The STHARVEST computer application is Windows-based, public-domain software used to estimate costs for harvesting small-diameter stands or the small-diameter component of a mixed-sized stand. The equipment production rates were developed from existing studies. Equipment operating cost rates were based on November 1998 prices for new equipment and wage rates for the Pacific Northwest. There are four ground-based and two cable harvesting systems. Harvesting costs can be estimated for both clearcutting and partial cutting for an average tree size ranging from 1 to 80 or 150 cubic feet depending on the system selected. Cost estimates are in U.S. dollars per 100 cubic feet or per green ton.

Keywords: Cost (logging), logging economics, timber management planning, software, simulation.

Rural areas of the Pacific Northwest experienced a dramatic growth in population during the late 1980s to early 1990s. This growth was fueled by both push and pull factors, including environmental and natural resource-based amenities. Such growth has not only stressed the capacity of rural counties and communities to cope with change but also has raised important questions about interactions between people and natural resources. This paper, explores four fundamental components of this interaction: (1) the drivers of population growth; (2) the consequences of population growth, primarily for management of natural resources; (3) the potential changes in the social and psychological links between people and natural resources that may accompany rapid inmigration; and (4) the best way to measure and assess the consequences of population growth in rural areas. Some fundamental propositions within each of these components are presented. We use examples from Kittitas County, Washington, to illustrate our discussion.

Keywords: Human migration, population growth, natural resource management, environmental amenities, social and environmental change, population dynamics.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-579 Proceedings: hidden forest values. The first Alaska-wide nontimber forest products conference and tour, by Alaska Boreal Forest Coucil, comps.

The Hidden Forest Values Conference brought together a diverse assemblage of local, state and federal agencies, tribal governments, traditional users, landholders, cottage enterprises and other Nontimber Forest Products (NTFP) related businesses, scientists, and experts. The purpose of this forum was to exchange information, cooperate, and raise awareness of issues on sustainable and equitable, environmentally and economically viable opportunities for NTFP in Alaska. This discourse sought a balance of development and sustainability, with respect for traditional uses. Nontimber Forest Products were defined by the Conference organizers as biological material harvested from the forest that has not been produced from commercially sawn wood such as lumber, pulp, and paper. These proceedings include extended summaries of presentations by speakers and panelists at the conference. All summaries were compiled and edited by the Alaska Boreal Forest Council and reviewed by the authors. Some authors elected to provide their full presentation or supplemental material; those are included in Appendix V.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-578 Forests of eastern Oregon: an overview, by Sally Campbell, Dave Azuma, Dale Weyermann

This publication provides highlights of forest inventories and surveys from 1993 to 2001. About 35 percent of eastern Oregon is forested.The amount of forest land in eastern Oregon has increased by about 650,000 acres from the 1930s, with increases in juniper forest land accounting for most of the change.Thirty-one tree species were tallied in forest inventories during the 1990s, with ponderosa pine the predominant species in all ecological provinces in eastern Oregon.The Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and other federal agencies manage about 71 percent of eastern Oregon forests; about 27 percent is privately owned; and the remaining 2 percent is managed by the Oregon Department of Forestry and other nonfederal public agencies.The volume of wood in eastern Oregon forests is about 25.7 billion cubic feet, of which about 312 million cubic feet per year were harvested between 1987 and 1999. In the same time period, annual mortality and removals exceeded annual growth for all ownerships. Down wood is an important forest component and shows increases with forest age. Insect defoliators, bark beetles, root diseases, and dwarf mistletoes are present on over 72 percent of forest land in eastern Oregon.Year-to-year defoliation or mortality trends can be detected with aerial surveys. Introduced plant species are present on over 50 percent of private and other public forest land. Diversity of lichens (indicators of air pollution, climate, and forest age and structure) is greatest in the Blue Mountains Province and lowest in the Intermountain Province. No ozone injury has been detected on sensitive forest trees and plant species in eastern Oregon.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-576 Ecology and management of commercially harvested chanterelle mushrooms, by David Pilz, Lorelei Norvell, Eric Danell, and Randy Molina. (1.86 Mb)

During the last two decades, the chanterelle mushroom harvest from Pacific Northwest forests has become a multimillion dollar industry, yet managers, harvesters, and scientists lack a current synthesis of information about chanterelles. We define chanterelles and then discuss North American species, their place among chanterelle species around the world, international markets for chanterelles, our current understanding of the organism, reasons for declining production in parts of Europe, and efforts to cultivate chanterelles. Shifting focus back to chanterelles of the Pacific Northwest, we describe our species, regional forest management issues, recent studies, and future research and monitoring needed to sustain this prized resource.

Keywords: Chanterelle mushrooms, edible mushrooms, ectomycorrhizae, forest management, nontimber forest products, Cantharellus, Craterellus, Gomphus, Polyozellus.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-575 Social implications of alternatives to clearcutting on the Tongass National Forest: an exploratory study of residents’ responses to alternative silvicultural treatments at Hanus Bay, Alaska, by James A. Burchfield, Jeffrey M. Miller, Stewart Allen, Robert F. Schroeder, Theron Miller.

After a series of eight harvest treatments were completed at Hanus Bay, Alaska, on the Tongass National Forest in 1998, 27 respondents representing nine interest groups were interviewed to understand their reactions to the various harvest patterns in the eight treatment areas. Harvests patterns included three stands with 25 percent retention of basal area; three stands with 75 percent retention of basal area; a clearcut; and a full retention, or no-harvest, option. A special poster board that displayed estimates of consequences of the harvests in six areas (fi sh productivity, deer productivity, timber yield, appearance, biodiversity, and residual stand damage) was provided to assist respondents in articulating their evaluations. There were no signifi cant differences in preferred treatments among the nine interest groups sampled, although responses identifi ed specifi c preferences based on individual interests. Analysis of narrative responses identifi es that the basis for acceptance follows three major elements of emerging social acceptability theory: (1) treatments achieve a balance of positive effects, (2) natural conditions are sustained, and (3) contextual attributes are thoroughly considered. Sustaining benefi ts to rural communities and subsistence lifestyles also emerge as important considerations in judging the acceptability of harvest treatments.

Keywords: Clearcutting, subsistence, timber harvests, social

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-574 WestPro: a computer program for simulating uneven-aged Douglas-fir stand growth and yield in the Pacific Northwest, by Rebecca Ralston, Joseph Buongiorno, Benedict Schulte, Jeremy Fried. (1.8 Mb)

WestPro is an add-in program designed to work with Microsoft Excel to simulate the growth of uneven-aged Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) stands in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Given the initial stand state, defined as the number of softwood and hardwood trees per acre by diameter class, WestPro predicts the future stand state for each year of a predetermined time horizon. Management regimes are defined by a target stand distribution and a cutting cycle. Performance indicators include diversity of tree size and species, timber yield, and net present value of harvest over the given horizon. This paper contains background information on the WestPro program and instructions and suggestions for its application. By working the examples found in the text, the user will learn how to simulate the growth of a given initial stand and to predict how different management regimes may affect stand structure, yield, and diversity. Limitations of the model also are discussed.

Keywords: Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii, uneven-aged, management, economics, ecology, WestPro, simulation, software, growth model, diversity.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-573 Strategic survey framework for the Northwest Forest Plan survey and manage program, by Randy Molina, Dan; Lesher, Robin McKenzie, Jan Ford, Jim Alegria, Richard Cutler (1.16 Mb)

This document outlines an iterative process for assessing the information needs for all Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) survey and manage species, designing and implementing strategic surveys (including field surveys and other information-gathering processes), and analyzing that information for use in the NWFP annual species review and adaptive-management processes. The framework outlines a series of steps that provide guidance for development of (1) priority information needs, (2) evaluation and selection of information-gathering approaches, (3) implementation of annual work plans, and (4) management, reporting, and transfer of information to the annual species review process. Approaches include design-based statistical surveys, modeling, expert searches, and research that are anticipated to be used singly or in combination to address the priority survey and manage questions and information needs.

Keywords: Survey, conservation, biodiversity, species persistence, late-seral oldgrowth forests.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-572 Handbook to Additional Fungal Species of Special Concern in the Northwest Forest Plan by Michael A. Castellano, Efren Cazares, Bryan Fondrick, and Tina Dreisbach.

This handbook is a companion to the Handbook to Strategy 1 Fungal Species in the Northwest Forest Plan, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-476, published in October 1999. It includes 73 record-of-decision (ROD)-listed fungal species not contained in the first handbook, as well as updated site, field, and collecting forms; an expanded set of artificial keys to all fungal species from both handbooks; and an updated, partially illustrated glossary. The main purpose of this handbook is to help facilitate the survey, collection, and handling of potential ROD-listed fungal species by USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management employees. Each species is represented by a condensed description, a set of distinguishing features, and information on substrate, habitat, and seasonality. We also present a list of known sites within the range of the northern spotted owl, a distribution map, and additional references to introduce the available literature on a particular species.

Keywords: Mycology, mushrooms, sequestrate fungi, truffles, biodiversity, monitoring, rare fungi, forest ecology.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-571 Horse Rock Ridge Research Natural Area: guidebook supplement 27, by Alan B. Curtis. (2.36 Mb)

Horse Rock Ridge Research Natural Area (HRR RNA) was established in June 1995 to protect the best remaining example of a grassy “bald” (treeless area) on the western margin of the Cascade Range and its associated botanical, wildlife, and scenic values. This bald is surrounded by old-growth Pseudotsuga menziesii/Tsuga heterophylla (Douglas-fir/western hemlock) forest in the Coburg Hills on the eastern edge of the Willamette Valley in western Oregon. The site is recognized for its considerable diversity of plant species that includes both Willamette Valley plants as well as plants more often found in the montane zone of the Cascade Range. There are also several species present at the site that are normally found east of the Cascade Range. This guidebook describes the area, environment, biota, disturbance history, research, and access.

Keywords: Research natural area, vegetation types, vascular plants, lichens, liverworts, mosses, birds, mammals, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-570 Delimiting communities in the Pacific Northwest, by Ellen M. Donoghue (2.37 Mb)

The paper presents an approach for delimiting communities in the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) region of the Pacific Northwest that responds to the need to assess impacts and issues associated with broad-scale ecosystem management. Census block groups are aggregated to provide an alternative to more commonly used geographic delimitations of communities, specifically census places. With the block group aggregation approach, census data can be applied to almost 1.5 million more people in the NWFP region than would be represented by using census places. The delimitation of community boundaries is intended to facilitate future research on understanding and characterizing conditions, structures, and change. Factors to consider in conducting social science research at the small scale are discussed. Ways in which communities have been defined for social assessments and monitoring are identified. The influence of data availability on determining the unit of analysis and research focus at the small scale is discussed.

Keywords: Community, ecosystem management, Northwest Forest Plan, social assessment, socioeconomic monitoring.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-569 Green fescue rangelands: changes over time in the Wallowa Mountains by Johnson, Charles G., Jr. (3.81 Mb)

This publication documents over 90 years of plant succession on green fescue grasslands in the subalpine ecological zone of the Wallowa Mountains in northeast Oregon. It also ties together the work of four scientists over a 60-year period. Arthur Sampson initiated his study of deteriorated rangeland in 1907. Elbert H. Reid began his studies of overgrazing in 1938. Both of these individuals utilized high-elevation green fescue grasslands in different locations in the Wallowa Mountains for their study areas. Then in 1956, Gerald Strickler returned to the sites previously studied by Sampson and Reid to establish the first permanent monitoring points when he located and staked camera points they had used. He also established line transects where he photographed and sampled the vegetation to benchmark the condition of the sites. In 1998, on the 60th anniversary of the Reid camera points in Tenderfoot Basin, the author returned to document the changes in the vegetation on the Sampson and Reid sites establishing photographic comparisons and resampling the transects Strickler had established. When Sampson and Reid conducted their initial studies, domestic sheep had overgrazed the vegetation leading to severely eroded soils and weakened native vegetation. In recent years, the presence of domestic sheep had declined dramatically. As a result, vegetation trends were generally found to be static or upward on most of the sampled sites. The recent drought period (1985-92) and the high population of elk in the 1980s and 1990s contributed to the downward trend on some permanent monitoring sites. The use of repeat photography from permanent camera points and the use of permanent line transects for vegetation data acquisition provide the basis on which this comparative study and publication of findings was made possible.

Keywords: Green fescue, Wallowa Mountains, Arthur Sampson, Elbert Reid, Gerald Strickler.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-568 Projecting national forest inventories for the 2000 RPA timber assessment by John R. Mills, Xiaoping Zhou (1.17 Mb)

National forest inventories were projected in a study that was part of the 2000 USDA Forest Service Resource Planning Act (RPA) timber assessment. This paper includes an overview of the status and structure of timber inventory of the National Forest System and presents 50-year projections under several scenarios. To examine a range of possible outcomes, results are shown for five removals scenarios that incorporate assumptions from both current and past studies of wood flows and harvesting on national forests. In addition, two projections were developed to examine the effects of volume reductions associated with large-scale disturbance events, such as fires, insects, and disease. Projections were made by region and forest type by using the aggregated timberland assessment system and plot-level inventory data with methods consistent with procedures followed for private timberlands in the assessment. The results of projected inventory volume differ across regions, but the total inventory of both softwood and hardwood forest types is shown to increase in all scenarios. One result is a shift in area to older age classes. Initially, 15 percent of the timberland is classified as stands older than 150 years; under the base scenario with disturbance, this area will increase to 32 percent by 2050. This shift means that in the future, a larger share of U.S. timberland is projected to support mature and old forest conditions.

Keywords: National forests, timber supply, modeling, inventory projection, yield function, seral stage, public policy.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-567 Assessing the viability and adaptability of forest-dependent communities in the United States by, Richard W. Haynes. (374 Kb)

The work responds to the need to assess progress toward sustainable forest management as established by the Montréal Process of Criteria and Indicators. The focus is on a single indicator (commonly referred to as Indicator 46), which addresses the “viability and adaptability to changing economic conditions, of forest-dependent communities, including indigenous communities.” From county-level data, a composite measure was developed that combined population density, lifestyle diversity, and economic resiliency. There are 837 counties assigned a low rating representing 36 percent of the area of the United States but that contain less than 3 percent of the U.S. population. The rest of the population is roughly divided among the 2,064 counties assigned medium ratings and the 209 counties assigned high ratings. Of the forest-dependent communities, there are 742 counties with a high proportion of forest land, but only 14 percent are classified as having low viability and adaptability.

Keywords: Community resiliency, criteria and indicators, forest dependency, Montréal Process, socioeconomic well-being, sustainable forest management.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-566 Understanding community-forest relations by Linda E. Kruger, tech. ed. (502 Kb)

Improved understanding of the relationships between human communities and forests is necessary to understanding how alternative forest management policies and practices can affect different communities. This knowledge also enhances our ability to formulate plans that are responsive to the needs and concerns of local communities, thus reducing polarization and related social and economic costs. In December 1997, an interdisciplinary panel representing academic backgrounds in sociology, anthropology, geography, psychology, economics, and recreation gathered in Oregon to discuss relationships between human communities and forests. This collection of papers is a product of the dialogue and interactions at the gathering.

