Assessment and Diagnosis
Symptoms and Risk Factors
Screening and Assessment for Depression
Clinical interview
Diagnosis
Symptoms and Risk Factors
The symptoms of major depression are as follows:
- A depressed mood for most of the day and
on most days.
- Diminished pleasure or interest in most activities.
- Significant
change in appetite and sleep patterns.
- Psychomotor agitation or slowing.
- Fatigue.[1]
- Feelings of worthlessness or excessive, inappropriate guilt.
- Poor
concentration.
- Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.
Cognitive symptoms may express themselves as repeated and ruminative thoughts
such as “I brought this on myself," "God is punishing me," or "I'm letting my
family down,” and as fatalistic expectations concerning prognosis, despite
realistic evidence to the contrary. Such thinking may predominate or may
alternate with more realistic thinking, yet remain very stressful. Some
individuals will share negativistic thoughts freely, and family members
may be aware of them. Other patients will not volunteer such thinking but will
respond to brief inquiries such as the following (other examples are listed in Table 1 1):
- “Many people find themselves dwelling on thoughts about their cancer.
What kinds of thoughts do you have?”
- “Do you find yourself ever thinking I brought this on myself, God is
punishing me? How often? Only a few times a week, or all the
time? Do you believe these thoughts are true?”
- “In spite of these thoughts, are you still able to go on with your life and
find pleasure in things? Or, are you so preoccupied that you can't sleep,
or feel hopeless?”
It is possible for a physician or nurse to ask these types of questions without
becoming engaged in providing counseling themselves. Merely asking these
questions will express concern and increase the likelihood that the patient
will be receptive to suggestions for further counseling.
A statement such as the following can then follow these questions:
“Many people with cancer sometimes have these feelings. You are not alone.
But talking to someone else about them can greatly help. I'd like to suggest
that you consider doing that. Would you be willing to talk to someone who has a
lot of experience helping people cope with the stress of having cancer?”
It is preferable at this time both to encourage the patient to seek out someone
already known to him or her and to inform him or her of other resources in the
community. Particularly for patients who have completed cancer treatment and
who have manageable physical symptoms, higher perceived availability of social
support has been associated with fewer depressive symptoms.[2] In some
instances, referral to a clergy person or therapist may also be appropriate.
Most therapists can address general issues of grief or fears about death; some
will specialize in clinical health psychology, medical social work, or even
working primarily with cancer patients. For the hesitant patient, suggesting
multiple resources will increase the likelihood that some assistance will be
sought. For other patients, a formal direct referral may be appropriate.
Evaluation of depression in people with cancer should include careful
assessment of symptoms, treatment effects, laboratory data results, physical
status, and mental status. Although the etiology of depression is largely
unknown, many risk factors for depression are known (see list below). Limited data suggest that depressive symptomatology in cancer patients undergoing cytokine therapy with interferon-alfa and interleukin-2 may be mediated by changes in availability of neurotransmitter precursors.[3] For
patients with head and neck cancer treated with curative intent, 8
pretreatment variables (tumor stage, sex, depressive symptoms, openness to
discuss cancer in the family, perceived available support, received emotional
support, tumor-related symptoms, and size of the informal social network) can
be used to predict which patients are likely to become depressed up to 3 years
after treatment.[4,5] A prospective study of terminally ill Japanese patients who were assessed for psychiatric illness by structured clinical interview at the time of registration (baseline) and again at admission to a palliative care unit (follow-up) found that 5 (42%) of the 12 patients diagnosed with adjustment disorder at baseline progressed to major depression at follow-up. Only the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale was significantly predictive of psychiatric diagnoses at follow-up.[6] Heightened awareness of this facilitates early diagnosis
and the use of appropriate interventions.[7]
In the medically ill, early manifestations of delirium may be mistaken for anxiety or depression. These disorders should be considered among the differential diagnoses in individuals who present with depressive symptoms.
Risk Factors for Depression in People With Cancer
- Cancer-related risk factors:
- Depression at time of cancer diagnosis.[8,9]
- Poorly controlled pain.[10]
- Advanced stage of cancer.[10]
- Increased physical impairment or discomfort.
- Pancreatic cancer.[11]
- Being unmarried and having head and neck cancer.[12]
- Treatment with certain chemotherapeutic agents:
- Corticosteroids.
- Procarbazine.
- L-Asparaginase.
- Interferon-alfa.[13,3]
- Interleukin-2.[14,13,3]
- Amphotericin-B.
- Noncancer-related risk factors:
- History of depression:
- Two or more episodes in a lifetime.
- First episode early or late in life.
- Lack of family support.[8]
- Additional concurrent life stressors.[15]
- Family history of depression or suicide.
- Previous suicide attempts.
- History of alcoholism or drug abuse.
- Concurrent illnesses that produce depressive symptoms (i.e., stroke or
myocardial infarction).
