapter 6, capture, storage, and sequestration of CO2can be accomplished by various approaches, including capture from point sources, accompanied by geologic or oceanic storage; and terrestrial sequestration. Advanced technologies can make significant contributions to measuring and monitoring GHG emissions that are captured, stored, and sequestered.Innovations to assess the integrity of geologic structure, leakage from reservoirs, and accounting of sequestered GHGs are useful. Also useful are integrated carbon sequestration measurements of different components (geologic, oceanic, and terrestrial) across a range of scales and time, from the point of use at the present time to regional or larger scales over the future to provide a consistent net accounting of GHG inventories, emissions, and sinks. Advanced M&M technologies can provide histories of CO2concentration profiles near the sites of sequestration and track the potential release of CO2into the atmosphere. The development of software and tools that facilitate further integration of measurement data with emission modeling processes play an important, ongoing role in the M&M of sequestered CO2in conjunction with other technologies. Different M&M strategies associated with the three alternative storage and sequestration approaches are described in the following sections. Geologic SequestrationM&M technologies are useful to assess the performance and efficacy of geologic storage systems. They will be critically important in assessing the integrity of geologic structures, transportation, and pipeline systems, the potential of leakage of sequestered GHGs in geologic structures, and in fully accounting for GHG emissions.Technology StrategyRealizing the possibilities of these technologies is the focus of a research portfolio that embraces a combination of M&M technologies for separation and capture, transportation, and geologic storage. In the near term, technologies can be improved to measure efficacy of separation and capture, and the integrity of geologic formations for long-term storage. Within the constraints of available resources, a balanced portfolio addresses the objectives shown in Table 8-2.Proposed R&D Portfolio for Measurement and Monitoring Systems for Geologic SequestrationCurrent PortfolioRecent progress has been made in developing M&M technologies for geologic carbon sequestration. Many technologies for monitoring and measuring exist today. However, they may need to be modified to meet the requirements of CO2storage. The goals are to develop the ability to assess the continuing integrity of subsurface reservoirs using integrated system of sensors, indicators, and models; improve leak detection from separation and capture pipeline systems; apply remote sensors to fugitive emissions from reservoirs and capture facilities; improve, develop, and implement tracer addition and monitoring programs; evaluate microbial mechanisms for monitoring and mitigating diffuse GHG leakage from geologic formations; and more. [4]Both surface and subsurface measurement systems for CO2leak detection and reservoir integrity estimates have been employed at sites currently storing CO2. Large M&M efforts have taken place at Weyburn, Alberta, and at Sleipner in the North Sea. Within the measurement systems employed at these sites, seismic imaging using temporal analyses of 3-dimensional (3D) seismic structures (called 4D seismic analyses) have been commonly employed to characterize the reservoir, determine changes in reservoir structure and integrity, and to determine locations of CO2that have been pumped downhole. At the Sleipner site, for example, efforts to quantify the CO2have been undertaken through 4D seismic research. Other methods of subsurface reservoir analyses are cross-well seismic tomography, passive and active doublet analyses, microseismic analyses, and electromagenetic analyses. Leak detection of CO2from storage reservoirs has been performed in the subsurface and surface regions. Within the subsurface, groundwater chemistry, precipitation of calcite, and subsurface CO2concentration measurements have been used to detect small gas emissions from reservoirs. At the ground surface, CO2flux changes, isotopes of CO2and other tracers, and vegetation changes have been monitored to detect surface leaks of CO2and identify the source. Specific examples include four ongoing experiments: (1) Seismic methods are being used at the Sleipner test site to map the location of CO2storage; (2) Models, geophysical methods, and tracer indicators are being developed through the GEO-SEQ project (Box 8-1); (3) Detection of CO2emissions from natural reservoirs has been investigated by researchers at the Colorado School of Mines, University of Utah, and the Utah Geological Survey, including isotopic discrimination of biogenic CO2from magmatic, oceanographic, atmospheric, and natural gas sources; and (4) Fundamental research on high-resolution seismic and electromagnetic imaging and on geochemical reactivity of high partial-pressure CO2fluids is being conducted. Future Research DirectionsThe current portfolio supports the main components of the technology development strategy and addresses the highest priority current investment opportunities in this technology area. For the future, CCTP seeks to consider a full array of promising technology options. From diverse sources, suggestions for future research have come to CCTP's attention. Some of these, and others, are currently being explored and under consideration for the future R&D portfolio.