Keywords: Community, community research, integrated research, place-based community, community well-being, community attachment, natural disturbance.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-565 Measures of progress for collaboration: case study of the Applegate Partnership by Su Rolle (286 Kb)

Using the Applegate Partnership as a case study, this paper proposes a number of ways to measure the success of collaborative groups. These measures allow for providing evaluation and feedback, engaging needed participants, and responding to groups critical of the collaborative process. Arguing for the concept of progress in place of success, this paper points out that success is relative and should not be measured in absolute terms; tracking progress gives the sense of movement toward a goal or desired situation.

Keywords: Natural resources, collaboration, monitoring for success, progress, partnerships.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-564 Compatibility between wood production and other values and uses on forested lands: a problem analysis by Charles E. Peterson, Robert A. Monserud (890 Kb)

We provide background documentation for the Pacific Northwest Research Station’s Wood Compatibility Initiative, a 5-year multidisciplinary research effort that began in response to 1997 Congressional direction. This problem analysis was the initial effort to examine the state of knowledge regarding compatibility between wood production and other values and to develop a framework for directing a research initiative (Wood Compatibility Initiative) that examines the central question: Can we as a society produce wood commodities and other forest values in an environmentally acceptable and sustainable manner? Forest policy issues are often framed as two-dimensional debates such as “jobs versus the environment.” That framework assumes that forest management is a zero-sum enterprise, in which actions such as timber harvest inevitably mean substantial tradeoffs for other forest values such as wildlife habitat, clean water, and recreation. The debate ignores the possibility that instead of direct tradeoffs, opportunities exist for compatible changes that can provide more of both. The research challenge is to determine if, and at what level, timber harvest and other forest services and products can complement one another. Compatibility is seen as the degree to which we can manage for wood production without impairing other values.

Keywords: Compatible wood production, alternative silviculture, joint production, social acceptance, forest management, management options, biodiversity, aquatics, wildlife, economics.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-563 Congruent management of multiple resources: proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative workshop by Adelaide C. Johnson, Richard W. Haynes, Robert A. Monserud, eds. (2.91 Mb)

The Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI) addresses options that may increase the compatibility between wood production and other societal values derived from forestlands. The set of 25 papers included in this proceedings presents the summaries of WCI-related research, compiled from a workshop held December 4-7th 2001 at the Skamania Lodge in Stevenson, Washington. The workshop proceedings papers are grouped into six general topics: 1) workshop keynote papers, 2) aquaticrelated studies, 3) issues relating to scale, 4) silviculture studies, 5) nontimber forest products related research, and 6) social/economic studies. These papers set the context for scientific and management inferences as well as illustrate the complex and diverse array of information needed in the development of land management strategies at different spatial scales.

Keywords: Forest management, societal values, wood production, tradeoffs, compatibility.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-562 Forest economics research at the Pacific Northwest Research Station, to 2000, by Donald F. Flora. (2.49 Mb)

The contributions for over 80 years by scientists at the Pacific Northwest Research Station to developments in economic theory, economic tools, policies, and economic issues are summarized. This is a story of progressive accomplishments set against a constantly changing background of economic and social events.

Keywords: Forest economics, forest policy, forest management, Pacific Northwest.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-560 An analysis of the timber situation in the United States: 1952 to 2050, by Richard W. Haynes, tech. coord.

For more than a century, national assessments of supply and demand trends for timber have helped shape perceptions of future commodity consumption and resource trends. These perceptions have guided forest policy. Since 1952, U.S. timber harvest has risen by nearly 67 percent, accompanied by growing timber inventories on both public and private lands, but there has been a decline in the critical private timberland base. The current assessment envisions forest products consumption rising 42 percent by 2050 and marked shifts in the extent and location of domestic and imported supplies. Prospective shifts include a temporary near-term decline in U.S. roundwood harvest and an increase in the share of consumption from imports. In the longer term, U.S. timber harvest expands by 24 percent. As a result of steady improvement in growth and productivity on U.S. forest lands, this increased harvest is accommodated by continued expansion in inventory despite decreasing area in the private timberland base.

Keywords: RPA, assessments, timber, projections, supply, demand, management alternatives, resource trends.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-561. Social and economic assessment of the Chugach National Forest area by Lisa K. Crone, Pat Reed, Julie Schaefers. (1.6 Mb)

This is an assessment of the social and economic conditions in the Chugach National Forest area for use as background information for forest planning. Current regional conditions and recent trends are compared and contrasted with state and national conditions and recent trends. Regional employment and income trends in industries that use forest-related resources are detailed with a focus on their relation to forest management. Tourism and recreation is the industry likely to be most influenced by forest management policies. The social and economic conditions in 14 communities, chosen because of their proximity to the forest, also are described. The results of two mail surveys designed to gain a better understanding of the communities’ perceptions of themselves, their views about the management of the forest and other public lands, and the role of these lands in their quality of life also are presented and discussed. The survey results indicate that the communities are interested in the management of the forest and, because of the importance of public land to their quality of life, most wish to be equal partners with management agencies in planning for the future of these lands.

Keywords: Chugach National Forest, south-central Alaska, social and economic conditions, communities, community surveys.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-559 Understanding the links between ecosystem health and social system well-being: an annotated bibliography by Dawn M. Elmer, Harriet H. Christensen, and Ellen M. Donoghue, Compilers (426 Kb)

This bibliography focuses on the links between social system well-being and ecosystem health. It is intended for public land managers and scientists and students of social and natural sciences. Multidisciplinary science that addresses the interconnections between the social system and the ecosystem is presented. Some of the themes and strategies presented are policy and management processes, ecosystem management, conceptual approaches, sociocultural processes, ethics, economic perspectives and analysis, methods and indicators for assessment, and environmenthuman interactions. This bibliography identifies the contributions toward understanding the links between ecosystems and social systems made by historically disparate disciplines.

Keywords: Ecosystem health, social system well-being, sustainability, natural resources, human ecology, environment-human interactions, links, interconnections, economics, ecosystem management, social values, ethics, indicators, methods.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-558 Managing young upland forests in southeast Alaska for wood products, wildlife, aquatic resources, and fishes: problem analysis and study plan by Mark S. Wipfli, Robert L. Deal, Paul E. Hennon [and others]. (2.26 Mb)

Red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) appears to influence the productivity of young-growth conifer forests and affect the major resources (timber, wildlife, and fisheries) of forested ecosystems in southeast Alaska. We propose an integrated approach to understanding how alder influences trophic links and processes in young-growth ecosystems. The presence of red alder is expected to increase understory biomass, and aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial invertebrate abundance, providing more food for herbivores, fish, and birds. We predict that most red alder trees will die standing, and woody debris will be small and mobile in streams. Nitrogen fixation by red alder in mixed stands may result in larger, more commercially valuable conifers. Inclusion of red alder in the regenerating stand may therefore mitigate some negative impacts of clearcutting, and may increase total wood production from the landscape.

Keywords: Red alder, young-growth management, vegetation, wildlife, fish, invertebrates.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-557 Accelerating development of late-successional conditions in young managed Douglas-fir stands: a simulation study, bySteven L. Garman, John H. Cissel, James H. Mayo. (3.0 Mb)

The goal of this simulation study was to provide information for defining thinning regimes for young Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) stands in the Central Cascades Adaptive Management Area, located in west-central Oregon. Specifically, this study used the ZELIG.PNW (3.0) gap model to evaluate effects of experimental thinning treatments on the development of late-successional attributes and on extracted merchantable volume. Sixty-four thinning treatments were simulated for four rotation intervals (260, 180, 100, and 80 years) starting with a 40-year-old managed Douglas-fir stand. The amount of time for five late successional attributes to reach defined threshold levels, long-term developmental trends of these attributes, and amount of extracted merchantable volume were recorded for each treatment. Stand conditions of selected treatments were used in a subsequent harvest rotation in which 64 additional experimental thinning treatments were applied and evaluated. A total of 1,744 thinning treatments was evaluated in this study.
Results of this study confirm previous recommendations for accelerating development of late-successional attributes in young managed stands. Additionally, results show the potential for a range of thinning treatments to attain late-successional conditions in about the same amount of time, but with different tradeoffs in terms of merchantable volume and long-term stand conditions. In general, heavy thinning of existing stands at ages 40 and 60 years promoted rapid development of large boles, vertical diversity, and tree-species diversity, but provided the least amount of extracted volume and required artificial creation of dead wood. Treatments that retained more than 40 percent of the original overstory and thinned to 99 trees per hectare at age 60 delayed attainment of late-successional conditions by 10 to 30 years but provided 12 to 20 percent more extracted volume, resulted in higher levels of most late-successional attributes at the end of a rotation, and required less artificial creation of dead wood. Treatments providing the fastest development of late-successional conditions in subsequent rotations varied with the amount of canopy cover retained at the end of the first rotation. For stands starting with ¡Ý30 percent canopy cover, delaying the first commercial thin for 40 years promoted the most rapid development of vertical structure and shadetolerant stems. Lower canopy-retention levels required heavy or light thins in subsequent entries, depending on the rotation interval, for rapid development of late-successional attributes.

Keywords: Forest management, alternative thinning strategies, late-successional development, simulation modeling.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-556 Public lands and private recreation enterprise: policy issues from a historical perspective by Tom Quinn. (1.47 Mb)

This paper highlights a number of the historical events and circumstances influencing the role of recreation enterprises on public lands in the United States. From the earliest debates over national park designations through the current debate on the ethics of recreation fees, the influence of recreation service providers has been pervasive. This history is traced with particular attention to the balance between protecting public interests while offering opportunities for profit to the private sector. It is suggested that the former has frequently been sacrificed owing to political pressures or inadequate agency oversight.

Keywords: National Park Service, USDA Forest Service, concessions, recreation, public lands, public good, public utilities.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-555 Adjusting for radiotelemetry error to improve estimates of habitat use by Scott L. Findholt, Bruce K. Johnson, Lyman L. McDonald, [and others]. (265 Kb)

Animal locations estimated from radiotelemetry have traditionally been treated as error-free when analyzed in relation to habitat variables. Location error lowers the power of statistical tests of habitat selection. We describe a method that incorporates the error surrounding point estimates into measures of environmental variables determined from a geographic information system. We estimated a bivariate ellipsoidal probability density for errors surrounding radio collars placed at 20 random sites. This probability density of errors was used to construct probability-weighted estimates of environmental variables. Computer simulations indicated that slope, sine and cosine of aspect, and canopy cover at radiotelemetry locations differed from probability-weighted estimates of those variables (P 0.031). However, these differences were based on large sample sizes (n 305) and were probably too small to influence power of statistical tests of habitat selection. The frequency with which soil, plant community, and canopy cover types were correctly classified with simulated radiotelemetry point estimates increased with increasing patch sizes (P 0.005). Our method could be used to assess how accurately environmental variables can be determined across extremes of habitat and topography and the spatial scale at which analyses retain adequate power. It also could be used with other radiotelemetry systems, including those based on global positioning system technology, if sufficient locations are obtained to describe their probability distribution.

Keywords: Automated tracking, error neighborhood, habitat selection, LORAN-C, Oregon, principal components analysis, radiotelemetry location error, Starkey.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-554 A bibliography for Quercus garryana and other geographically associated and botanically related oaks by Constance A. Harrington and Melanie A. Kallas Compilers. (3.61 Mb)

Interest in Quercus garryana Dougl. ex Hook., commonly known as Oregon white oak or Garry oak, has increased in recent years as scientists, resource managers, and the general public focus attention on a forest type in decline. To aid those interested in learning what has previously been reported on this species, we have compiled a comprehensive bibliography for Q. garryana. This bibliography includes articles published in scientific or technical journals, accepted theses and dissertations, published or widely distributed documents from federal and state organizations, published conference proceedings (as well as chapters from those proceedings), and books (including chapters or articles in edited books). The citations pertain primarily to Q. garryana. Some references pertaining to geographically associated oaks, Q. alba L. (an eastern species closely related to Q. garryana), and general information about the genus Quercus also are included. There are 488 citations that refer to Q. garryana, 191 that pertain to geographically associated oaks, 131 that pertain to Q. alba, and 27 general oak citations. A section entitled “Topics and Keywords” is included to facilitate searching the paper copy of the bibliography for topics of interest. This section lists the citations that pertain to each topic. Keywords are provided for each citation. This bibliography also is available as a portable document format (PDF) file and as an online searchable database.

Keywords: Bibliography, Quercus garryana, Quercus alba, California oaks.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-553 Altered rangeland ecosystems in the interior Columbia basin by Stephen C. Bunting, James L. Kingery, Miles A. Hemstrom [and others]. (2.68 Mb)

A workshop was held to address specific questions related to altered rangeland ecosystems within the interior Columbia basin. Focus was primarily on public lands administered by the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Altered ecosystems were considered to be those where humaninduced or natural disturbances are of sufficient magnitude to affect ecosystem processes, causing long-term loss or displacement of native community types and loss of productivity, making it difficult or impossible to restore these ecosystems to historical conditions. Seventeen rangeland potential vegetation types (PVT) were identified by the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project and briefly described. Reasons that rangeland ecosystems are altered include presence of invasive species, uncharacteristic grazing effects, climatic change, change in fire regime, and other factors related to human presence. However, primary causes of alteration and restoration potential differ among PVTs. Some altered rangeland ecosystems may be restored by stabilizing ecosystem processes, restoring native plant communities, reducing the spread of invasive species, or conserving existing biota. In some altered conditions, these options have a relatively high probability of success over the short term with low to moderate cost at the site scale. However, in other altered areas, restoration options are expensive, have a low probability of success, and require long timeframes. Restoration of rangeland PVTs is also necessary for the survival of some animal species whose populations are in decline such as the Columbian sharp-tailed grouse and greater sage grouse.

Keywords: Altered rangelands, Columbia sharp-tailed grouse, greater sage grouse, restoration, potential vegetation types, rangeland ecosystems.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-552 A survey of innovative contracting for quality jobs and ecosystem management by Cassandra Moseley (265 Kb)

This survey identifies and defines innovative contracting mechanisms developed in the Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region and northern California. A survey of nine case studies reveals that several new mechanisms have facilitated ecosystem management, quality jobs, and administrative efficiencies, but at times innovation was hampered by Forest Service institutional structures and downsizing.

Keywords: Contracting, stewardship, innovation, workforce development, economic development, ecosystem management, Pacific Northwest, rural communities.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-551 Recreation and tourism in south-central Alaska: patterns and prospects by Steve Colt, Stephanie Martin, Jenna Mieren, and Martha Tomeo.

Based on data from various sources, this report describes the extent and nature of recreation and tourism in south-central Alaska. Current activities, past trends, and prospective developments are presented. Particular attention is given to activities that occur on, or are directly affected by management of, the Chugach National Forest. Recreation and tourism in and around the forest are also placed in a larger context. The Chugach National Forest is heavily used as a scenic resource by motorists and waterborne passengers; road access to the forest supports recreation activities such as fishing, camping, hiking, and wildlife viewing. Although the annual rate of increase in visitors to south-central Alaska seems to have slowed in the late 1990s, evidence indicates that currently both visitors and Alaska residents are increasingly seeking active forms of recreation and “soft adventure.” These demands, combined with likely capacity constraints at well-known attractions in Alaska and entrepreneurial efforts to provide short-duration recreation and tourism experiences, may lead to increasing use of the Chugach National Forest.