- Past treatment for psychological problems.[16]
Screening and Assessment for Depression
Because of the common underrecognition and undertreatment of depression in people with cancer, screening tools can be used to prompt further assessment.[17] Among the physically ill, in general, instruments used to measure depression
have not been shown to be more clinically useful than an interview and a
thorough examination of mental status. Simply asking the patient whether he or she is
depressed may improve the identification of depression.
The following screening tools are commonly used.
- A single-item interview. In persons with
advanced cancer, a single-item interview question has been found to have acceptable psychometric properties and can be useful. One example is to ask “Are you depressed?”[18] Another example is to say, “Please grade your mood during the past week by assigning it a score from 0 to 100, with a score of 100 representing your usual relaxed mood.” A score of 60 is considered a passing grade.[19]
- The Hospital Anxiety and Depression
Scale.[20] The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale may have limited utility in certain patient populations such as early-stage breast cancer [21] and palliative care.[22,23]
- The Psychological Distress Inventory.[24]
- The Edinburgh Depression Scale.[25]
- The Brief Symptom
Inventory.[26]
- The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale.[27]
- The Distress Thermometer.[28]
One study of women with newly diagnosed breast cancer (n = 236) successfully utilized brief screening instruments such as the Distress Thermometer and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to identify women requiring further assessment to detect clinically significant levels of distress and psychiatric symptoms.[29]
In a study of 321 women with newly diagnosed stage I to stage III breast cancer, the ability of the single-item Distress Thermometer to specifically predict depression, as measured by a self-report questionnaire of the nine Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-IV) symptoms for major depressive disorder, was investigated. Sensitivity and specificity characteristics were evaluated, and the optimal cutoff score of 7 was identified, resulting in a sensitivity of 0.81 and a specificity of 0.85 for detecting depression. Therefore, individuals scoring 7 or above should undergo a more thorough psychosocial evaluation.[30]
A modification of the Distress Thermometer, the Impact Thermometer, to be used in combination with the Distress Thermometer, has improved specificity for the detection of adjustment disorders and/or major depression, as compared with the Distress Thermometer. The revised tool has a screening performance comparable to that of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and is brief, potentially making it an effective tool for routine screening in oncology settings.[31] The Mood Evaluation Questionnaire, a cognitive-based screening tool for depression, has moderate correlation with the structured clinical interview for DSM-III-R and good acceptability in the palliative care population. With further validation, it may become a useful alternative in this population because it can be used by clinicians who are not trained in psychiatry.[32]
It is important that screening instruments be validated in cancer populations
and used in combination with structured diagnostic interviews.[33] A pilot
study of 25 patients used a simple, easily reproduced visual analog scale
suggesting the benefits to a single-item approach to screening for depression.
This scale consists of a 10-cm line with a sad face at one end and a happy face
at the other end, on which patients make a mark to indicate their mood.
Although the results do suggest that a visual analog scale may be useful as a
screening tool for depression, the small patient numbers and lack of clinical
interviews limit conclusions. Furthermore, although very high correlations
with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale were reported (r = 0.87), no
indication of cut-offs was given. Finally, it should be emphasized that such
a tool is intended to suggest the need for further professional assessment.
However, if validated further, this simple approach could greatly enhance
assessment and management of depression in cognitively intact advanced cancer
patients.[34,7] Other brief assessment tools for depression can be used. To help patients distinguish normal anxiety reactions from depression, assessment should include discussion about common symptoms experienced by cancer patients. Depression should be reassessed over time.[35] Because of the increased risk of adjustment disorders and major
depression in cancer patients, routine screening with increased vigilance at
times of increased stress (i.e., diagnosis, recurrences, progression) is
recommended. General risk factors for depression are noted in the list above. Other
risk factors may pertain to specific populations, i.e., patients with head and
neck cancer [4] and women at high risk for the development of breast
cancer.[36]
Clinical interview
Table 1. Suggested Questions for the Assessment of
Depressive Symptoms in Adults With Cancera
Question
|
Symptom
|
aAdapted from Roth et al.[37]
|
How well are you coping with your cancer? Well? Poorly? |
Well-being |
How are your spirits since diagnosis?
During treatment? Down? Blue? |
Mood |
Do you cry sometimes? How often? Only alone? |
Mood |
Are there things you still enjoy doing, or have you lost
pleasure in things you used to do before
you had cancer? |
Anhedonia |
How does the future look to you? Bright? Black? |
Hopelessness |
Do you feel you can influence your care, or is your care
totally under others' control? |
Helplessness |
Do you worry about being a burden to family/friends
during cancer treatment? |
Guilt |
Do you feel others might be better off without you? |
Worthlessness |
Physical symptoms (Evaluate in the context of cancer-related symptoms) |
Do you have pain that isn't controlled? |
Pain |
How much time do you spend in bed? |
Fatigue |
Do you feel weak? Fatigue easily? Rested after sleep?
Any relationship between how you feel and a change in
treatment or how you otherwise feel physically? |
Fatigue |
How is your sleeping? Trouble going to sleep?