Terrestrial SequestrationSequestering carbon in terrestrial ecosystems (forests, pastures, grasslands, croplands, etc.) increases the total amount of carbon retained in biomass, soils, and wood products. Methods used to measure and monitor terrestrial sequestration of carbon should address both the capture and retention of carbon in both above- and below-ground components of ecosystems. Determining measures of the desired levels of net sequestration will depend on evaluation of GHG emissions as a function of management practices and naturally occurring environmental factors (Post et al. 2004).
Technology StrategyM&M systems employ an R&D portfolio that provides for integrated, hierarchical systems of ground-based and remote-sensing technologies of different system components over a range of scales. A system's utility is based on its applicability to a wide range of potential activities and a very diverse land base, an accuracy that satisfies reporting requirements of the 1605(b) voluntary reporting program (EIA 2004), and a cost of deployment such that M&M does not outweigh the value of the sequestered carbon. A balanced portfolio should address (1) remote sensing and related technology for land-cover and land-cover change analysis, biomass and net-productivity measurements, vegetation structure, etc.; (2) low-cost, portable, rapid analysis systems for in situ soil carbon measurements; (3) flux measurement systems; (4) advanced biometrics from carbon inventories; and (5) carbon and nutrient sink/source tracing and movement, including using isotope markers; and (6) analysis systems that relate management practices (e.g., life-cycle wood products, changes in agriculture rotations, energy use in ecosystem management, and others) to net changes in emissions and sinks over time (e.g., changes in agriculture rotations, energy use in ecosystem management, and others).
Current PortfolioCurrent research activities associated with terrestrial sequestration are found across a number of Federal agencies. The goals of the current activities are to provide an integrated hierarchical system of ground-based and remote sensing for carbon pools and CO2and other GHG flux measurements; reduce uncertainty on regional-to-country scale inventories of carbon stocks; develop low-cost, portable, rapid analysis systems for in situ soil carbon measurements; and develop standard estimates that relate management practices to net changes in emissions/sinks over time. [5]The current portfolio includes the following:
Future Research DirectionsThe current portfolio supports the main components of the technology development strategy and addresses the highest priority current investment opportunities in this technology area. For the future, CCTP seeks to consider a full array of promising technology options. From diverse sources, suggestions for future research have come to CCTP's attention. Some of these, and others, are currently being explored and under consideration for the future R&D portfolio.
Oceanic SequestrationSequestering carbon in oceans generally refers to two techniques: direct injection of CO2to the deep ocean waters, and fertilization of surface waters with nutrients. For direct injection, CO2streams are separated, captured, and transported using processes similar to those for geologic sequestration, and injected below the main oceanic thermocline (depths of greater than 1,000 to 1,500 meters). Fertilization of the oceans with iron, a nutrient required by phytoplankton, is a potential strategy to accelerate the ocean's biological carbon pump and thereby enhance the draw down of CO2from the atmosphere. For a description of oceanic sequestration approaches, see Section 6.4 in Chapter 6.Measuring and monitoring technologies associated with CO2injection are directed towards the performance of the quantities of CO2injected and dispersion of the concentrated CO2plume. M&M technologies associated with ocean fertilization are focused on the quantity of carbon exported deeper in the water column and the stability and endurance of the carbon sink. Carbon sequestration in oceans can be enhanced significantly, but this has yet to be demonstrated, and the environmental impact of such an approach has not been fully evaluated. Technology StrategyThese technologies could be advanced through R&D in direct measurement and model analysis, as well as indirect indicators that can be used across spatial scales for obtaining process information and for ocean-wide observations. In the near term, possible advances include (1) measurement of comprehensive trace gas parameters (total CO2, total alkalinity, partial pressure of CO2, and pH) to monitor the CO2concentration in seawater; (2) development of indirect indicators of fertilization effectiveness using remote-sensing technology; and (3) development of CO2sensors that "track" the dissolved CO2plume from injection locations. In the long term, advances could include a system that monitors CO2in the oceans, temporally and spatially, using integrated M&M concepts, satellite-based sensors, and other analysis systems that can avoid costly ship time.Current PortfolioThe goal of the current research in support of M&M technologies associated with ocean sequestration is to develop integrated concepts that