Keywords: Tourism, recreation, south-central Alaska, Chugach National Forest, land management planning.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-550 Economics research supporting water resource stewardship in the Pacific
Economics research supporting water resource stewardship in the Pacific Northwest by Laurie L. Houston, Jeffrey D. Kline, and Ralph J.Alig (338 K)

The use of water increasingly involves complex tradeoffs among biophysical, economic, ecological, and societal values. Knowledge about the value of water to different users and methods with which to evaluate biophysical, economic, ecological, and social tradeoffs associated with allocating limited water resources among competing uses is vital to devising appropriate and effective water resource policies. A review and synthesis of water resource economics research can contribute to a foundation on which to plan and conduct interdisciplinary research evaluating tradeoffs regarding water. It also can assist in setting research priorities for developing analytical processes and tools with which to evaluate tradeoffs, as well as develop water resource management strategies that are ecologically sound, economically efficient, and socially acceptable. Intended primarily for noneconomists, this report reviews existing water resource economics literature concerning the economic value of water in different uses in the Pacific Northwest, the evaluation of tradeoffs among uses, and the use of economic incentives for water conservation and protection or enhancement of water quality. The synthesis of water economics literature culminates in the identification of priority research topics relevant to the Pacific Northwest. An annotated bibliography of a sampling of water resource economics research is provided in an appendix.

Keywords: Economic values and tradeoffs, water quality and quantity, riparian species.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-549 Assessing the viability and adaptability of Oregon communities by Ellen M. Donoghue and Richard W. Haynes (1.63 M)

This work responds to the need to assess progress toward sustainable forest management as established by the Montréal Process Criteria and Indicators. The focus is on a single indicator (commonly referred to as Indicator 46) that addresses the “viability and adaptability to changing economic conditions, of forest-dependent communities, including indigenous communities.” Communities in Oregon were assessed in terms of their connectivity to service centers, socioeconomic well-being, and proximity to public lands. Fifty-four communities rated relatively low in these combined characteristics and were considered less adaptable to changing socioeconomic conditions.

Keywords: Community resiliency, criteria and indicators, forest dependency, Montréal Process, socioeconomic well-being, sustainable forest management.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-548 Evaluating benefits and costs of changes in water quality by Jessica Koteen, Susan J. Alexander, and John B. Loomis (1.61 M)

Water quality affects a variety of uses, such as municipal water consumption and recreation. Changes in water quality can influence the benefits water users receive. The problem is how to define water quality for specific uses. It is not possible to come up with one formal definition of water quality that fits all water uses. There are many parameters that influence water quality and that affect benefits to water users. This paper examines six water quality parameters and their influence on six water uses. The water quality parameters are clarity, quantity, salinity, total suspended solids, temperature, and dissolved oxygen. Changes in these parameters are evaluated to determine values for municipal, agricultural, recreational, industrial, hydropower, and nonmarket uses of water. Various techniques can be used to estimate nonmarket values for changes in water quality, such as the travel cost method, the contingent valuation method, and the hedonic property method. The data collected on changes in water quantity per acre-foot and its effect on recreationists’ benefits were analyzed by using multiple regression in a meta-analysis. Results from the regression were used to analyze changes in consumer surplus for particular activities and uses for an additional acre-foot of water. Information in tables is included to provide empirical evidence as to how certain water quality parameters affect a particular use. The tables provide values from previous studies and the valuation techniques used in each study. From these values, we find mean values of changes in water quality and how this change monetarily affects the use in question.

Keywords: Dissolved oxygen, instream flow, nonmarket values, recreation, salinity, water clarity, meta-analysis.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-547 Harvest, employment, exports, and prices in Pacific Northwest forests, 1965–2000 by Debra D. Warren (1.76 M)

Provides historical information on log harvest; employment in the forest industries; international trade in logs, lumber, and chips; and volume and average prices of sawtimber stumpage sold by national forests.

Keywords: Log harvest, employment (forest products industries), exports (forest products), and stumpage prices.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-546 Beyond 2001: a silvicultural odyssey to sustaining terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems—proceedings of the 2001 national silviculture workshop, May 6-10, Hood River, Oregon.

The 2001 National Silviculture Workshop was held in Hood River, Oregon, and hosted by the Mt. Hood National Forest, the Gifford Pinchot National Forest, and the Pacific Northwest Research Station. The Washington Office Vegetation Management and Protection Research and Forest and Grassland staffs are ongoing sponsors of the biennial workshop, which began in 1973 in Marquette, Michigan. The general purpose of the workshop is to provide a forum for scientists and land managers to exchange ideas and information and to develop opportunities for future collaboration. The 2001 workshop focused on the role of silviculture in supporting wildlife habitat and riparian management objectives. This topic was chosen to emphasize current issues in forestry and to underscore the important contribution of silviculture to ecosystem management. Papers were solicited on projects that demonstrated the use of silviculture in achieving wildlife and fish management goals. This document contains the papers that were offered at the 2001 workshop, and are grouped according to four themes: wildlife, vegetation, aquatic systems, and social systems. Authors are presented in the order in which papers were presented at the 2001 workshop. Nancy Lankford, Forest Silviculturist on the Mt. Hood National Forest, and Bob Obedzinski, Silviculturist on the Gifford Pinchot National Forest, were instrumental in organizing the 2001 workshop. The planning committee included Frank Burch, WO-FM; Sharon Friedman, WO-VMPR; Fred Zensen and Grant Gunderson, Pacific Northwest Regional Office; Andrew Carey, Peter Bisson, Connie Harrington, and Susan Stevens Hummel, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-544 Lumber recovery studies of Alaska sawmills, 1997 to 1999 by Kenneth A. Kilborn

This report looks at solid wood product recovery based on the results of 23 studies conducted from April 1997 to July 1999 of 22 sawmills in Alaska (during these years, these mills represented over 90 percent of the State’s annual lumber production). Results for all mills studied within the State were reviewed for differences (1) in recovery by regions of the State, (2) in recovery by size of operation, or (3) by type of break-down machinery. Two outstanding areas of opportunity to improve product recovery for nearly every sawmill within the State were reducing target thickness to eliminate over-sizing and reducing sawing variation. There were no significant differences in product recovery when comparing studies by region, production level, or equipment type. Requirements of markets during these years were definite factors in sawmills producing oversized products. There was less thickness variation with bandsaw breakdown equipment than with circular saw breakdown equipment. Followup studies conducted at sawmills where improvements have been made would document the value of the improvements.

Keywords: Alaska, sawmill, lumber, product recovery, forest products.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-543 A public utility model for managing public land recreation enterprises by Tom Quinn

Through review of relevant economic principles and judicial precedent, a case is made that public-land recreation enterprises are analogous to traditionally recognized public utilities. Given the historical concern over the societal value of recreation and
associated pricing issues, public-land management policies failing to acknowledge these utilitylike characteristics and a subsequent agency regulatory responsibility are shown to be deficient. Existing institutional barriers, however, sometimes limit the options available to agency managers. Eight strategies for performance enhancement are offered.

Keywords: Public land, recreation, concessioner, public utilities, government regulation, National Park Service, USDA Forest Service, monopolies, public goods.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-542 Montague Island vole: a conservation assessment by Ellen Weintraub Lance

Montague Island tundra voles were first described in the early 1900s. Based on their large size and dark coloration relative to other island and mainland populations, tundra voles from Montague Island were classified as a distinct subspecies. Research conducted in the 1990s revealed significant differences in the size and shape of Montague Island voles, but not significant genetic differentiation. Montague Island voles appeared abundant in the 1990s, although there was no attempt to estimate population size. Montague Island voles may be reproductively and genetically isolated. More sensitive genetic techniques now can be used to test genetic distinctiveness across populations. A conservation concern exists owing to the unknown population status and still questionable taxonomy of this island endemic subspecies, because it is unknown if land management practices affect this isolated population.

Keywords: Tundra vole, island endemics, Microtus oeconomus elymocetes, Montague Island, Montague Island vole, taxonomy.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-541 Montague Island marmot: a conservation assessment by Ellen Weintraub Lance (415 Kb)

The hoary marmot, from Montague Island, south-central Alaska, was classified as a distinct subspecies based on smaller size and skull characteristics relative to other island and mainland populations. The taxonomic validity of the Montague Island marmot (Marmota caligata sheldoni) is questionable, as conclusions were based on the analysis of no more than eight specimens. With the exception of one relatively recent sight record, Montague Island marmots have not been reported or collected since the early 1900s. A conservation concern exists, particularly owing to the unknown population status and questionable taxonomy of this island endemic subspecies that may be negatively affected by land management practices.

Keywords: Hoary marmots, island endemics, Marmota caligata sheldoni, Montague Island, Montague Island marmot, taxonomy.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-540 Highlights of science contributions to implementing the Northwest Forest Plan—1994 to 1998 by Nancy M. Diaz and Richard W. Haynes (944 Kb)

During 5 years of research (1994-98) in support of the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP), Pacific Northwest Research Station scientists and their collaborators have made significant progress in both validating some of the NWFP’s major assumptions and providing research that sets the stage for further evolution of the plan. Studies have provided new information in the areas of wildlife conservation and population viability, aquatic conservation measures, adaptive management, the socioeconomic dimension, ecological processes and functions, landscape-scale issues, and stand-development strategies. A key theme in the findings is the need for NWFP implementation and research efforts to increasingly address the significant ecological variation throughout the region, the dynamic nature of our forest ecosystems, the need to integrate information across science disciplines, and the benefits of managing adaptively.

Keywords: Northwest Forest Plan, ecosystem management, conservation, land management, alternative silviculture, landscape ecology, adaptive management.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-539 Understanding the compatibility of multiple uses on forest land: a survey of multiresource research with application to the Pacific Northwest by James A. Stevens, Claire A. Montgomery (235 Kb)

In this report, multiresource research is described as it has coevolved with forest policy objectives—from managing for single or dominant uses, to managing for compatible multiple forest uses, to sustaining ecosystem health on the forest. The evolution of analytical methods for multiresource research is traced from impact analysis to multiresource modeling, and examples of true joint production of forest products, goods, and services are given. Empirical results from studies related to wood compatibility in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) are compiled. We found that:

• In most cases, joint production research has been too specific or too theoretical to be directly applicable by land managers. Meta-analysis may prove useful for generating general management guidelines.
• Compatibility studies generally demonstrate compatibility between wood production and other uses. This result depends on geographic scale of analysis.
• Increasing sophistication in modeling method and the dramatic increase in data describing interactions among forest uses will likely make future tradeoff analysis more realistic and useful. Current work in modeling timber-wildlife tradeoffs shows promise.
• Compatibility analysis can be useful for policy analysis by establishing standards of efficiency against which to evaluate policy alternatives.

Keywords: Multiple use, multiresource research, compatibility, joint production, production possibilities, tradeoff analysis, forest management, forest planning models.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-538 A comparative study of forestry in Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the United States, with special emphasis on policy measures for nonindustrial private forests in Norway and the United States by Berit Hauger Lindstad.

In recognition of the cultural, economic, and ecological importance of forestry in Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the United States, this paper compares forest resource data, ownership patterns, management issues, and the impact the forest sector has on the national economies of these four countries. There is particular emphasis on the analysis of policy measures that affect nonindustrial private forests (NIPFs) in Norway and the United States. This comparison of similarities and differences in the management of NIPFs serves to identify different solutions to common challenges faced by the forest sectors of Norway and the United States.

Keywords: Nonindustrial private forests, NIPFs, forest policy, forest regulations, ownership, taxation, economics, Finland, Norway, Sweden, United States, Nordic.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-537 Social acceptability of forest conditions and management practices: a problem analysis by Bruce A. Shindler, Mark Brunson, and George H. Stankey.

The purpose of this report is to improve understanding of the complex sociopolitical processes related to resource management and to help structure management response to conflict and contentiousness, misunderstanding among participants, and failed citizen-agency interactions. Public acceptance is essential to every resource management decision public agencies must make. Regardless of the issue—forest health, fuels management, riparian restoration, recreation impacts, or threatened and endangered species—the political environment surrounding most decisions is never about just single questions, nor is it about just ecological questions. Social acceptability involves many diverse factors that are only now beginning to be understood and given credence by resource professionals. In this analysis, we describe the social acceptability concept and identify 10 key problem areas needing indepth consideration for durable decisions to be made about forest conditions and practices on federal lands. A central conclusion is that public judgments are always provisional, never absolute or final. Each situation, each context, produces a unique set of circumstances affecting the formation of public acceptance. By its nature, social acceptability is a process rather than an end product.We conclude by presenting five basic strategies to help guide resource professionals and citizens toward more integrated solutions.

Keywords: Social acceptability, forest management, decisionmaking, public participation, strategic planning.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-536 Assessing and evaluating recreational uses of water resources: implications for an integrated management framework by Christina Kakoyannis and George H. Stankey (583K)

To resolve conflicts over water, we need an understanding of human uses and values for water. In this study, we explore how water-based recreation affects and is affected by the water regime and water management and how key social trends might influence future water-based recreation. We found that although water is a critical component of many recreational experiences, our failure to understand current and anticipated water-based recreation use trends hampers our ability to effectively manage for recreation. Furthermore, we examined certain key drivers of social change, including population growth and migration, that will likely alter future recreation trends in the Pacific Northwest. We identified changes to the water resource, such as altered flow regimes, that have important consequences for the availability and quality of recreation opportunities. Although there are a variety of conflicts among recreationists and between recreation and other uses of water, we have a limited understanding of how to resolve them. Effective management will require examining the links between recreational opportunities and water management to minimize negative impacts to both recreation and the water regime.

Keywords: Recreation, water management, demographics.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-535 Multiresource effects of a stand-replacement prescribed fire in the Pinus contorta-Abies lasiocarpa vegetation zone of central Washington by Arthur R. Tiedemann, and Paul M. Woodard.

A stand-replacement prescribed fire in an over-mature lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.)-subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) stand (snag area) and in a mature lodgepole pine thicket (thicket area) resulted in lower plant diversity within the first year after burning, and as fire energy outputs increased, postburn plant cover and diversity decreased. There was no reestablishment of the original plant cover where total heat output exceeded 100 000 kcal/m2. Apparently, most plants in this habitat were not fire resistant. Postfire recovery appears to depend on immigration of seeds from adjacent unburned areas or on seeds and rhizomes that survive on unburned microsites (refugia) within the burn. After fire, temperatures increased in the forest floor fermentative layer (FL) (10 to 19 °C) and upper 10 cm of the soil layer (SL) (3 to 7 °C) on several dates in summer 1976. Increased pH levels in FL (about 2 units) and SL (about 0.5 unit) after burning provided an improved environment for bacterial development, and counts of total bacteria and proteolytic bacteria both increased. Both nitrogen fixation and nitrification were increased after burning. Despite the apparent increase in microbiological activity, microbial respiration declined after burning—apparently because of reduced forest floor organic carbon energy reservoir. Diversity of birds increased the year after burning. New species of birds included hairy woodpecker (Picoides villosus), black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus), three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus), common flicker (Colaptes auratus), and mountain bluebird (Sialia currucoides). Numbers of needle-foraging species, such as Townsend’s warbler (Dendroica townsendi), hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus), golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa), and western tanager (Piranga ludoviciana), declined or were absent after fire. Responses of small mammals to fire were not definitive, but there was a marked decline in Townsend’s chipmunk (Tamias townsendii) after burning. In the first year after burning, forage for elk (Cervus elaphus) in the burned area was higher in crude protein than in unburned areas, but low productivity and distance from water diminished the value of the burned area for elk.