Awake early? Often? |
Insomnia |
How is your appetite? Food tastes good?
Weight loss or gain? |
Appetite |
How is your interest in sex? Extent of sexual activity? |
Libido |
Do you think or move more slowly than usual? |
Psychomotor slowing |
Organic Mood Syndromes or Mood Syndromes Related to Medical Condition
(MSRMC), as they are now referred to in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
for Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV), often mimic the mood syndromes in
their presentation. The assumption is made (perhaps based on their time course
or laboratory data) that an organic or medical factor has a role in the
etiology of the syndrome. The DSM-IV suggests that prominent cognitive
abnormalities may be accompanying factors and therefore are useful in making
the diagnosis. The DSM-IV also highlights profound apathy as a sign of MSRMC.
Consideration should be given to obtaining laboratory data to assist in
detection of electrolyte or endocrine imbalances or the presence of nutritional
deficiencies. Clinical experience suggests that pharmacotherapy is more
advantageous than psychotherapy alone in the treatment of depression that is
caused by medical factors, particularly if the dosages of the causative
agent(s), i.e., steroids, antibiotics, or other medications, cannot be
decreased or discontinued.[38]
Possible Medical Causes of Depressive Symptoms in People With Cancer*
- Uncontrolled pain.[10]
- Metabolic abnormalities:
- Hypercalcemia.
- Sodium/potassium imbalance.
- Anemia.
- Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency.
- Fever.
- Endocrine abnormalities:
- Hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism.
- Adrenal insufficiency.
- Medications:[14,39-41,3]
- Steroids.
- Endogenous and exogenous cytokines, i.e., interferon-alfa and aldesleukin (interleukin-2, IL-2).[42]
- Methyldopa.
- Reserpine.
- Barbiturates.
- Propranolol.
- Some antibiotics (e.g., amphotericin B).
- Some chemotherapeutic agents (e.g.,
procarbazine,
L-asparaginase).
Diagnosis
To make a diagnosis
of depression, the clinician should confirm that these symptoms will have lasted a minimum of 2 weeks and are present on most days. The
diagnosis of depression in people with cancer can be difficult due to the
problems inherent in distinguishing biological or physical symptoms of
depression from symptoms of illness or toxic side effects of treatment. This
is particularly true of individuals who are receiving active treatment or those
with advanced disease. Cognitive symptoms such as guilt, worthlessness,
hopelessness, thoughts of suicide, and loss of pleasure in activities are
probably the most useful in diagnosing depression in people with cancer.
One German study comparing cancer patients who had a current affective disorder with those who had a single depressive symptom found loss of interest, followed by depressed mood, to yield the highest power of discrimination between the two groups on multivariate analysis.[43]
The evaluation of depression in people with cancer should also include a
careful assessment of the person's perception of the illness, medical history,
personal or family history of depression or thoughts of suicide, current mental
status, and physical status, as well as treatment and disease effects,
concurrent life stressors, and availability of social supports. It is
important to understand that more than 90% of patients indicate that they
prefer to discuss emotional issues with their physician, but over one quarter
of patients feel that the physician must initiate any discussion of that
topic.[44] Suicidal ideation, when it occurs, is frightening for the
individual, the health professional, and the family. Suicidal
statements may range from an offhand comment resulting from frustration or
disgust with a treatment course: “If I have to have one more bone marrow
aspiration this year, I'll jump out the window,” to a reflection of significant
despair and an emergent situation: “I can no longer bear what this disease is
doing to all of us, and I am going to kill myself.” Exploring the seriousness
of the thoughts is imperative. If the suicidal thoughts are believed to be
serious, a referral to a psychiatrist or psychologist should be made
immediately and attention should be given to the patient's safety. Additional
information on suicide can be found in the Suicide Risk in Cancer Patients 3 section.
The most common form of depressive symptomatology in people with cancer is an
adjustment disorder with depressed mood, sometimes referred to as reactive
depression. This disorder is manifested when a person has a dysphoric mood
that is accompanied by the inability to perform usual activities.[45] The symptoms
appear to be prolonged and in excess of a normal and expected reaction but do
not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. When these symptoms
significantly interfere with a person's daily functioning, such as attending to
work or school activities, shopping, or caring for a household, they should be
treated in the same way that major depression is treated (i.e., consider using
crisis intervention, supportive psychotherapy, and medication, especially with
drugs that quickly relieve distressing symptoms). Basing the diagnosis on
these symptoms can be problematic when the individual has advanced
disease and the illness itself is undermining functioning. It is also important to distinguish between fatigue and depression, which are often interrelated. The different mechanisms that give rise to these conditions can be treated separately.[1] In more advanced
illness, focusing on despair, guilty thoughts, and a total lack of enjoyment of
life is helpful in diagnosing depression.
(Refer to the PDQ summary on Normal Adjustment and Distress 4 for further information.)
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