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Chapter 2: Higher Education in Science and Engineering

Higher Education Degrees

• S&E Associate's Degrees
• S&E Bachelor's Degrees
• S&E Master's Degrees
• S&E Doctoral Degrees

S&E degrees accounted for almost two-thirds of all doctoral degrees and almost one-third of all bachelor's degrees awarded in 2002. However, S&E fields account for relatively few associate's or master's degrees. Both the number of degrees overall and the number in S&E fields have been increasing over the past two decades. For information on the labor market conditions for recent S&E graduates, see "Labor Market Conditions for Recent S&E Graduates" in chapter 3 (S&E labor force) and "Trends in Academic Employment of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers" in chapter 5 (academic research and development).

S&E Associate's Degrees

Community colleges are often an important and relatively inexpensive gateway for students entering higher education. Associate's degrees, largely offered by 2-year programs at community colleges, are the terminal degree for some people, but others continue their education at 4-year colleges or universities and subsequently earn higher degrees. About 13% of all associate's degrees are awarded in S&E or engineering technology.

S&E associate's degrees from all types of academic institutions rose from 23,800 in 1983 to 42,200 in 2002. The increase in the late 1990s and the early 2000s was mainly attributed to computer sciences, which represented 64% of all S&E associate's degrees by 2002. In contrast, the number of associate's degrees awarded in engineering decreased. Degrees earned in engineering technology (not included in S&E degree totals because of their practice-focused nature) declined from 51,300 in 1983 to 31,600 in 2002 (appendix table 2-24 ).

Women earned 45% of S&E associate's degrees in 2002, the same percentage they earned in 1983, and less than their percentage of S&E bachelor's degrees (51%). As is the case with men, computer sciences account for the majority of S&E associate's degrees earned by women (appendix tables 2-24 and 2-26 ).

Trends in the number of associate's degrees earned by students' race/ethnicity are shown in appendix table 2-25 .[8] Students from underrepresented groups earn a considerably higher proportion of associate's degrees than they do of bachelor's or more advanced degrees (figure 2-9 ). In 2002, they earned 32% of associate's degrees in social and behavioral sciences and 23% in mathematics and computer sciences. The percentage of computer sciences associate's degrees earned by these students has almost doubled since 1983.

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S&E Bachelor's Degrees

The baccalaureate is the most prevalent degree in S&E, accounting for 77% of all degrees awarded. S&E bachelor's degrees have consistently accounted for roughly one-third of all bachelor's degrees for the past two decades. Except for a brief downturn in the late 1980s, the number of S&E bachelor's degrees has risen steadily, from 317,600 in 1983 to 415,600 in 2002 (appendix table 2-26 ).

Trends in the number of S&E bachelor's degrees vary widely among fields (figure 2-10 ). The number of bachelor's degrees earned in engineering peaked in 1985, then dropped before leveling off in the 1990s. Bachelor's degrees in biological and agricultural sciences steadily increased in the 1990s before declining slightly in the 2000s. The number of social and behavioral sciences degrees awarded has been increasing since the mid-1990s. The number of bachelor's degrees earned in computer sciences dropped through the mid-1990s, then increased sharply from 1998 to 2002 to reach a new peak (appendix table 2-26 ).

S&E Bachelor's Degrees by Sex

Women have outnumbered men in undergraduate education since 1982 and earned 58% of all bachelor's degrees in 2002. They have earned at least half of all S&E bachelor's degrees since 2000. Within S&E, men and women tend to study different fields. Men earned a majority of bachelor's degrees awarded in engineering, computer sciences, and physical sciences (79%, 73%, and 57%, respectively). Women earned more than half of the bachelor's degrees in psychology (78%), biological/agricultural sciences (59%), and social sciences (55%), and close to half in mathematics (47%) (figure 2-11 ; appendix table 2-26 ). The share of bachelor's degrees awarded to women increased in almost all major S&E fields during the past two decades. One notable exception, however, is computer sciences: in this field, the number of awards dropped for both men and women from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, then increased thereafter. The earlier decline for women was greater than that for men, and the subsequent increase for women was less than that for men. From 1983 through 2002, the proportion of computer sciences bachelor's degrees awarded to women dropped from 36% to 27%.