include direct measurement, model analysis, and indirect indicators that can be used across scales; data transmission and analysis systems that avoid costly ship time; quantitative satellite-based sensors; and development of plume dispersion models for direct injection of CO2. Research activities in support of M&M technologies associated with ocean sequestration have been underway for several years. [6]For example, for more than 13 years, DOE and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) sponsored the ocean CO2survey during the World Ocean Circulation Experiment, monitoring the carbon concentration in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans from oceanographic ships (Box 8-5). Another research and development effort underway is to develop low-cost, discrete measurement sensors that can be used in conjunction with the conductivity, temperature, depth, and oxygen sensors to measure the ocean profile on oceanographic stations. Future Research DirectionsThe current portfolio supports the main components of the technology development strategy and addresses the highest priority current investment opportunities in this technology area. For the future, CCTP seeks to consider a full array of promising technology options. From diverse sources, suggestions for future research have come to CCTP's attention. Some of these, and others, are currently being explored and under consideration for the future R&D portfolio, including the following:
In 2004, as its final activity, the WOCE program published a series of four atlases, concentrating respectively on the hydrograph of the Pacific, Indian, Atlantic, and Southern Oceans. The Southern Ocean is given a separate volume because of the importance of the circumpolar flow on the transport of heat, freshwater, and dissolved components. The volumes each have three main components: full-depth sections, horizontal maps of properties on density surfaces and depth levels, and property-property plots. The vertical sections feature potential temperature, salinity, potential density, neutral density, oxygen, nitrate, phosphate, silicate, CFC-11, 3He, tritium, 14C, 13C, total alkalinity and total carbon dioxide (see image above), against depth along the WOCE Hydrographic Program one-time lines. With iron fertilization, it is not well understood whether the excess production stimulated thereby is exported out of the mixed layer, and on what time scale it remains out of contact with the atmosphere. To better understand this, the following R&D investments in measurement technologies would help:
8.4 Other Greenhouse GasesAs discussed in Chapter 7, a wide variety of substances other than CO2contribute to the atmospheric burden of GHGs. Other GHGs include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexaflourine (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), tropospheric ozone precursors, and BC aerosols. These gases are emitted from both point sources (industrial plants) and diffuse sources (open pit coal mines, landfills, rice paddies, and others), and offer unique challenges for M&M of emissions due to their spatial and temporal variations. A robust R&D program should consider direct measurements of emissions and reporting methods that will become part of a larger integrated system. Moreover, the program should consider the needs for M&M both for point sources, and for the extensive and important diffuse sources, such as those associated with agriculture.Technology StrategyAdvanced technologies can make important contributions to direct and indirect M&M approaches for point and diffused sources of emissions. Realizing the contributions of these technologies is the focus of an R&D portfolio that combines a number of areas, across a number of agencies, including NASA's A-Train (Figure 8-3).In the near term, technical improvements to measurement equipment and sampling procedures can improve extended period sampling capabilities that would allow better spatial and temporal resolution of emissions estimates. Software development that allows further integration of measurement data with emission modeling processes can lead to improved estimates. In addition, instruments can be developed to measure from stand-off distances (tower measurements), and from airborne and space-borne sensors to address regional, continental, and global reductions of GHG emissions. In the long term, development of inexpensive CEMs, satellite-based sensors, and improved accounting estimates of emissions offer promise. Integrating modeling techniques, including inverse modeling procedures that integrate bottom-up and top-down emissions data, regional data or global data are also desirable to identify data gaps or confirm source levels. To facilitate the delivery of cost-effective solutions, the strategy will couple academic and national laboratory R&D to benchmarking and transfer to industry for production and deployment. Current PortfolioA wide range of R&D programs currently exists in the area of M&M of emissions of other GHGs. The goals of these programs are to develop an integrated system that meshes observations (and estimations) from point sources, diffuse sources, regional sources, and national scales; inexpensive and easily-deployed sensors for a variety of applications, such as stack emissions, N2O emissions across agricultural systems, CO2fluxes across forested regions, CO2and other GHG emissions from transportation vehicles; accurate rules-of-thumb (reporting/accounting rules) for practices that reduce emissions or increase sinks; a high-resolution system that captures process-level details of sources and sinks (e.g., CO2or CO2isotopes) and a methodology to scale it up reliably; and data archiving and analysis system-to-integration observations and reporting information. [7]The following is a summary of some of these programs:
Future Research DirectionsThe current portfolio supports the main components of the technology development strategy and addresses the highest priority current investment opportunities in this technology area. For the future, CCTP seeks to consider a full array of promising technology options. From diverse sources, suggestions for future research have come to CCTP's attention. Some of these, and others, are currently being explored and under consideration for the future R&D portfolio. These include:
8.5 Integrated Measurement and Monitoring System ArchitectureThe integrated system architecture established the context of a systems approach to delivering the information needed to plan, implement, and assess GHG reduction actions (Figure 8-4). This architecture provides a framework for assessing M&M technology developments in the context of their contribution to observation systems that support integrated system solutions for GHG reduction actions and helps in identifying more cost-effective solutions. It enables the benchmarking of planned improvements against current capabilities.An integrated M&M capability has the ability to integrate across spatial and temporal scales and at many levels, ranging from carbon measurements in soils to emissions from vehicles, from large point sources to diffused area sources, from landfills to geographic regions. This capability is graphically depicted in Figure 8-5. The integrated system builds on existing and planned observing and monitoring technologies of the CCSP and includes new technologies emerging from the CCTP R&D portfolio. Advanced M&M technologies offer the potential to collect and merge global and regional data from sensors deployed on satellite and aircraft platforms with other data from ground networks, point-source sensors, and other in situ configurations. Wireless microsensor networks can be used to gather relevant data and send to compact, high-performance computing central ground stations that merge other data from aircraft and satellite platforms for analysis and decision-making. An integrated system provides the benefits of compatibility, efficiency, and reliability while minimizing the total cost of M&M. Technology StrategyThe strategy for developing an integrated system is to focus on the most important measurement needs and apply the integrated concept design to ongoing technology opportunities as they arise. The near term focuses on development of observation systems at various scales. The longer term focuses on merging these spatial systems into an integrated approach employing IEOS. IEOS will enable and facilitate sharing, integration, and application of global, regional, and local data from satellites, ocean buoys, weather stations, and other surface and airborne Earth observing instruments (IEOS 2005). Although IEOS serves multiple purposes, one outcome will be the strengthening of U.S. capabilities to measure and monitor GHG emissions and fluxes. Development of software and tools to further integrate measurement data with emission modeling processes will be an ongoing component of the technology strategy.Current PortfolioThe current Federal R&D portfolio has been targeted at a number of developments, with the goal to develop an integrated system that meshes observations (and estimations) from point sources (e.g., power plant or geologic storage site), diffuse sources (e.g., from commercial and agricultural systems), regional sources (e.g., city/county), and national scales so that checks and balances up and down these scales can be accomplished. The system should be able to attribute emissions/sinks to both national level activities and individual/corporate activities and provide verification for reporting activities. The system must be inexpensive and use easily-deployed sensors for a variety of applications (stack emissions, N2O emissions across agricultural systems, CO2fluxes across forested regions, CO2and other GHG emissions from transportation vehicles). In addition, the integrated system should have data archiving and analysis capability for system-to-integration observations and reporting information. [8]Some examples of the current R&D activities include:
Future Research DirectionsThe current portfolio supports the main components of the technology development strategy. Within constrained Federal resources, this portfolio addresses the highest priority current investment opportunities. For the future, CCTP remains open to and seeks to consider a full array of promising technology options. From diverse sources, including technical workshops, R&D program reviews, scientific advisory panels, and expert inputs, a number of such ideas have been brought to CCTP's attention.