Keywords: Forest succession, forest floor, understory vegetation, fuels, soil physical properties, wildlife, snags, downed wood, microbial populations, nitrification, nitrogen fixation, small mammals, birds, elk.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-534 Race, class, gender, and American environmentalism by Dorceta E. Taylor.

This paper examines the environmental experiences of middle and working class whites and people of color in the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries. It examines their activism and how their environmental experiences influenced the kinds of discourses they developed. The paper posits that race, class, and gender had profound effects on people’s environmental experiences, and consequently their activism and environmental discourses.

Historical data show that while some middle class whites fled the cities and their urban ills to focus attention on outdoor explorations, wilderness and wildlife issues, some of their social contemporaries stayed in the cities to develop urban parks and help improve urban environmental conditions. Though there were conflicts between white middle and working class activists over the use of open space, the white working class collaborated with white middle-class urban environmental activists to improve public health and worker health and safety, whereas, people of color, driven off their land, corralled onto reservations, enslaved, and used as low-wage laborers, developed activist agendas and environmental discourses that linked racism and oppression to worker health and safety issues, limited access to resources, loss of or denial of land ownership, and infringement on human rights.

Keywords: Environmental discourses, environmental movement, activism, environmental justice, social justice, gender, class, race, racism, people of color, wilderness, wildlife, urban parks, civil rights, labor, outdoor recreation, African Americans, Native Americans, Asians, Chicanos, Latinos, Whites.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-533 Feasibility of using wood wastes to meet local heating requirements of communities in the Kenai Peninsula in Alask by by David L. Nicholls, Peter M. Crimp

Wood energy can be important in meeting the energy needs of Alaska communities that have access to abundant biomass resources. In the Kenai Peninsula, a continuing spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby)) infestation has created large volumes of standing dead spruce trees ( Picea spp.). For this evaluation, a site in the Kenai-Soldotna area was chosen for a small, industrial-scale (4 million British thermal units (BTUs) per hour) wood-fired hot water heating system, which could be fueled by salvaged spruce timber and also by sawmilling residues. Thirty-six different scenarios were evaluated by using wood fuel costs ranging from $10 to $50 per delivered ton, alternative fuel costs from $1 to $2 per gallon, and fuel moisture contents of either 20 percent or 50 percent (green basis). In addition, two different capital costs were considered. Internal rates of return varied from less than 0 to about 31 percent, and project payback periods varied from 4 years to greater than 20 years. Potential barriers to the long-term sustainability of a wood energy system in the Kenai Peninsula include the availability of biomass material once current spruce salvage activities subside. The estimated wood fuel requirements of about 2,000 tons per year are expected to be easily met by spruce salvage operations over the short term and by sawmill residues after salvage inventories diminish. It is expected that a wood energy system this size would not significantly reduce overall fuel loads in the area, but instead would be a good demonstration of this type of system while providing other community benefits and energy savings.

Keywords: Economics, wood energy, biomass, wood products, Alaska.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-532 Utilization of Oregon’s timber harvest and associated direct economic effects by Krista M. Gebert, Charles E., III Keegan, Sue Willits, and Al Chase.

With more than 16 million acres of commercial timberland, Oregon’s forest products industry is an important part of Oregon’s economy and a major player in the Nation’s wood products market. Despite declining production over the last decade, in 1998 Oregon was still the leading producer of softwood lumber and plywood in the United States, and the timber harvested in Oregon is the major supplier of the raw material used by Oregon’s wood-processing mills. This report traces the flow of Oregon’s 1998 timber harvest through the various primary wood-using industries and investigates the relations between the harvest and key economic variables such as the value of production, employment, and workers’ earnings. Also included is a section on Oregon’s secondary wood products industry.

Keywords: Wood products industry, timber harvest, economic effects, employment, labor income, sales value, Oregon.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-531 Land ownership dynamics in the Big Elk Valley in Oregon during the 20th century by Brett J. Butler, and Brooks J. Stanfield.

Land ownership is a key link between society and natural resources. The dynamics of landowner patterns are demonstrated by the examination of five land ownership maps in the Big Elk Valley of the central Oregon Coast Range. These patterns are further illustrated with the presentation of a land patents map of the Big Elk Valley. We selected this watershed because of its high diversity of ownership classes and the ability of the resulting dynamics to capture many aspects of ownership dynamics. Maps of land ownership are presented for 1907, 1930, 1956, 1979, and 1998. We also provide brief, illustrative descriptions of processes underlying the changing ownership patterns.

Keywords: Land ownership, Big Elk Valley, Oregon.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-530 The status of whitebark pine along the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail on the Umpqua National Forest.

Because of concern over widespread population declines, the distribution, stand conditions, and health of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Englem.) were evaluated along the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail on the Umpqua National Forest. Whitebark pine occurred on 76 percent of the survey transects. In general, whitebark pine was found in stands with lower overall densities and fewer late-seral species, particularly Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shatensis A. Murr.) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana [Bong.] Carr.). Whitebark pine stocking differed widely, from less than 1 up to 24 percent of the trees on transect plots. Most whitebark pines (87 percent) were less than 5 m tall. Of all whitebark pine encountered, 44 percent were alive and healthy, 46 percent were alive but infected by Cronartium ribicola (J.C. Fisch) (cause of white pine blister rust), and 10 percent were dead. Two-thirds of the mortality was due to white pine blister rust. Mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) alone accounted for 13 percent of the mortality, whereas evidence of mountain pine beetle was found with white pine blister rust on 18 percent of the dead whitebark pines.

White pine blister rust affected trees in all but the largest size class; 70 percent of the whitebark pines greater than 1.5 m tall and less than 7.6 cm diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) were infected. Most (92 percent) of infected whitebark pines had bole
cankers or cankers within 15 cm of the bole. No cones were observed on whitebark pines in any of the survey plots. Whitebark pine was common in centers of laminated root rot (caused by the fungus Phellinus weirii(Murrill.) R.L. Gilbertson) where substantial canopy openings were found. In these centers, whitebark pine contributed 73 percent of the large tree stocking. The results of this survey constitute a reference condition for whitebark pine that can be used to assess change in its status in this part of southwest Oregon. Measures to reduce the impacts of disease and bark beetles and to maintain whitebark pine populations are discussed.

Keywords: Whitebark pine, Pinus albicaulis, white pine blister rust, Cronartium ribicola, mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, Umpqua National Forest.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-529 A basis for understanding compatibility among wood production and other forest values by Richard W. Haynes, and Robert A. Monserud

In the public debate over forest management, many issues are portrayed as tradeoffs between biophysical and socioeconomic components of ecosystems. This simplistic portrayal ignores potential opportunities for compatible changes in outputs (either goods or services) among alternative management strategies. In response, a research effort called the Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI) builds on an extensive body of existing work to examine biophysical and socioeconomic compatibility of managed forests. In this paper, we introduce the conceptual model for the WCI, the scale of analysis, and the overall research strategy. After a short discussion on joint production, we provide examples of compatible wood production at each of four scales: stand, watershed landscape, ecological province, and region level. These examples highlight the progress of WCI during the first three years (1998-2000). We then discuss our progress toward understanding compatibility. Four key research questions address the extent to which we may judge compatibility between wood production and other forest values. Finally, we present our strategy for synthesizing this broad collection of research information on compatible wood production.

Keywords: Joint production, compatible production, forest management research.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-528 Ex situ gene conservation for conifers in the Pacific Northwest by Sara R. Lipow, J. Bradley St. Clair, and G.R. Johnson

Recently, a group of public and private organizations responsible for managing much of the timberland in western Oregon and Washington formed the Pacific Northwest forest tree Gene Conservation Group (GCG) to ensure that the evolutionary potential of important regional tree species is maintained. The group is first compiling data to evaluate the genetic resource status of several species of conifers both at their original location (in situ) and at some other location (ex situ).We summarize the ex situ genetic resources present in seed orchards, provenance and progeny tests, seed stores, and clone banks both in western Oregon and Washington and in other countries with germplasm that originated in western Oregon and Washington. Some species, such as ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.), noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.), and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) are found to have extensive genetic resources in ex situ forms. The resources for western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don), for example, are more limited. Disease greatly influenced the development of ex situ genetic resources for western white pine (P. monticola Dougl. ex D. Don), sugar pine (P. lambertiana Dougl.), and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.). The summaries of genetic resources are, therefore, placed in the context of issues affecting each species. This provides land managers with the accurate information necessary for assessing the potential value of each resource for gene conservation and for prioritizing future actions.

Keywords: Ex situ gene conservation, seed orchard, progeny tests, seed storage, clone bank, breeding population, Pacific Northwest, gymnosperm.

Outdoor recreation participation and consumption by Alaska residents are analyzed and projected to 2020. Both the rate of participation and the intensity of participation in nearly all outdoor recreation activities are higher among Alaskans than for residents of other states. Projections based on economic and demographic trends indicate that current patterns are likely to continue, and demand for outdoor recreation among Alaskans will keep pace with projected increases in population. Activities with the highest participation rates per capita are viewing birds and wildlife, scenic driving, off-road driving, biking, and fishing. Participation in outdoor recreation is generally greater for activities that require little skill and are inexpensive, with the possible exception of fishing. The fastest growing outdoor recreation activities in Alaska are “adventure” activities such as backpacking, biking, and tent camping. However, activities such as scenic driving, viewing wildlife, RV camping, and fishing will continue to grow. Thus, the roads and waterways of Alaska will continue to be heavily used for outdoor recreation.

Keywords: Alaska, recreation, recreation trends, Chugach National Forest.

This handbook describes quick, effective methods for documenting change in vegetation and soil through repeat photography. It is published in two parts: field procedures in part A and concepts and office analysis in part B. Topics may be effects of logging, change in wildlife habitat, livestock grazing impacts, or stream channel reaction to land management. Land managers, foresters, ranchers, wildlife biologists, and land owners may find this monitoring system useful. Part A discusses three critical elements: (1) maps to find the sampling location and maps of the photo monitoring layout; (2) documentation of the monitoring system to include purpose, camera and film, weather, season, sampling system, and equipment; and (3) precise replication in the repeat photography.

This handbook describes quick, effective methods for documenting change in vegetation and soil through repea photography. It is published in two parts: concepts and office analysis in part B, and field procedures in part A. Topics monitored may be effects of logging, change in wildlife habitat, livestock grazing impacts, or stream channel reaction to land management. Land managers, foresters, ranchers, wildlife biologists, and land owners may find this monitoring system useful. In part B, (1) concepts and procedures required to use photographs for analyzing change in photographs are presented, (2) monitoring equipment specifications are given, and (3) forms for recording information and mounting photographs are provided.

Keywords: Monitoring, photography.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-525 Forests of western Oregon: an overview by Sally Campbell, Dave Azuma, and Dale Weyermann

This publication provides highlights of forest inventories and surveys from 1993 to 2000. It presents both traditional and nontraditional information about western Oregon’s forests.The amount of forest land in western Oregon has changed little since the earliest inventory in 1930. About 80 percent of western Oregon is forested. Fifty tree species were tallied in forest inventories during the 1990s, with Douglas-fir the predominant species in all ecological units in western Oregon. About 52 percent of western Oregon forest land is managed by the Forest Service, BLM, and other federal agencies; about 41 percent is privately owned; and the remaining 7 percent is managed by the Oregon Department of Forestry and other nonfederal public agencies. Growth of trees in western Oregon exceeds the amount removed by harvest and mortality. One-third of inventory plots on nonfederal lands have one or more noxious weeds. Down wood and snags are important forest components and were tallied in these last inventories. Western spruce budworm, bark beetles, root diseases, dwarf mistletoes, and Swiss needle cast have affected many acres of forest land in western Oregon from 1987 to 2000. Lichens, as indicators of air pollution, climate, and forest age and structure, have been tallied on a portion of western Oregon inventory plots beginning in 1998. Monitoring for ozone injury on several sensitive forest species also was begun in 1998; no ozone injury has been detected in western Oregon.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-524 Domestic market activity in solid wood products in the United States, 1950-1998.

Solid wood is important to the construction, manufacturing, and shipping segments of the U.S. economy. Nearly all new houses are built with wood, and wood building products are used in the construction of nonresidential buildings, and in the upkeep and improvement of existing structures. Solid wood is used extensively to produce and transport manufactured products. It also provides a renewable energy source for industrial, commercial, and residential applications. In 1998, 19.6 billion cubic feet, roundwood equivalent, of all timber products were consumed in the United States, down slightly from 1996, but considerably greater than in 1962. About 87 percent of this was for industrial products, and 13 percent for fuelwood. Excluding fuelwood, solid wood timber products accounted for about 67 percent of the industrial roundwood consumed, and pulpwood products about 33 percent. Large amounts of residues are generated in the production of solid wood products, about 10 to 15 percent of total industrial roundwood consumption. Thus, solid wood products and pulpwood products each account for about half of the industrial roundwood consumed. This report examines solid wood timber products consumption in the United States over the past 40 to 45 years, relates changes in consumption to economic, social, and institutional factors during the period, and presents estimates of consumption in major end-use markets. Trends in timber products production, foreign trade, and domestic consumption over the past half century also are examined.

Keywords: Production, consumption, timber products consumption, industrial roundwood production, solid wood consumption, wood use, softwood lumber, hardwood lumber, structural panels, softwood plywood, oriented strandboard, OSB, waferboard, nonstructural panels, hardwood plywood, particleboard, medium-density fiberboard, MDF, hardboard, insulation board, engineered wood products, wood I-joists, gluelaminated timbers, glulam, structural composite lumber, laminated veneer lumber, LVL, parallel strand lumber, PSL, oriented strand lumber, OSL, fuelwood, construction, housing, new residential construction, single-family, multifamily, apartments, mobile homes, repair, remodeling, upkeep, improvements, expenditures, nonresidential construction, railroads, manufacturing, furniture, shipping, wooden containers, pallets, fuelwood.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-522 Assessment of the lumber drying industry and current potential for value-added processing in Alaska.

An assessment was done of the lumber drying industry in Alaska. Part 1 of the assessment included an evaluation of kiln capacity, kiln type, and species dried, by geographic region of the state. Part 2 of the assessment considered the value added potential associated with lumber drying. Various costs related to lumber drying were evaluated in an Excel spreadsheet. About 2.2 million board feet of lumber per year is currently being dried in Alaska, over 90 percent of which is softwoods. Total installed kiln capacity is about 94 thousand board feet. On a board-foot basis, lumber drying premiums and profitability were most influenced by species dried (whether softwoods or hardwoods) and not as strongly influenced by geographic location or type of kiln used.