The number of bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from 1983 through 2002 in all fields and in S&E as a whole, with a brief drop in numbers of engineering and natural sciences degrees in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In contrast, the number of bachelor's degrees awarded to men in all fields and in S&E plateaued in the 1990s but increased in 2002. Within S&E, the number of engineering, physical sciences, and social and behavioral sciences degrees awarded to men dropped in the 1990s, whereas the number of bachelor's degrees in biological sciences generally increased.[9]

S&E Bachelor's Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

In the past two decades, the racial/ethnic composition of those earning S&E bachelor's degrees has changed, reflecting both population change and increasing college attendance by members of minority groups.[10] Between 1983 and 2002, the proportion of S&E degrees awarded to Asians/Pacific Islanders increased from 4% to 9%, and the proportion awarded to members of underrepresented minority groups grew from 9% to 16% (figure 2-12 ). Conversely, the proportion of S&E bachelor's degrees earned by white students declined from 82% in 1983 to 66% in 2002. During the 1990s, the number of S&E bachelor's degrees earned by white students decreased but rose again in 2002.

Despite considerable progress for underrepresented minority groups between 1983 and 2002 in earning bachelor's degrees in any field, the gap in educational attainment between young minorities and whites continues to be wide. The percentage of blacks ages 25 to 29 with a bachelor's or higher degree rose from 13% in 1983 to 18% in 2003, whereas the percentage of Hispanics ages 25 to 29 with a bachelor's or higher degree was 10% in 1983 and 2003 (NCES 2005a). For whites ages 25 to 29, this percentage rose from 25% in 1983 to 34% in 2003. Differences in completion of bachelor's degrees in S&E by race/ethnicity reflect differences in high school completion rates, college enrollment rates, and college persistence and attainment rates. In general, blacks and Hispanics are less likely than whites and Asians/Pacific Islanders to graduate from high school, to enroll in college, and to graduate from college (see "Transition to Higher Education" in chapter 1 for information on immediate post-high school college enrollment rates). Among high school graduates, the percentages of blacks and Hispanics ages 25 to 29 with a bachelor's or higher degree were 21% and 15%, respectively, in 2000, compared to 36% for whites (NCES 2001). Among those who do enroll in or graduate from college, however, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives are about as likely as whites to choose S&E fields; Asians/Pacific Islanders are more likely than members of other racial/ethnic groups to choose these fields. For Asians/Pacific Islanders, almost half of all bachelor's degrees received are in S&E, compared with about one-third of all bachelor's degrees earned by each of the other racial/ethnic groups.

The contrast in field distribution among whites, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives on the one hand and Asians/Pacific Islanders on the other is apparent within S&E fields as well. White, black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native S&E baccalaureate recipients share a similar distribution across broad S&E fields. In 2002, between 9% and 11% of all baccalaureate recipients in each of these racial/ethnic groups earned their degrees in the social sciences, 4% to 5% in the biological sciences, and 3% to 4% in engineering and in computer sciences. Asian/Pacific Islander baccalaureate recipients earned higher proportions of their baccalaureates in the biological sciences, computer sciences, and engineering (appendix table 2-27 ).

Trends in bachelor's degrees over the past 20 years are similar in many ways for most racial/ethnic groups. For all racial/ethnic groups, the number of bachelor's degrees in engineering, physical sciences, and mathematics generally dropped or flattened out, especially since the mid-1990s. Degrees in biological sciences generally increased through the late 1990s, then dropped in recent years. Degrees in computer sciences fell in the early 1990s but increased steeply from 1998 through 2002. All racial/ethnic groups, except for whites, generally show an increase in total bachelor's degrees and in social/behavioral sciences bachelor's degrees. The total number of bachelor's degrees awarded in all fields and in social/behavioral sciences to white students was fairly flat from 1993 through 2001, then increased slightly in 2002 (appendix table 2-27 ).

Bachelor's Degrees by Citizenship

Students on temporary visas in the United States earned a small share (4%) of S&E degrees at the bachelor's level. However, they earned 8% of bachelor's degrees awarded in computer sciences in 2002 and 7% of those awarded in engineering. The number of S&E bachelor's degrees awarded to students on temporary visas increased over the past two decades from about 14,100 in 1983 to 16,300 in 2002. Trends in the number of degrees by field generally followed the pattern noted above for all racial/ethnic groups except whites (appendix table 2-27 ).

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S&E Master's Degrees

Master's degrees in S&E fields increased from 67,700 in 1983 to about 99,200 in 2002 (appendix table 2-28 ). Engineering, social sciences, computer sciences, and psychology accounted for most of the growth (figure 2-13 ). In recent years, computer sciences was the only field to experience substantial growth.