8.6 ConclusionsMeeting the GHG measuring and monitoring challenge is possible with a thoughtful system design that includes near- and long-term technology advances. Figure 8-6 presents a set of representative M&M technologies that are featured in the technology strategies of this chapter and could arise over time from ongoing and future research investments. The resulting timeline illustrates the technology advances that, if realized, would produce continuing progress in GHG measuring and monitoring systems. Such systems are needed to support the design and implementation of strategies to ensure a future of near-net-zero GHG emissions.Near-term opportunities for R&D include, but are not limited to (1) incorporating transportation M&M sensors into the onboard diagnostic and control systems of production vehicles; (2) preparing geologic sequestration M&M technologies for deployment with planned demonstration projects; (3) exploiting observations and measurements from current and planned Earth observing systems to measure atmospheric concentrations and profiles of GHGs from planned satellites; (4) undertaking designs and deploying the foundation components for a national, multi-tiered monitoring system with optimized measuring, monitoring, and verification systems; (5) deploying sounding instruments, biological and chemical markers (either isotopic or fluorescence), and ocean sensors on a global basis to monitor changes in ocean chemistry; (6) maintaining in situ observing systems to characterize local-scale dynamics of the carbon cycle under changing climatic conditions; and (7) maintaining in situ observing systems to monitor the effectiveness and stability of CO2sequestration activities. Through sustained R&D investments in monitoring and measurement capabilities, the United States can (1) enhance its ability to model emissions based on a dynamic combination of human activity patterns, source procedures, energy sources, and chemical processing; (2) develop process-based models that reproduce the atmospheric physical and chemical processes (including transport and transformation pathways) that lead to the observed vertical profiles of GHG concentrations due to surface emissions; (3) determine to what degree natural exchanges with the surface affect the net national emissions of GHGs; (4) develop a combination of space-borne, airborne, and surface-based scanning and remote-sensing technologies to produce 3D, real-time mapping of atmospheric GHG concentrations; (5) develop specific technologies for sensing of global methane "surface" emissions with resolution of 10 km; (6) develop remote-sensing methods to determine spatially resolved vertical GHG profiles, rather than column-averaged profiles; and (7) develop space-borne and airborne monitoring for soil moisture at resolutions suitable for M&M activities. ReferencesEnergy Information Administration (EIA). 2004. Voluntary reporting of greenhouse gases 2002. DOE/EIA-0608(2002). Washington, DC: Energy Information Administration. January. http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/vrrpt/. For additional information on reporting requirements, see: EIA 1994. General guidelines for the voluntary reporting of greenhouse gases under Section 1605(b) of the Energy Act Policy of 1992. Washington, DC: Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/1605b.htmlIntegrated Earth Observation System (IEOS). 2005. Strategic plan for the U.S. integrated earth observation system. http://usgeo.gov/docs/EOCStrategic_Plan.pdf Post, W.M., R.C. Izaurralde, J.D. Jastrow, B.A. McCarl, J.E. Amonette, V.L. Bailey, P.M. Jardine, T.O. West, and J. Zhou. 2004. Enhancement of carbon sequestration in US soils. Bioscience 54:895-908. U.S. Climate Change Technology Program (CCTP). 2003. Technology options for the near and long term. DOE/PI-0002. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy. Update is at ClimateTechnology.gov U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL). 2004. Geological sequestration of CO2: the GEO-SEQ project. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). 2003. Ameriflux. http://public.ornl.gov/ameriflux/ Footnotes1 Accessible at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov [TEMP BROKEN]2 The full report is available at ClimateTechnology.gov 3 For more details on the current R&D activities, see CCTP (2005). 4 For more information on the current R&D activities, see Section 5.3 (CCTP 2005). 5 For a detailed discussion on technologies and current research activities, see
6 See Section 5.5 (CCTP 2005): 7 A detailed review of these R&D activities can be found in Section 5.6 (CCTP 2005) 8 For a detailed analysis of the current research, see Section 5.1 (CCTP 2005).
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