Keywords: Economics, wood products, lumber, dry kiln, Alaska.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-521 Fuzzy logic knowledge bases in integrated landscape assessment: examples and possibilities

The literature on ecosystem management has articulated the need for integration across disciplines and spatial scales, but convincing demonstrations of integrated analysis to support ecosystem management are lacking. This paper focuses on integrated ecological assessment because ecosystem management fundamentally is concerned with integrated management, which presupposes integrated analysis. Knowledge-based solutions are particularly relevant to ecosystem management because the topic is conceptually broad and complex and involves many abstract concepts whose assessment depends on many interdependent states and processes. Logic constructs are useful in this context because the problem can be evaluated as long as the entities and their logical relations are understood in a general way and can be expressed by subject matter authorities. As an example, ecosystem management decision-support system provides a formal logic framework for integrated analysis across multiple problem domains, has the ability to reason with incomplete information, and assists with optimizing the conduct of assessments by setting priorities on missing data. Most significant, however, is the possibility that knowledge-based reasoning could readily be extended to networks of knowledge bases that provide logical specifications for integrated analysis across spatial scales.

Keywords: Knowledge base, fuzzy logic, hierarchy, network, integration, ecosystem management, ecological assessment, landscape analysis.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-518 Understanding the social acceptability of natural resource decisionmaking processes by using a knowledge base modeling approach by Christina Kakoyannis, Bruce Shindler, and George Stankey

Natural resource managers are being confronted with increasing conflict and litigation with those who find their management plans unacceptable. Compatible and sustainable management decisions necessitate that natural resource agencies generate plans that are not only biologically possible and economically feasible but also socially acceptable. Currently, however, we lack a framework to integrate socially acceptable judgments with the biological and economic factors that help define successful forest management plans. This research examines the ability of a knowledge base approach to assess the social acceptability of natural resource decisionmaking processes and to determine its suitability for use in forest management planning. We note four main caveats with using knowledge bases for evaluating social acceptability: (1) the importance of asking and answering the right question, (2) the ability of the knowledge base to become a “black box,” (3) problems associated with using a numerical value to estimate a concept as complex as social acceptability, (4) and our incomplete understanding of the factors that influence social acceptability judgments. Acknowledging the caveats, however, can make the knowledge base model a useful tool in forest management planning. We determined that knowledge bases can account for various factors affecting social acceptability and can facilitate discussions about the compatibility and links among social, biological, and economic decision factors.

Keywords: Social acceptability, forest management, decisionmaking, public participation, knowledge base.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-516 Atlas of social and economic conditions and change in southern California by Terry L. Raettig, Dawn M. Elmer, Harriet H. Christensen.

This atlas illustrates the spatial and temporal dimensions of social and economic changes in the social-economic assessment region in the decade since 1987/1988. Maps, interpretive text, and accompanying tables and graphs portray conditions, trends, and changes in selected social, economic, and natural resource-related indicators for the 26 counties of the diverse region during a period of particularly rapid and intense demographic, social, and economic change. This information about the people, communities, and resources of the region serves as a tool for natural resource planners and managers, economic development practitioners, and citizens interested and involved in the future of the region. It also serves as a baseline for monitoring and evaluating potential impacts of ecosystem management strategies.

Keywords: Social-economic assessment, southern California, social and economic indicators, GIS, atlas, regional scale, county scale.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-513 Special forests products: species information guide for the Pacific Northwest by Nan C. Vance, Melissa Borsting, David Pilz, and Jim Freed

This guide is a collection of information about economically important vascular and nonvascular plants and fungi found in the Pacific Northwest that furnish special forest products. Many of these plants and fungi are also found in Alaska, northern Idaho, and western Montana. They contribute to many botanical, floral, woodcraft, and decorative industries and to the rapidly growing medicinal, herbal, and natural foods industries. Internet commerce has made these products available to consumers worldwide and expanded interest in medicinal plants, decorative floral products, and edible wild fruits and mushrooms. This guide provides a consolidated information resource that briefly describes biological, ecological attributes of over 60 plants and fungi, and their wild harvest methods, alternatives to wild harvest, and uses. The harvest techniques described in the guide are based on the recommendations of experienced harvesters and experts who have worked with these botanical resources and support sustainable practices. Information for this guide was gathered from various documents and other sources. The technical areas of expertise consulted spanned a wide range of knowledge including plant biological and ecological sciences, ethnobotany, horticulture, mycology, and forest ecology.

Keywords: Special forest products, nontimber forest products, medicinal plants, edible fungi, botanical industry, herbs, wildcraft, Pacific Northwest, sustainable forestry.

An evaluation of the retail market potential for random-width paper birch ( Betula papyrifera Marsh.) lumber in Alaska was conducted. Information from lumber manufacturers and retail managers was used to identify current barriers to customer acceptance of locally produced paper birch lumber. Major retail markets and paper birch producing regions throughout Alaska were considered in this study. Results indicated generally favorable retail market potential for Alaska paper birch with strong interest from both lumber producers and retail store managers. Key issues that were identified included (1) the ability of lumber producers to secure dependable log supplies, (2) consistent moisture content control and dimensional stability of kiln-dried lumber, and (3) appearance features that could potentially influence purchasing decisions, such as heartwood or sapwood variations. Finding suitable selling arrangements between relatively small lumber producers and retailers also was identified as a potential barrier to successful sales programs. Recent trends in Alaska indicate that greater volumes of paper birch lumber are being kiln dried to the quality standards needed for retail market sales.

Keywords: Market potential, paper birch, lumber, wood products, Alaska.

There are 234 fungal species listed in the record of decision (ROD) for amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management planning documents within the range of the northern spotted owl. There are four strategies to established guidelines for the survey and management of various organisms, including amphibians, mammals, bryophytes, mollusks, vascular plants, lichens, arthropods, and fungi. Strategy 1 (S1) entailed compiling all known distribution and ecological information on 147 fungus species. Other strategies convey protection or encourage the collecting of additional geographic and habitat information. Upon further taxonomic examination of the S1 fungal species, it was determined that only 135 separate species existed, with the others reduced to synomomy. Most of these S1 fungal species are poorly known and uncommon to rare. A few S1 fungal species were revealed to be much more common than previously thought. This handbook was designed to facilitate understanding of the life history of all S1 and protection buffer species and to aid in their discovery and identification. Each species is represented by a condensed description, a set of distinguishing features, and information on substrate, habitat, and seasonality. We also present a list of known sites within the range of the northern spotted owl, a distribution map and additional references to introduce the available literature on a particular species. A set of artificial taxonomic keys is presented to aid the worker in identification. A partially illustrated glossary helps introduce the novice to mycological terms.

Keywords: Mycology, mushrooms, sequestrate fungi, truffles, biodiversity, monitoring, rare fungi, forest ecology.

Silvicultural knowledge and practice have been evolving in the Pacific Northwest for nearly a century. Most research and management activities to date have focused on two major topics: (1) methods to regenerate older, naturally established forests after fire or timber harvest; and (2) growth and management of young stands. Today forest managers can reliably regenerate the major conifer and hardwood species under most conditions by using combinations of natural and artificial regeneration. They also can control stand density and species composition and growth of individual trees, thereby influencing stand structure. Available growth models can reasonably predict the outcome of growing conifer stands under a range of densities, species composition, and management scenarios, providing tree numbers by size class as well as crown characteristics and wood yields.

Most silvicultural efforts have been financed through and directed toward production of wood. Although some other values have been produced or improved in conjunction with such activities, public interest and emphasis on nontimber values have increased. It has become apparent that some values are not benefitted by silvicultural practices aimed solely at wood production. In most situations, however, desired nontimber values can be enhanced by silvicultural measures implemented for their direct benefit or by some modifications of practices applied primarily to produce wood. We discuss the historical development of silviculture in the Pacific Northwest and review the silvicultural practices currently available to forest managers. We then point out how these practices can be modified and used to maintain and produce wildlife habitat, diverse stand structures (including those usually associated with old forests) and pleasing scenery, while also producing wood products. Most of the silvicultural knowledge needed to design and implement regimes for integrated production of these multiple values already exists.

Keywords: Ecosystem management, multiple use, silvicultural systems, wildlife habitat, thinning, landscape management, forest ecology, Douglas-fir.

Aspects of climate that influence air quality in the Columbia River basin of the Northwestern United States are described. A few, relatively simple, analytical tools were developed to show the spatial and temporal patterns of mean-monthly mixing heights, precipitation scavenging, upper level and surface trajectory winds, and drought that inhibit pollution uptake. Also, potential changes in air quality from the effects of increasing greenhouse gases are discussed.

Keywords: Air quality, climate, air pollution, mixing heights, trajectory winds, pollution trajectories, pollution scavenging, drought, global change, Columbia River basin.

Forest sustainability is a concept for the desired condition of forest ecosystems all over the world. The essential aspects of sustainable forests differ tremendously, however, among peoples of the world. Parks and wilderness areas, wildlife preserves, watershed protection areas, multiple-use forestry, and short-rotation tree farming all are sustainable, from some viewpoints, when inflows and outflows balance over time. Sustainability needs to be defined to minimize conflict, confusion, and mistrust. For what, where, whom, and how long are forest values being sustained? One recommended approach is to assess sustainability at the landscape level and define the processes, structures, and resources needed to meet many of society’s objectives. A landscape-level example in the 200 000-hectare Applegate watershed in southwest Oregon uses four criteria as a measure of sustainability. With these criteria, management objectives, activities, and monitoring measures can be implemented across the watershed. Managers and policymakers must recognize that modern forest practices have a short history and there is little documentation of long-term effects. Increased efforts are needed for well-designed, long-term, and integrated approaches for monitoring forest sustainability.

This paper reviews the wild mushroom resource of the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington and summarizes issues and concerns for regulation, monitoring, and management. Existing biological information on the major available commercial mushrooms in the area, with emphasis on morels, is presented. Brief descriptions of the most commonly collected mushrooms are given, as well as the site conditions and plant communities influencing their occurrence or proliferation.

Keywords: Morels, special forest products, commercial mushroom harvest, Blue Mountains.

This publication provides qualitative and quantitative information on five distinct structures: living trees with decayed parts, trees with hollow chambers, trees with brooms, dead trees, and logs. Information is provided on the value of these structures to wildlife, the decay or infection processes involved in the formation of these structures, and the principles to consider for selecting the best structures to retain.

Keywords: Broom rust, cavity nesters, decay fungi, dwarf mistletoe, Elytroderma, forest management, habitat monitoring, hollow trees, interior Columbia River basin, logs, old-growth forests, snags, wildlife, wood decay.

This field guide contains descriptions and color photographs of snags and logs of 10 coniferous and 3 deciduous tree species found in the interior Columbia River basin. Methods arc described to distinguish among the different species when various amounts of branches, cones, and bark arc missing. Wildlife use of the different species of snags and logs are listed. Snags and logs are each classified into three categories based on structural features. Six indicators of fungal decay are illustrated.

Keywords: Cavity nesters, decay fungi, habitat monitoring, hollow trees, interior Columbia River basin, logs, snags, wildlife, wood decay.

Several smoke-dispersion models, which currently are available for modeling smoke from biomass burns, were evaluated for ease of use, availability of input data, and output data format. The input and output components of all models are listed, and differences in model physics are discussed. Each model was installed and run on a personal computer with a simple-case example. The steps required to obtain meaningful output for each model are described. Because validation data for wildland biomass burns were unavailable at the time of this assessment, recommending the use of one model over another was not possible. Limiting features of the source-strength component available for each model, however, suggest that dispersion models will not validate properly until models of source strength in biomass burns improve. Without validation data, preliminary recommendations are based on the style of user, user interfaces, output format, and available model components. Suggestions are made for which model that a local project, regional project, regional systems manager, or research scientist might select for research, regulatory, planning, and screening purposes.

Keywords: Smoke, dispersion, models, fire, prescribed fire, emissions.

A classification of forest vegetation is presented for the Wenatchee National Forest (NF). It is based on potential vegetation, with the plant association as the basic unit. The sample includes about 570 intensive plots and 840 reconnaissance plots distributed across the Wenatchee National Forest and the southwest portion of the Okanogan National Forest from 1975 through 1994. The hierarchical classification includes 10 forest series and 104 types (plant association or community type). Diagnostic keys and descriptions are presented for each tree series and type. Detailed descriptions are given for each type having at least five sample stands in the Wenatchee NF. Those descriptions include information about plant species occurrences, type distribution, environment and soils, potential timber productivity, management considerations, and relationships to other classifications. Brief descriptions are presented for miscellaneous types (those having fewer than five plots in the Wenatchee NF).

Keywords: Vegetation classification, plant community—climax, plant association, vegetation series, forest ecology, forest environment, Cascade Range, community type, Eastern Washington.

We analyzed likely patterns of distribution and persistence of northern spotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina) on the Olympic Peninsula. Analysis focused on the effects of Federal habitat under provisions of the Northwest Forest Plan; additional benefits to the owl population of different levels of habitat retention on non-Federal lands; effects of establishing a habitat connection between the Olympic Peninsula and othe parts of the owl's range; the likely rate of habitat regrowth in the National Forest and its effect on the owl population; and the likely effect of a worst-case fire. We used a spatially explicit population model for northern spotted owls for the analysis and also reviewed current information on demographics and likely owl population numbers on the Olympic Peninsula. We concluded that it is likely, but not assured, that a stable population of northern spotted owls would be maintained in portions of the Olympic National Forest and the Olympic National Park in the absence of any non-Federal contribution of habitat, and that the retention of non-Federal habitat would make a biologically significant contribution to the maintenance of the population. Finally, we concluded that a habitat connection across southwestern Washington, based on the design proposed by the Northern Spotted Owl Recovery Team, would have little effect on the status of the owl population on the peninsula if that population was stable or nearly stable.

Keywords: Northern spotted owl, simulation model, spatially explicit population model, population dynamics, land management, Olympic Peninsula.

Natural disturbances are important to ecosystem processes. Disturbances historically have occurred in the vegetation of the Blue Mountain area of northeastern Oregon and southeastern Washington. The primary modifying events that historically have cycled through most of its plant communities are fire, grazing and browsing, insect and disease epidemics, windthrow, flooding, and erosion. Knowledge of plant successional pathways enables managers to predict the probable course of community development for a disturbance regime. Recommendations for restoring the Blue Mountains area are to reintroduce fire into the ecosystem, restore rangelands, and enhance biological diversity by practicing landscape ecological management and by emulating natural patterns on the landscape. Periodic and timely sampling after these activities is critical to assessing the results for adaptive management needs.

Keywords: Disturbance ecology, landscape ecology, fire, prescribed fire, grazing, browsing, ecosystems

An elk-proof fence was built in 1987 at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeast Oregon. The 25,000-acre research enclosure holds several hundred Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni V. Bailey) and Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus Rafinesque) year round. The fence, constructed with high-tensile Tightlock woven wire from New Zealand, is 8 feet high and requires minimal maintenance. Tension curves in the wire, unique to Tightlock deer fence, make it elastic. Injury to animals is minimized by this inherent "shock absorbing action." Techniques for constructing the fence and costs of materials and labor are discussed.

Keywords: Woven wire fencing, high-tensile fence, wildlife fence, deer and elk management, deer and elk research, New Zealand fence, Starkey Experimental Forest and Range.