Master's Degrees by Sex

Since 1983, the number of S&E master's degrees earned by women has more than doubled, rising from 21,000 to 43,500 (figure 2-14 ). In contrast, the number of master's degrees that men earned grew only marginally, from 46,700 in 1983 to 55,700 in 2002. As a result, the percentage of women earning master's degrees rose steadily during the past two decades. In 1983, women earned 31% of all S&E master's degrees; by 2002, they earned 44%. In addition to earning increasing numbers of degrees in both social sciences and psychology, fields with a history of strong female representation, women also showed strong growth in engineering and computer sciences (appendix table 2-28 ).

Women's share of S&E master's degrees varies by field. In 2002, women earned a majority of master's degrees in psychology (76%), biological sciences (58%), and social sciences (54%); they earned their lowest share in engineering (21%) (appendix table 2-28 ). The number and percentage of master's degrees awarded to women in all major S&E fields have increased since 1983.

Master's Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

The number of S&E master's degrees awarded increased for all racial/ethnic groups from 1985 to 2002 (figure 2-15 ).[11] The proportion of master's degrees in S&E fields earned by U.S. citizen and permanent resident racial and ethnic minorities increased over the past two decades. Asians/Pacific Islanders accounted for 7% of master's degrees in 2002, up from 5% in 1983. Underrepresented minorities also registered gains, increasing from 5% to 11% during this period. The number of S&E master's degrees awarded to whites decreased from 1995 through 2002. The percentage of S&E master's degrees awarded to white students fell from 68% in 1985 to 49% in 2002 (appendix table 2-29 ).

Trends in the number of master's degrees by field were similar for most racial/ethnic groups. The number of master's degrees in physical sciences rose through the mid-1990s, then dropped through 2002. For all groups, the number of master's degrees in biological sciences and agricultural sciences generally rose through at least the late 1990s, and for all groups but whites and Asians/Pacific Islanders, master's degrees in engineering generally increased. Also, for all groups except white students, master's degrees in social and behavioral sciences and in computer sciences generally increased from 1983 through 2002. For white and Asian/Pacific Islander students, the number of engineering master's degrees dropped after the mid-1990s. For white students, the number of social and behavioral sciences master's degrees dropped from 1995 through 2002, and master's degrees in computer sciences dropped through 1997, then increased (appendix table 2-29 ).

Master's Degrees by Citizenship

S&E master's degrees awarded to students on temporary visas rose from approximately 12,500 in 1983 to about 27,600 in 2002, and increased in most S&E fields during that period. The sole exception was physical sciences. During that period, the share of S&E master's degrees earned by temporary residents rose from 19% to 28%. Foreign students make up a much higher proportion of S&E master's degree recipients than they do of bachelor's or associate's degree recipients. Their degrees are heavily concentrated in computer sciences and engineering, where they earned 46% and 41%, respectively, of master's degrees in 2002 (appendix table 2-29 ). These two fields accounted for 29% of all master's degrees earned by students on temporary visas, compared with 6% of all master's degrees earned by U.S. citizens and permanent residents. Men constitute a higher proportion of S&E master's degree recipients with temporary visas (66%) than they do of those earned by U.S. citizens and permanent residents (52%) (NSF 2004b).

New Directions in Graduate Education

New directions in graduate education, including professional master's programs, the growth of certificate programs, and distance education, parallel those in undergraduate education. Professional master's degree programs often stress interdisciplinary training for work in emerging S&E fields. (See sidebar "Professional Master's Degree Programs.") Professional certificate programs at the graduate level are typically amenable to distance delivery at corporate sites. These programs include a coherent set of courses for a specialty, such as engineering management.

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S&E Doctoral Degrees

Global economic competition and the spreading conviction that highly educated workforces are key to successfully building growth economies have increased interest both in the United States and abroad in the supply of foreign and domestic doctorate recipients and their migration across borders.

The number of S&E doctorates conferred annually by U.S. universities rose from the mid-1980s through the mid-1990s, peaked in 1998, and then declined for the remainder of the 1990s. In 2003, the number of S&E doctorates increased slightly over the previous year. (For information on employment of recent doctorate recipients, see "Labor Market Conditions for Recent S&E Graduates" in chapter 3 [S&E labor force] and "Trends in Academic Employment of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers" in chapter 5 [academic research and development.]) The increase through 1998 largely reflected growth in the number of foreign degree recipients. The largest increases were in engineering, biological/agricultural sciences, and social and behavioral sciences degrees (figure 2-16 ). The post-1998 decline in earned doctorates reflects fewer degrees earned by both U.S. citizens and permanent residents (see "Foreign S&E Doctorate Recipients").