The commercial harvest of edible forest fungi has mushroomed into a multimillion dollar industry with several thousand tons harvested annually. The development of this special forest product industry has raised considerable controversy about how this resource should be managed, especially on public lands. Concerns center around destruction of forest habitat by repeated entry and harvest, gradual loss of the mushroom resource by potential overharvest, conflict between recreational users and commercial harvesters, and regulation and monitoring of future harvests. A key to wisely managing the edible mushroom resource is common understanding among resource managers, the mushroom industry, and the concerned public about the biology of these unique forest organisms, their ecological importance in forest eco-systems, and effects of forest disturbance on their survival. The primary objectives of this overview paper are to provide information on the biology of forest fungi, describe the major edible fungi harvested in the Pacific Northwest, integrate a perspective on the social aspects of the mushroom harvest issue, summarize the development of the commercial mushroom industry, and suggest research and monitoring protocols for developing management guidelines.

Keywords: Fungi, mushrooms, mycorrhizae, monitoring, forest ecology, forest management, special forest products, recreation.

Twelve species of bats occur in Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific Northwest, of which nine are known to roost in tree cavities, bark crevices, or foliage, and several are closely associated with old-growth forests. Thus bat populations may be detrimentally affected by forest management practices involving the removal of large, old trees and snags. We review the life history characteristics and habitat relations of bats in the Pacific Northwest and provide information useful in managing forests for the persistence of native bat populations.

Keywords: Bats, Pacific Northwest, natural history, old-growth forests.

National Forests in the Pacific Northwest Region have incorporated elk habitat standards into Forest plans to ensure that elk habitat objectives are met on multiple use land allocations. Many Forests have employed versions of the habitat effectiveness index (HEI) as a standard method to evaluate habitat. Field application of the HEI model unfortunately is a formidable problem, owing largely to the detailed calculations of "spacing bands" that describe the spatial arrangement of forage and cover areas. This paper describes a DOS microcomputer program that automates the calculation of HEI. "HEICALC" is a simple, menu-driven program that will run on virtually any DOS microcomputer. HEICALC vastly simplifies the task of measuring elk habitat conditions over large areas. It is especially useful in projects where several management alternatives are evaluated for their effects on elk habitat. A floppy diskette containing a copy of the program is distributed with the publication.

Keywords: Elk habitat, HEI, wildlife software, Blue Mountains

Relationships of mule deer behavior and physiology to management of shrub steppe plant communities in the Great Basin of southeastern Oregon are presented for application in land-use planning and habitat management. Communities are considered as they are used by mule deer for thermal cover, hiding cover, forage, fawning, and fawn rearing.

Keywords: Deer (mule), wildlife habitat, range management, Oregon (Great Basin)

Arboreal rodents in Douglas-fir forests west of the Cascade crest in Oregon and Washington include (listed in decreasing order of dependence on trees) red tree vole (Phenacomys longicaucfus), northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus), Douglas’ squirrel (Tamiasciurus douglasii), dusky-footed woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes), bushy-tailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea), and Townsend’s chipmunk (Tamias townsendi). The arboreal rodents constitute an ecological communitya group of species that interact and influence one another’s pattern of abundance and use of resources. All but the Douglas’ squirrel and Townsend’s chipmunk are important prey of the spotted owl (Strix occidentalis). The arboreal squirrels are mycophagists and have important functions in ecosystem processes. Individual species exist in many habitats, but the arboreal rodent community reaches its highest diversity and abundance in old-growth forests. The rodents are not evenly distributed, however, across the Pacific Northwest; maximum diversity and abundance in the community occurs in mixed-conifer, old-growth forests that contain streams. Although the species differ in life histories and ecologies, all seem sensitive to timber harvesting because of both elimination of habitat and creation of barriers to dispersal.

Keywords: Bushy-tailed woodrat, Douglas’ squirrel, dusky-footed woodrat, northern flying squirrel, old growth, red tree vole, Townsend’s chipmunk, Oregon, Washington.

Methods describing how to sample aquatic and semiaquatic amphibians in small streams and headwater habitats in the Pacific Northwest are presented. We developed a technique that samples IO-meter stretches of selected streams, which was
adequate to detect presence or absence of amphibian species and provided sample sizes statistically sufficient to compare abundance of individual species among streams. Physical and biological parameters of streams are described as well as
ways to collect amphibians effectively. The system can be modified for use in a variety of waterways and for different study objectives. We provide recommendations for improvements on future studies.

Keywords: Amphibians, Pacific Northwest, streams, sampling techniques.

Information is needed on the great gray owl to understand its ecology and to consider this species in land management decisions. From 1982 to 1988, we studied 24 pairs and 107 juvenile great gray owls in northeastern Oregon. Forty-nine nests were located; 16 were used more than once, so we observed 71 nesting attempts. Seventy-eight percent of these nesting attempts were successful in raising 1 to 5 young (mean = 2.2). The nests were on stick platforms, on top of broken-off dead trees, and on artificial wooden platforms. Nest trees occurred in a variety of habitats, although most were in mature or older, unlogged stands of mixed conifer. Diet by biomass consisted mainly of northern pocket gophers (67 percent) and voles (27 percent). The size of the home range for 16 adult owls and 19 juvenile owls averaged 67 square kilometers and 157 square kilometers, respectively. Management practices enhancing habitat for great gray owls include providing artificial nest platforms, protecting existing nest platforms and large-diameter dead trees, providing dense tree cover around or adjacent to the nest, and providing perches for recently fledged young.

Keywords: Owl, great gray owl, management, conifer forest, Oregon.

Methods described for sampling amphibians and reptiles in Douglas-fir forests in the Pacific Northwest include pitfall trapping, time-constrained collecting, and surveys of coarse woody debris. The herpetofauna of this region differ in breeding and nonbreeding habitats and vagility, so that no single technique is sufficient for a community study. A combination of pitfall trapping and hand collecting is the most effective approach.

Keywords: Amphibians, reptiles, sampling techniques, pitfall trapping, time constrained collecting, downed wood.

Fire history from years 1150 to 1985 was reconstructed by analyzing forest stands in two 1940-hectare areas in the central-western Cascade Range of Oregon. Serving as records for major fire episodes, these stands revealed a highly variable fire regime. The steeper, more dissected, lower elevation Cook-Quentin study area experienced more frequent fires (natural fire rotation = 95 years) that were commonly low to moderate in severity. The Deer study area, with its cooler, moister conditions and gentler topography, had a regime of less frequent (natural fire rotation = 149 years), predominantly stand-replacement fires. Fires created a complex mosaic of stands with variable date and severity of last burn. Fire-created forest patches originating in 1800-1900 are mostly less than 10 hectares. Since 1900, very little of the study areas burned, possibly because of fire suppression. Old-growth forest conditions have persisted on some sites through numerous fires and over many centuries.

Keywords: History (fire), patch dynamics, old-growth forest, wildfire fire ecology.

The RAPID (riparian aerial photographic inventory of disturbance) technique is a method for using measurements made on aerial photographs of patterns of riparian canopy disturbance to evaluate changes in channel conditions through time and to link such changes with their possible upstream causes. The RAPID technique provides resource specialists and managers with a relatively quick way of identifying stream reaches that are chronically or recently disturbed by a variety of channel processes, including increased peak flows and sedimentation from point and nonpoint sources. With examples from western Oregon, this paper describes how to apply the RAPID technique and analyze the results to evaluate downstream or cumulative effects of forest practices.

Keywords: Riparian zones, cumulative effects, aerial photograph interpretation channel changes, monitoring, geomorphology, hydrology.

Management practices and options to provide habitat for wildlife in the Great Basin of southeastern Oregon deal with both vegetation treatment and protection, livestock management, maintenance or distribution of water developments, protection of wildlife areas through road closures or fencing, and direct manipulation of wildlife through hunting, trapping, or other means. This chapter deals primarily with livestock management in relationship to wildlife and wildlife habitat. Included are discussions of ecological status (range condition), livestock management, multiple-use options for each species featured in previous chapters (trout, sage grouse, pronghorn, mule deer, and bighorn sheep), and diversity.

Keywords: Wildlife habitat management, range management, livestock, Oregon (Great Basin), Great Basin–Oregon, series (Great Basin habitats).

The spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) has been listed as a sensitive species by the Pacific Southwest Region USDA Forest Service. Passt and present-studies-and surveys have led to the development of a region-wide network of owl territories to comly with the maintenance of viable populations as required by the National Forest Management Act. A brief explanation of the network is included.

The end product of recreation management is a diverse range of opportunities from which people can derive various experiences. This paper offers a framework for managing recreation opportunities based on six physical, biological, social, and managerial factors that, when combined, can be utilized by recreationists to obtain diverse experiences.

Keywords: Recreation, land use, multiple use -) recreation, management planning (forest).

 

This report is a summary of timber resource statistics for eastern Oregon, which includes Baker, Crook, Deschutes, Gilliam, Grant, Harney, Jefferson, Klamath, Lake, Malheur, Morrow, Sherman, Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, Wasco, and Wheeler Counties. Data were collected as part of a statewide multiresource inventory. The inventory sampled all private and public lands except those administered by the National Forest System. The National Forest System provided area statistics from their regional inventories of the various forests. Statistical tables summarize all ownerships and provide estimates of land area, timber volume, growth, mortality, and harvest.

Keywords: Forest surveys, forest inventory, statistics (forest), timber resources, resources (forest), eastern Oregon.

This report is a summary of timber resource statistics for western Oregon, which includes Benton, Clackamas, Clatsop, Columbia, Coos, Curry, Douglas, Hood River, Jackson, Josephine, Lane, Lincoln, Linn, Marion, Multnomah, Polk, Tillamook, Washington, and Yamhill Counties. Data were collected as part of a statewide multiresource inventory. The inventory sampled all private and public lands except those administered by the National Forest System and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The National Forest System and BLM provided data from regional inventories. Area information for parks and other reserves was obtained directly from the organizations managing these areas. Statistical tables provide estimates of land area, timber volume, growth, mortality, and harvest for individual survey units and at the half-state level.

Keywords: Forest surveys, forest inventory, statistics (forest), timber resources, resources (forest), western Oregon.

Provides current information on lumber and plywood production and prices; employment in the forest
industries; international trade in logs, lumber, and plywood; volume and average prices of stumpage
sold by public agencies; and other related items.

Keywords: Forestry business economics, lumber prices, plywood prices, timber volume,
stumpage prices, employment (forest products industries), marketing (forest products), imports
and exports (forest products).

As part of a 1979 forest resource inventory, over 9,000 points on aerial photographs were sorted into three development zones-primary forest, suburban, and urban. These same points were reexamined in 1989, and zone changes were noted. This report summarizes urban expansion into the primary forest lands of the Puget Sound region (Island, King, Kitsap, Pierce, San Juan, Skagit, Snohomish, Thurston, and Whatcom Counties). In addition, forest statistics for non-industrial private timberlands within the suburban and urban zones are presented.

Keywords: Puget Sound, urban forests, land use planning, forest losses.

This report is a summary of timber resource statistics for the North Coast Resource Area of California, which includes Del Norte, Humboldt, Mendocino, and Sonoma Counties. Data were collected by the Pacific Northwest Research Station as part of a State-wide multi-resource inventory. The inventory sampled private and public lands except reserved areas and National Forests. The National Forest System provided data from regional inventories of North Coast National Forests. Area information for parks and other reserves was obtained directly from the organiza- tions managing these areas. Statistical tables summarize all ownerships and provide estimates of land area, timber volume, growth, mortality, and harvest. Estimates of periodic change of volume and area on timberland are presented for all ownerships outside National Forests.

Keywords: Forest surveys, forest inventory, statistics (forest), timber resources, resources (forest), periodic change, trends, North Coast, Del Norte County, Humboldt County, Mendocino County, Sonoma County, California.

The 1987 inventory of the forest resources of the Kenai Peninsula was designed to assess the impact of the spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby)) on the timberland component of the forest resource. Estimates of timberland area, volumes of timber, and growth and mortality of timber were developed. These estimates of timber resource quantities were also categorized by owner. Total timberland area was estimated at 482 thousand acres. Cubic volume on this timberland was estimated at 1,211,577 thousand cubic feet. Timber growth and mortality were estimated at 9,245 and 7,958 thousand cubic feet, respectively. Detailed tables provide additional breakdowns of inventory results.

Keywords: Forest surveys, timber resources (insect damage), statistics (forest), Alaska (Kenai Peninsula).

A statewide inventory of shrubs in chaparral and on timberland and woodland in California is pres ented, and the relevance of shrubs to resource management is discussed. Shrub types (excluding coastal sage and Great Basin and desert shrubs) cover about 10 million acres, 73 percent of which is chaparral. Chamise is the most widespread type in chaparral (51 percent of total area). Critically flammable chaparral stands cover an estimated 1 million acres, much of which is in heavily populated southern California. More than 2 million additional acres are on the threshold of the critically flammable stage. Shrubs are the dominant vegetation on 2.1 million acres of timberland and 0.5 million acres of woodland. Ceanothus, manzanita, and poison-oak are the most widespread shrubs on timberland and woodland. Timber growth on shrub-dominated timberland is about one-fourth of the potential of the land.

Keywords: Shrubs, chaparral, forest inventory, vegetation inventory, biomass (phyto- mass), California.

This report summarizes a 1986 multiresource forest inventory for Kauai, Hawaii. Tables and figures of forest acreage, timber volume, vegetation types, ownership, land classes, bird counts, and introduced plants are presented.

Keywords: Multiresource inventory, forest survey, statistics (forests), native forests, introduced plants, Kauai, Hawaii.

This report summarizes a 1979 timber resource inventory of eight counties in the Puget Sound area of Washington: Island, King, Kitsap, Pierce, San Juan, Skagit, Snohomish, and Whatcom. Detailed tables of forest area, timber volume, growth, mortality, and harvest are presented.

Keywords: Forest surveys, statistics (forest), timber resources, resources (forest), Washington (Puget Sound).

Available information on inventory, growth, price, and consumption trends for western redcedar in Western United States is compiled. The future of western redcedar as a product resource and component of the forest is discussed.

Keywords: Western redcedar, Pacific Northwest forest resources, timber supply, shake and shingle industry, forest statistics.

Between 1945 and 1970, .nearly, 1 million acres of commercial forest land: in Oregon and Washington were converted to nonforest uses. Road construction was the leading cause; urban and industrial expansion the second most important cause. Other significant causes of forest loss were agricultural clearing, powerline clearing, and construction of reservoirs and other bodies of water. An additional 362,000 acres of commercial forest have been set aside in reserved areas. Several changes in the ownership pattern of forest land have occurred, including an increase in National Forest and forest industry land and a decrease in Indian and farmer-owned land.

Forest ownership, forest conversion.

This report presents current estimates of annual disease impact on forest productivity of Oregon and Washington. It is concerned exclusively with losses of timber volumes and of potential timber growth in today's forests.

Annual loss from disease in this region is estimated at 3,133 million board feet or 403 million cubic feet. This is about 13 percent of the total annual growth including the mean periodic growth ~ of seedlings and saplings.' Of this loss, 162 million cubic feet is potential growth prevented by disease, 129 million is mortality, and 112 million is cull. West of the Cascade Range, annual loss is 234 million cubic feet, of which 92 million is cull from heart rots. East of the Cascades, annual loss is 169 million cubic feet, of which 91 million is growth loss and only 20 million is cull. More than half of the growth loss east of the Cascades is caused by dwarfmistletoes.

Greatest losses occur in Douglas-fir (139 million cubic feet annually), western hemlock (88 million), true firs (62 million), and ponderosa pine (40 million). Principal causes of loss are dwarfmistletoes (148 million cubic feet ), root rots (115 million), and heart rots (110 million).