Doctoral Degrees by Sex

Among U.S. citizens, the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees earned by women has risen considerably in the past two decades, reaching a record high of 45% in 2003 (appendix table 2-30 ). During this period, women made gains in all major field groups. However, as figure 2-17 shows, considerable differences by field continue. Women earn half or more of doctorates in non-S&E fields and in social/behavioral sciences, and 19% of doctorates in engineering (appendix table 2-30 ).

The increase in the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees earned by women has been due to both an increase in the number of women and a decrease in the number of men earning such degrees. The number of U.S. citizen women earning doctorates in S&E increased from 4,325 in 1983 to 7,131 in 2003 (appendix table 2-30 ). Meanwhile, the number of S&E doctorates earned by U.S. citizen men declined from 9,808 in 1983 to 8,605 in 2003. The increase in the number of S&E doctorates earned by women occurred in most major S&E fields. A decrease in the number of S&E doctorates earned by men after 1995 occurred in most major S&E fields except biological sciences.

Doctoral Degrees by Race/Ethnicity

Although the proportion of S&E doctoral degrees earned by white U.S. citizens decreased in the past two decades, the number of S&E doctorates earned remained relatively stable, fluctuating from around 12,000 to 14,000 degrees awarded annually. Doctoral S&E degrees earned by whites peaked at 14,166 in 1995, then declined slightly each year since, mainly in the fields of engineering, physical sciences, mathematics, and computer sciences. The share of all doctoral S&E degrees earned by white U.S. citizens decreased from 66% in 1983 to 47% in 2003. Their share of degrees awarded to all U.S. citizens declined from 90% to 79% (appendix table 2-31 ).

The number of doctoral S&E degrees earned by white male U.S. citizens declined from a peak of more than 11,000 in 1975 to less than 7,000 in 2002 and 2003, accounting for most of the drop in doctoral S&E degrees earned by white U.S. citizens (figure 2-18 ). The number of degrees earned by white U.S. females generally increased over much of the past three decades, but lately has begun to decline.

The number and proportion of doctoral degrees in S&E fields earned by U.S. citizen underrepresented minorities also increased over the past two decades. Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives together earned about 1,500 S&E doctorates in 2003, accounting for 5% of all S&E doctorate degrees earned that year and up from 3% in 1983 (figure 2-19 ). (Their share of degrees earned by all U.S. citizens rose from 4% to 9% in the same period.) Gains by all groups contributed to this rise, as the number of S&E degrees earned by blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/Alaska Natives more than doubled. Their largest gains came in social sciences and psychology. In 2003, the percentage of the doctoral degrees earned by underrepresented minorities in psychology was 11%, up from 6% in 1983, while the percentage of doctorates earned in the social sciences increased from 5% in 1983 to 8% in 2003 (appendix table 2-31 ).

In the mid-1990s, the number of doctoral degrees earned by Asian/Pacific Islander U.S. citizens showed a steep increase. Asians/Pacific Islanders earned just over 4% of S&E doctorates in 2003, up from 2% in 1983.

Foreign S&E Doctorate Recipients

Noncitizens, primarily those with temporary visas, account for the bulk of the growth in S&E doctorates awarded by U.S. universities from 1983 through 2003. The number of S&E doctorate recipients with temporary visas rose dramatically in the 1980s and 1990s, accounting for almost one-third of S&E doctorate recipients in 2003.

During this period, the number of S&E doctorates earned by U.S. citizens fluctuated from approximately 14,000 to about 17,000, and the number earned by temporary residents rose from 3,500 to a peak of 8,700 in 2003. The temporary resident share of S&E doctorates rose from 18% in 1983 to 32% in 2003. The number of S&E doctorates earned by U.S. permanent residents increased from about 900 in 1983 to a peak of 3,614 in 1995 before falling to about 1,200 in 2003 (appendix table 2-32 ). (In the mid-1990s, the number of doctorates awarded to U.S. permanent residents showed a steep increase when a large number of Chinese doctoral degree students on temporary visas shifted to permanent resident status under the 1992 Chinese Student Protection Act.)

Foreign students on temporary visas earn a larger proportion of degrees at the doctoral level than at any other level (figure 2-20 ). Their proportion in some fields is considerably higher: in 2003, foreign students on temporary visas earned 43% to 44% of doctoral degrees awarded in mathematics, computer sciences, and agricultural sciences, along with 55% of those awarded in engineering (appendix table 2-31 ).

Countries/Economies of Origin

The top 10 foreign countries/economies of origin of foreign S&E doctorate recipients together accounted for 64% of all foreign recipients of a U.S. S&E doctorate from 1983 to 2003 (table 2-3 ). More than half of those top 10 countries are located in Asia. The major Asian countries/economies sending doctoral degree students to the United States have been, in descending order, China, Taiwan, India, and South Korea. Canada and Mexico were also among the top 10. Major European countries of origin (not in the top 10) were Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Italy, and France, in that order.