Cubic-volume losses are now about equally divided between young growth and old growth. As young stands replace old ones, cull from heart rots will decrease but growthreducing diseases will become more important. Effective controls for some diseases are now or will soon be available, but most diseases will continue to cause heavy losses indenfinitely unless research efforts are made proportionate to the values at stake.

The gross value of products that can be manufactured from a tree is the starting point for a residual-value appraisal of a forest operation involving the harvest of trees suitable for making forest products. The amount of detail in a model of gross product value will affect the statistical properties of the estimate and the amount of ancillary information that is provided. Seven data sets from forest product recovery studies of western conifers were used in the evaluation of three models of gross product value. The evaluation of these models was based on the need for information and the statistical properties of the estimators. The most detailed method provided additional information, but at some loss in the precision and accuracy of the prediction of gross
value of products from a log.

Keywords: Residual-value appraisal, log value, alternative approaches.

Calcareous fens have not been identified previously in southeast Alaska. A limited survey in southeast Alaska identified several wetlands that appear to be calcareous fens. These sites were located in low-elevation discharge zones that are below recharge zones in carbonate highlands and talus foot-slopes. Two of six surveyed sites partly met the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources water chemistry criteria for calcareous fens, with pH values of 6.7 to 7.4 and calcium concentrations of 41.8 to 51.4 mg/L but fall short with regard to specific conductivity (315 to 380 µS/cm). Alkalinity was not determined. The vegetation was predominately herbaceous, with abundant Sitka sedge (Carex aquatilis) and scattered shrubs such as Barclay’s willow (Salix barclayi) and redosier dogwood (Cornus sericea ssp. sericea). The taxa found in these fens have been reported at other sites in southeast Alaska, although many were at the southern limits of their known ranges. The soils were Histosols composed of 0.6 to greater than 1 m of sedge peat. We found no evidence of calcium carbonate precipitates (marl or tufa) in the soil.

Keywords: Alaska (southeast), fens, calcareous fens, wetlands, peatlands, karst.

Randomly located transects were used to assess visual soil disturbance on eight units in the Fritz Timber Sale, Colville National Forest. Equipment trails, mostly designated, accounted for about 25 percent of the total area. The cut-to-length harvester and forwarder combination with 130-foot trail spacing produced the least visual disturbance. Leaving slash on trails appeared to reduce displacement and rutting. Rehabilitation of trails, landings, and temporary roads could move seven of the eight units toward compliance with regional standards for detrimental disturbance. Validation of these regional standards is needed to determine the effects of soil disturbance on soil productive capacity.

Keywords: Soil disturbance, soil monitoring, harvesting effects, thinning, skyline, Pacific Northwest, assessment.

Riparian or streamside areas are the focus of considerable management and public interest in the interior Northwest. Unfortunately, the vegetation and geomorphic characteristics of streamside areas are difficult to assess across large landscapes because streamside areas are geographically small in much of the arid interior. However, managers and scientists need methods to assess streamside conditions across large landscapes for land management planning, watershed analysis, and landscape simulation modeling. We present proposed methods for characterizing streamside vegetation and topography by using geographic information systems, terrain models, and photointerpreted vegetation maps. We propose application of resulting information for restoration planning and linkage to landscape wildlife and aquatic habitat models in the upper Grande Ronde subbasin of northeastern Oregon.

Site index equations and mean annual increment equations used by the Forest Inventory and Analysis Program at the Portland Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The equations are for 24 tree species in California, Oregon, and Washington.

Keywords: Site index equations, mean annual increment equations.

Comparisons of estimated standard error for a ratio-of-means (ROM) estimator are presented for forest resource inventories conducted in southeast Alaska between 1995 and 2000. Estimated standard errors for the ROM were generated by using a traditional variance estimator and also approximated by bootstrap methods. Estimates of standard error generated by both traditional and bootstrap methods were similar. Percentage differences between the traditional and bootstrap estimates of standard error for productive forest acres and for gross cubic-foot growth were generally greater than respective differences for nonproductive forest acres, net cubic volume, or nonforest acres.

Keywords: Sampling, inventory (forest), error estimation.

This paper documents methods for assessing the potential effects of variable-intensity management in late-successional reserves (LSRs) and provides an example (the Gotchen LSR) from the Cascade Range in eastern Washington. The Gotchen LSR study investigates changes in forest vegetation associated with silvicultural treatments, and how different treatment combinations may affect landscape patterns, LSR habitat objectives, fire hazard, and the characteristics and value of wood removed over space and time. The study contributes to the conceptual and technical development of a decision-analysis tool, the northeastern Cascades landscape analysis, management, and monitoring system (NOCLAMMS), for land management. Landscape evaluation of the Gotchen LSR reveals that since the 1930s, forest structures have become more homogeneous; area and average patch size of young, multistoried forest stands have decreased; and spatial patterns of late-successional forest have changed. These changes alter vegetation response to disturbances like fires, insects, and diseases, and suggest that different structures and patterns may better support LSR objectives over space and time. Study results aid in identifying candidate treatment areas, in developing prescriptions to maintain or restore desired stand structures and patterns, and in understanding the financial commitment necessary for different management actions. Silvicultural treatments are applied by using the forest vegetation simulator (FVS). The financial evaluation of ecosystem management activities (FEEMA) software is used to calculate net revenues associated with different treatments. Results from one stand illustrate these methods.

Keywords: Forest reserves, northern spotted owl, restoration silviculture, habitat management, western spruce budworm, fire hazard.

Res. Note PNW-RN-530 Moisture distributions in western hemlock lumber from trees harvested near Sitka, Alaska, by David L. Nicholls, Allen M. Brackley, and Travis Allen (403 Kb)

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) can be characterized by localized regions of high-moisture-content wood, often referred to as wet pockets, and uneven drying conditions may occur when lumber of higher and lower moisture content is mixed together in a dry kiln. The primary objective of this preliminary study was to characterize the frequency and extent of wet pockets (wetwood) in western hemlock lumber sawn from trees harvested near Sitka, Alaska. Nine western hemlock logs were sampled from three trees, ranging in diameter from approximately 10 to 18 inches. Forty-five boards were processed, yielding 225 samples.

Sample moisture content ranged from 31.4 percent to 149.7 percent (as a percentage of oven-dry wood weight), with a standard deviation of 30.6 percent. There was no significant moisture variation among sample heights for the three western hemlock trees included in this study. Average moisture content at a given height ranged from about 70 to 85 percent. Moisture contents of approximately 50 percent were not uncommon for pith-centered samples, whereas most samples more than 5 inches from the pith were typically at least 100-percent moisture content. There was considerable variation in overall moisture content among trees, ranging from about 69 to more than 85 percent. Moisture content variation among butt logs was also considerable, ranging from about 58 to 95 percent.

Keywords:Western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla, lumber, drying, sawmill, moisture content, Alaska.

 

Bulk density and soil resistance to penetration were measured in ten, 3- to 11-ha operational units in overstocked, mixed-conifer stands in northeast Washington. Resistance was measured with a recording penetrometer to the 33-cm depth (13 in) at 10 stations on each of 8 to 17, 30.5-m-long, randomly located transects in each unit. Subsequently, different combinations of felling and yarding equipment were used to thin eight units; no combination was replicated. Two units remained as nonharvested controls. Soil measurements were repeated after harvest. Most trails were designated, others were supplemental, especially where designated trails were spaced at 40 m (130 ft) (center to center). Trails occupied 6 to 57 percent of the area of harvested units. In the 15- to 25-cm depth, average resistance to penetration on trails increased by 500 kPa or more in six of the eight units. Drier soil in the after-harvest sampling on the flat terrain may have contributed to increased resistance. Bulk density on trails after harvest (fall 1999) averaged 3 to 14 percent greater than that in nontrail portions. Area and severity of soil compaction were less on steep terrain than on flat terrain, probably because soil textures were sandier. Whether compaction was sufficiently severe to hinder root penetration or reduce tree growth is unknown. The absence of replication precluded statistical testing for differences among the several combinations of harvesting equipment and trail spacing.

Keywords: Soil strength, penetration resistance, cone penetrometer, bulk density, commercial thinning, northeast Washington, ashy soils, yarding equipment, soil disturbance.

To assess values of air quality and visibility at risk from wildland fire in the United States, we generated a 40-year database that includes twice-daily values of wind, mixing height, and a ventilation index that is the product of windspeed and mixing height. The database provides the first nationally consistent map of surface wind and ventilation index. In addition, it is the longest climate record of mixing height in the country. We built the database into an interactive ventilation climate information system that allows users to assess risk based on frequency patterns of poor, marginal, fair, and good ventilation conditions.

Keywords: Ventilation climate information system, ventilation index, air quality, visibility, mixing height, windspeed, wind

We conducted a regional-scale evaluation of landscape permeability for large carnivores in Washington and adjacent portions of British Columbia and Idaho. We developed geographic information system based landscape permeability models for wolves (Canis lupus), wolverine (Gulo gulo), lynx (Lynx canadensis), and grizzly bear (Ursus arctos). We also developed a general large carnivore model to provide a single generalization of the predominant landscape patterns for the four focal species. The models evaluated land cover type, road density, human population density, elevation, and slope to provide an estimate of landscape permeability. We identified five concentrations of large carnivore habitat between which we evaluated landscape permeability. The habitat concentration areas were the southern Cascade Range, the north-central Cascade Range, the Coast Range, the Kettle-Monashee Ranges, and the Selkirk-Columbia Mountains. We evaluated landscape permeability in fracture zones between these areas, including the I-90 Snoqualmie Pass area, the Fraser-Coquihalla area, the Okanogan Valley, and the upper Columbia and Pend Oreille River valleys. We identified the portions of the Washington state highway system that passed through habitat linkages between the habitat concentration areas and areas accessible to the focal species. This analysis provides a consistent measure of estimated landscape permeability across the analysis area, which can be used to develop conservation strategies, contribute to future field survey efforts, and help identify management priorities for the focal species.

Keywords: Washington, corridors, fragmentation, habitat connectivity, landscape permeability, endangered species, reserve design.

Stand treatments were completed as prescribed with an initial calibration cut and five thinnings resulting in eight new regimes for management of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco). Measurements were continued for an additional 14 years to observe stability and yields of stands in a postthinning holding period. Detailed descriptions of each regime based on measurements at each thinning are summarized in stand development tables. Regimes with the most growing stock after the last thinning produced 30 to 38 percent more gross-cubic-volume yield (live and cumulative thinnings and mortality) per acre than regimes with the least growing stock. The complete regimes are compared at three stages of stand development followed by recommendations for applications.

Keywords: Thinning, growing stock, growth and yield, stand density, Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii, series–Douglas-fir LOGS.

Three thinning treatments (thinned to 3.7 by 3.7 m, thinned to 4.3 by 4.3 m, and an unthinned control treatment with nominal spacing averaging 2.6 by 2.6 m) were installed in a 10-year-old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) plantation growing on a low-quality site at the Wind River Experimental Forest in southwest Washington. Two years after thinning, two fertilizer treatments were superimposed on the design (0 and 224 kg per ha of nitrogen applied as ammonium nitrate). Diameter growth increased with increasing spacing throughout the 6-year study period, and it was also increased by fertilizer in both the thinned and unthinned (control) treatments. Thinning shock, a reduction in height growth after thinning, was expected at this study site because severe thinning shock had been documented in earlier nearby trials. Height growth was initially reduced slightly by thinning, but by the third 2-year period after thinning, height growth in thinned, unfertilized treatments was equal to or greater than height growth in the unthinned, unfertilized treatment. Fertilizer application
increased height growth on average by 13 percent in the first 2 years after fertilization. In the third and fourth years after fertilization, however, fertilizer increased average height growth by 9 percent, but the increase was substantial (16 percent)
only in the unthinned control treatment. The mild, ephemeral nature of thinning shock in our study was in contrast to the severe, long-lasting shock in earlier studies at Wind River. The milder shock in our study could be related to one or more of the following: (1) thinning was done at an early age, (2) impacts of fire (natural or prescribed) preceding planting were minor, and (3) seed source of the planted stock was appropriate for the location. Based on comparisons with other studies at Wind
River and elsewhere, we suspect that use of nonlocal, maladapted seed sources in the earlier studies may have predisposed those trees to thinning shock. Furthermore, we suspect that the much higher responses to fertilizer application reported in the
earlier studies may be associated with intense natural fires prior to planting, and the reduced nutritional status of those sites may have been further exacerbated by the use of maladapted seed sources.

Keywords: Thinning, thinning shock, fertilization, nitrogen, seed source, fire, Wind River.

Fire and timber harvest are the two major disturbances that alter forest ecosystems in interior Alaska. Both types of disturbance provide habitats that attract wood borers and bark beetles the first year after the disturbance, but populations then decrease to levels below those in undisturbed sites. Populations of scolytids, buprestids, and cerambycids are compared 1, 5, and 10 years after burning and timber harvest on flood-plain and upland white spruce sites. This paper reports the effects of ecosystem disturbance, such as silvicultural practices and prescribed fire, on the diversity of wood-inhabiting bark beetles and wood borers in upland and flood-plain white spruce stands in interior Alaska.

Keywords: Bark beetles, wood borers, prescribed fire, timber harvest, silvicultural practices, white spruce, Picea glauca.

We integrated landscape data from science assessments of the interior Columbia basin (basin) into one variable that functions as a robust index of departure from native conditions. This variable, referred to as the disturbance departure and fragmentation index, is a spatially explicit measure of landscape quality and resiliency. Primary causes of departure and fragmentation include fire exclusion, timber harvest, mining, oil and gas development, livestock grazing, invasive species, road networks, and the interface of these activities with agricultural and urban development. We derived four classes of the disturbance departure and fragmentation index: very high, high, moderate, and low. Very high departure and fragmentation was associated with low-elevation subwatersheds dominated by agricultural and urban lands. High departure and fragmentation was found in subwatersheds containing a mix of agricultural lands with low-elevation forests, woodlands, or rangelands. Subwatersheds with moderate departure and fragmentation were associated with low- to mid-elevation forests, woodlands, or rangelands in public ownership. Subwatersheds with low departure and fragmentation typically occurred at higher elevations, on public lands within or near wilderness areas, roadless areas, or national parks. Because the disturbance departure and fragmentation index represents the composite effects of management activities that do not mimic native or natural processes, the index appears useful as a planning tool for integrated restoration of wildland landscapes.

Keywords: Disturbance departure, fragmentation, historical range of variability, interior Columbia basin, land use planning, landscape ecology, resiliency, similarity index, wildland landscapes.

Results of the Stampede Creek installation of the levels-of-growing-stock (LOGS) study in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) are summarized. To age 63 (planned completion of 60 feet of height growth), volume growth on the site III natural stand has been strongly related to level of growing stock, but basal area growth-growing stock relations were considerably weaker. Marked differences in tree size distributions have resulted from thinning. Periodic annual volume increments at age 63 are two to three times greater than mean annual increment; this stand is still far from culmination. Results for this southwest Oregon installation are generally similar to those reported from other LOGS installations, although development has been slower than on the site II installations that make up the majority of the series.

Keywords: Thinning, growing stock, growth and yield, stand density, Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii, series––Douglas-fir LOGS.

Fertilizer applications and grazing exclusion were used as restoration strategies in degraded wet meadows in eastern Washington to grow biomass in the root systems where it could not be grazed. We used a split-block design to test vegetation responses to six fertilizer rates, eight fertilizer types, and three grazing treatments after three growing seasons. Little change in plant composition was detected, but weed biomass was reduced by 50 percent in cattle plus elk grazing. Although forb shoot biomass did not increase, grass shoot biomass doubled but was influenced by grazing treatments. Root biomass doubled under fertilizer applications. A 10-percent decline in soil bulk density suggested a reduction in soil compaction. These responses were attributed to the increased root biomass. Optimum fertilization rates of 100 kg/ha were recommended along with carefully administered grazing schedules for meadow community restoration.

Keywords: Meadow restoration, grazing treatments, soil bulk density, root biomass, weed reduction, plant composition.

Field experiments using baited multiple-funnel traps and baited felled trees were conducted to test the hypothesis that semiochemicals from secondary species of scolytids could be used to disrupt spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby)) attraction. Semiochemicals from three secondary species of scolytids, (Ips perturbatus (Eichhoff)) [(±)-ipsdienol], Dryocoetes affaber (Mannerheim) [(±)-exo- and (±)-endo-brevicomin], and Polygraphus rufipennis (Kirby) [methyl butenol] were used to disrupt spruce beetle trap catches and reduce attacks on felled trees. Trap catches of spruce beetles were reduced by 87 percent by the combinations of semiochemicals from these secondary scolytids. Addition of MCH (methylcyclohexenone) to these semiochemicals reduced attack density by 62 to 87 percent. Results indicate that inducing attacks by I. perturbatus and D. affaber on felled susceptible host trees by using semiochemicals could be a viable method to minimize spruce beetle attack and brood development.

Keywords: Dendroctonus rufipennis, Ips perturbatus, Dryocoetes affaber, Polygraphus rufipennis, bark beetle, semiochemicals, Lutz spruce (Picea x lutzii), Alaska.

This study provides a comprehensive and inclusive description and inventory of the vegetation within the Stikine area of southeast Alaska. Private and other public lands were included as well as Tongass National Forest lands contained in the Petersburg and Wrangell Ranger Districts. Previous inventories have concentrated almost exclusively on tree species within forest lands. There has been recent recognition, however, that forest management plans must incorporate detailed information on other vegetation and resources. During an information needs assessment, prior to the inventory, Tongass National Forest managers requested that data be collected on all plant species. This information would feed into vegetation databases to be used by forest managers for various purposes but would be collected by using the same method and in one format for the entire Tongass National Forest.

Constancy and foliar cover tables are presented for the Stikine area of the Tongass National Forest and adjacent private and other public lands of southeast Alaska. The methods used to estimate occurrence in the area are described and discussed. Average cover and constancy value for each sampled species of tree, shrub, grass, forb, lichen, and moss in 18 forest and 12 nonforest Alaska vegetation classification system level IV vegetation types is shown.

Vegetation classification was attempted by using the preliminary forest plant associations of the Stikine area of the Tongass National Forest. Only a small percentage of the plots fit neatly into this classification system. Because the plots were located systematically, many plots did not fall into average or typical plant-association series descriptions. We discovered that we could not obtain tree cover by species using the four 7.43-radius subplots, making the first-level branches of the plant association key borderline between several associations, and a correct placement was not possible.

Keywords: Alaska, southeast, foliar cover, species constancy, inventory, plant ecology, Stikine, Wrangell, Kake, Petersburg, Tongass, Zaremo, Kuiu, Kupreanof, Etolin, Cleveland Peninsula, temperate rain forest, Alaska vegetation classification system, species composition.

The abundance of birds and amphibian larvae was compared between fenced and unfenced stock ponds in 1993 to determine if fencing improved the habitat for these species in northeastern Oregon. Stock ponds that were fenced had significantly higher densities of bird species, guilds, and taxonomic groups than stock ponds that were unfenced. No differences in the relative abundance of larvae of Pacific treefrogs (Pseudacris regilla) or long-toed salamanders (Ambystoma macrodactylum) were found between fenced and unfenced ponds. Fencing at least a portion of stock ponds in forested areas provides habitat for a greater diversity and abundance of birds.

Keywords: Amphibians, birds, livestock grazing, northeastern Oregon, stock ponds.

This report analyzes how a small group of Forest Service scientists participating in efforts to implement adaptive management approach working relations, and how they understand and apply the research process. Nine scientists completed a questionnaire to assess their preferred mode of thinking (the Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument), engaged in a facilitated conversation to “map” their ideas about research (Conceptual Content Cognitive Mapping, or “3CM”), and participated in several open-ended interviews. Recommendations are made for future adaptive management efforts, and propositions for further study are suggested.

Keywords: Adaptive management, social learning, collaboration, research, natural resources.

The cooperative levels-of-growing-stock (LOGS) study in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) was begun to study the relations between growing stock, growth, cumulative wood production, and tree size in repeatedly thinned stands. This report summarizes results from the Hoskins installation through age 55. Growing stock has been allowed to accumulate for 19 years since the last treatment thinning was applied in this high site class II natural stand. Volume and diameter growth were strongly related to growing stock. Basal area growth-growing stock relations were considerably weaker. Differences in tree size and volume distribution were considerable. Culmination of mean annual increment has not occurred for any of the treatments, although the control has culminated for total stem cubic volume and is near culmination for merchantable cubic volume. Only small differences are seen in growth percentages between thinning treatments. Results demonstrate potential flexibility in managing Douglas-fir to reach a range of objectives.

Keywords: Thinning, growing stock, growth and yield, stand density, Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii, series-Douglas-fir LOGS.

Data from 1999 and 2000 field studies regarding the dispersal flight and initial attack behavior of the spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis Kirby) are summarized. More dispersing beetles were trapped in flight near the middle to upper tree bole than the lower bole. There were no significant differences between trap location and ambient temperatures. Initial attacks, however, were concentrated on the lower tree bole. Dispersal flight preceded initial attacks by 1 to 2 weeks.

Keywords: Bark beetles, Dendroctonus rufipennis, dispersal, flight, attack patterns, white spruce, Picea glauca, Lutz spruce, Picea X lutzii, Alaska (south-central), Kenai Peninsula.

In June 1977, we surveyed seven research natural areas (RNAs) in the Tongass National Forest (Tongass). We documented the composition of biotic communities using rare plant and tidal community surveys, targeted searches for rare animals, and samples of permanent vegetation plots. Birds were sampled once along each transect with 10-minute point counts at stations 8 through 11 spaced at 250-m intervals. A total of 84 point-count stations was classified according to plant association. Mammals were sampled for two nights along the initial 1.25-km segment of each transect by establishing trap stations at 10-m intervals. Each trap station had two traps, totaling 250 traps (500 trap/nights of effort) per transect: two snap traps, a snap trap and a folding live-trap, or a snap-trap and a cone pitfall trap. We documented 31 vascular plant species previously unconfirmed for RNAs on the Tongass. Breeding status and relative abundance of 65 bird species were recorded; 331 small mammals representing six species were captured with an additional five species documented from visual observations or physical evidence. Coordinated, community surveys are efficient in documenting elements of biological diversity and should receive consideration as an inventory protocol or for monitoring ecosystem integrity. Community surveys of RNAs provide an important benchmark.

Keywords: Biodiversity, birds, mammals, plant associations, research natural area, southeast Alaska, Tongass National Forest.

This study projects the effects of tariff elimination on the world sector. Projections were done for two scenarios: (1) progressive tariff elimination according to the schedule agreed to under the current General Agreement on Tariff or Trade (GATT) and (2) complete elimination of tariff on wood products as proposed within the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Accelerated Tariff Liberalization (ATL) initiative. Projections were made by using the global forest products model, which provides equilibrium projections of prices and quantities produced, consumed, and traded for 14 commodity groups. Key assumptions include rates of economic growth, availability of wood, demand (price) elasticities, and tariff scenarios.

Keywords: Accelerated tariff liberalization, ATL, import tariffs, equilibrium projection, market model, forest products, fuelwood, industrial roundwood, pulp, recycled fibers, paper, paperboard.

We developed an empirical model describing the probability that forests and farmland in western Oregon and western Washington were developed for residential, commercial, or industrial uses during a 30-year period, as a function of spatial socioeconomic variables, ownership, and geographic and physical land characteristics. The empirical model is based on a conceptual framework of landowners maximizing the present value of the future stream of net returns derived from various land uses. The empirical model is used to compute indices representing 50-year projections of future land use and timberland area change in western Oregon and western Washington for the Resource Planning Act assessment, and to identify counties in the study region where potential reductions in timberland area could be greatest. Results suggest that conversion of forest and farmland to urban uses will most likely occur on lands closer to existing population centers, and rate of conversion will increase with the size of those population centers. Relatively modest reductions in the area of timberland due to conversion to urban uses are projected for western Oregon and western Washington, with the greatest reductions occurring on nonindustrial private forest land.

Keywords: Land use change, urban sprawl, spatial models.

Devices releasing antiaggregation pheromones, such as MCH (3-methyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one) and verbenone (4-methylene-6,6-dimethylbicyclo(3.1.1)hept-2-ene), are used experimentally to manipulate destructive populations of bark beetles. Two slow release devices, bubble caps attached to boles of trees and granular beads placed on the ground, were tested in forests of California, Oregon, and Alaska to determine their release rates. The hypothesis was that ambient air and soil temperatures were major determinants in the release rates of the releaser devices. Release rates of both bubble caps and beads differed greatly. The fastest rate was for bubble caps at a warm, California pine (Pinus spp.) site where it was 15 times faster than the rate at a cool Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Bong. Carr.) site in Alaska. Beads released MCH quickly and were rendered ineffective in less than 2 weeks. Little or no release occurred thereafter, regardless of the amount of pheromone remaining in the bead, or litter layer temperature. Release rates determined under field conditions are useful for the field entomologist and are vital to the development of models for semiochemical dispersion.

Keywords: Semiochemicals, release rates, antiaggregation pheromones, bark beetles, temperature, MCH, verbenone.

This report presents estimates of old-growth forest area in the Sierra Nevada by forest type in 1993 and 1945 and by old-growth stand characteristics as they existed in 1993. Ecological old-growth definitions for each forest type are used.

Keywords: Old growth, inventory, forest stands, forest area, California, National Forests, Douglas -fir, white fir, red fir, Jeffrey pine, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, mixed conifer, mountain hemlock, mixed subalpine.

A study was undertaken to develop methods for extensive inventory and analysis of wildlife habitats. The objective was to provide information about amounts and conditions of wildlife habitats from extensive, sample based inventories so that wildlife can be better considered in forest planning and policy decisions at the regional scale. The new analytical approach involves identifying habitats present on field plots, estimating area present in each habitat condition, and linking the habitat classifications with wildlife-habitat relationship models to describe habitat suitability for wildlife species. The habitat classification system and wildlife-habitat relationship models of the California Wildlife Habitat Relationship Program are used in a case study of the north coast region of California. Tree vegetation types occupy 93 percent of all forest land, and shrub habitats occupy 5 percent. Redwood and Douglas-fir are the most abundant tree habitats; chamise-redshank chaparral is the predominant shrub habitat. Outside parks and National Forests, midsuccessional stages dominate the forest landscape in occupying two-thirds of the timberland area. Two-thirds of forest stands have moderate or dense canopy closure. The suitability of available habitats for repro- duction and feeding for eight wildlife species are presented. The estimates of habitat area indicate the availability and patterns of occurrence of these vegetation conditions at a broad scale and should be useful in evaluating potential impacts of proposed actions affecting broad-scale alterations of habitat. The estimates of habitat suitability are used appropriately in regional-level predictions of species occurrence and habitat suitability. Extensive inventory data on special habitat elements such as snags, nontree vegetation, and spatial features of habitat also can be used in resource assessments and ecological research; for example, only 9 percent of the habitat area rated as being of high or medium suitability for reproduction for pileated woodpeckers supports snag habitat required by the species. Large snags are most abundant in dense, pole-sized and larger stands in the redwood type and in large-treed stands of all densities in the Douglas-fir type. Data from continuing forest inventories also are useful for regional-level monitoring of wildlife habitats and in habitat simulations.

Keywords: Wildlife-habitat relationships, multiresource inventory, forest inventory, wildlife habitat assessment, snags, California (north coast).

Detailed information on logging residues in southeast Alaska is provided as input to economic and technical assessments of its use for products or site amenities. Two types of information are presented. Ratios are presented that can be used to generate an estimate, based on volume or acres harvested, of the cubic-foot volume of residue for any particular area of southeast Alaska. Separate ratios are given for live and dead or cull material, and for net and gross volume. Tables display per-acre residue volume by various characteristics that might affect either use or disposition. These tables show net or gross volume, or both, by diameter and length classes, by origin, by percentage of soundness, by degree of slopes and distance to roads, and by number of pieces of residue per acre.

Southeast Alaska, logging residue, slash, residue estimation, fuel wood, residue management.

Equations are presented for estimating the twig, foliage, and combined biomass for 58 plant species in interior Alaska. The equations can be used for estimating biomass from percentage of foliar cover of 10-centimeter layers in a vertical profile from 0 to 6 meters. Few differences were found in regressions of the same species between layers except when the ratio of foliar-to-twig biomass changed drastically between layers; for example, Rosa acicularis Lind[. Eighteen species were tested for regression differences between years. Thirteen showed no significant differences; five were different. Of these five, three were feather mosses for which live and dead biomass are easily confused when measured.

Keywords: Biomass equations, Alaska (interior), Alaska (Tanana Valley), inventory (wildlife habitat).

Total aboveground woody biomass of trees on forest land that can produce 1.4 cubic m eters per hectare per year of industrial wood in Alaska is 1.33 billion metric tons green weight. The estimated energy value of the standing woody biomass is 11.9 x 10'5 Btu's. Statewide tables of biomass and energy values for softwoods, hardwoods, and species groups are presented.

Keywords: Biomass, energy, wood utilization, Alaska.

Data from extensive timber inventories of 12 counties in western and central Washington were analyzed to test the relative efficiency of double sampling for stratification as a means of estimating total volume. Photo and field plots, when combined in a stratified sampling design, proved about twice as efficient as simple field sampling. Although some gains were made by stratifying into only two classes--forest and nonforest substantially greater gains accrued when the forest plots were further stratified into timber volume classes. Optimum allocation of field plots was only slightly more efficient than proportional allocation.

Keywords: Double sampling, photo sampling, timber volume estimates.

Although science information and knowledge are only one consideration in natural resource decisions, credible science information is increasingly necessary to gain public support and acceptability. Two issues must be addressed simultaneously. First, how can the Forest Service ensure that full use of science information is the norm in all national forest management decisions? Second, how can Forest Service Research and Development be a major science provider for national forest decisions without damaging the credibility and research capabilities of the research and development program? A vision for science-based decisionmaking is articulated, and barriers to achieving that vision are discussed. Vital actions are proposed for overcoming the barriers and achieving the vision of science-based decisionmaking while maintaining the capability of the research and development program. These capabilities include providing adequate funding and staffing for the National Forest System and Forest Service Research and Development, new approaches for managing scientific staff, and new ways to transfer science information.

Keywords: Scientist role, land management, research organizations.