Asia. The number of U.S. S&E doctorates earned by students from Asia increased from the mid-1980s until the mid- to late 1990s, followed by a decline (figure 2-21 ). Most of these degrees were awarded in engineering and biological and physical sciences (table 2-4 ). From 1983 to 2003, students from four Asian countries/economies (China, Taiwan, India, and South Korea) earned more than 50% of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees awarded to foreign students (89,700 of 176,000), almost four times more than students from Europe (23,000).

China had the largest number of students earning U.S. S&E doctorates during the 1983–2003 period. These students received more than 35,300 S&E doctoral degrees from U.S. universities, mainly in biological and physical sciences and engineering (table 2-4 ). The number of S&E doctorates earned by Chinese nationals increased from 16 in 1983 to more than 3,000 in 1996 (figure 2-21 ). After this peak year, their number of doctorates earned from U.S. institutions declined and leveled off to about 2,500 in recent years.[12]

Students from Taiwan received the second-largest number of S&E doctorates at U.S. universities. Between 1983 and 2003, students from Taiwan earned more than 19,700 S&E doctoral degrees, mainly in engineering and biological and physical sciences (table 2-4 ). In 1983, they earned more U.S. S&E doctoral degrees than students from India and China combined. The number of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees earned by students from Taiwan increased rapidly for almost a decade, from 691 in 1983 to more than 1,300 at its peak in 1994. However, as universities in Taiwan increased their capacity for advanced S&E education in the 1990s, the number of students from Taiwan earning S&E doctorates from U.S. universities declined to 485 in 2003 (figure 2-21 ).[13]

Students from India earned more than 17,500 S&E doctoral degrees at U.S. universities over the period. Like students from China and Taiwan, they mainly earned doctorates in engineering and biological and physical sciences. They also earned by far the largest number of U.S. doctoral degrees awarded to any foreign group in computer sciences (table 2-4 ). The more than decade-long increase in U.S. S&E doctorates earned by students from India ended in 1997, followed by 5 years of decline (figure 2-21 ). The number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by students from India increased slightly in 2003.

Students from South Korea earned more than 17,000 U.S. S&E doctorates, mainly in engineering and biological, social, and physical sciences. The number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by South Korean students increased from about 250 in 1983 to about 1,200 in 1994, declined to a low of about 800 in the late 1990s, and increased slightly to almost 1,000 in 2003.

Europe. European students earned far fewer U.S. S&E doctorates than did Asian students, and they tended to focus less on engineering than did their Asian counterparts (table 2-5 ). Western European countries whose students earned the largest number of S&E doctorates from 1983 to 2003 were Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Italy, and France, in that order. From 1983 to 1993, Greece and the United Kingdom were the primary European countries of origin; thereafter, their numbers of doctoral degree recipients declined. The numbers of U.S. S&E doctorate recipients from Germany, Italy, and France generally increased over the past two decades (figure 2-22 ). Scandinavians received fewer U.S. doctorates than did students from the other European regions, with a field distribution roughly similar to that for other Western Europeans (table 2-5 ).

The number of Eastern European students earning S&E doctorates at U.S. universities increased from fewer than 50 in 1983 to more than 700 in 2003 (figure 2-23 ). A higher proportion of Central and Eastern Europeans (89%) than Western Europeans (73%) earned U.S. doctorates in S&E fields. Within S&E, Western Europeans were more likely to study psychology and social sciences, and Eastern Europeans were more likely to study physical sciences and mathematics (table 2-5 ).

North America. The Canadian and Mexican shares of U.S. S&E doctoral degrees were small compared with those from Asia and Europe. The number of U.S. S&E degrees earned by students from Canada increased from less than 200 in 1983 to 350 in 2003. In all, 62% of Canadian doctoral degree students in U.S. universities earned S&E doctorates, mainly in social and biological sciences (figure 2-24 ; table 2-5 ). Mexican doctoral degree students in U.S. universities are more concentrated in S&E fields than are Canadian students: 86% of doctoral degrees earned by Mexican students at U.S. universities were in S&E fields, mainly engineering, agricultural, biological, and social sciences. The number of doctoral degree recipients from Mexico increased from 100 in 1983 to more than 200 in 2003.

Stay Rates

Almost 30% of employed S&E doctorate recipients in the United States are foreign born (see chapter 3), as are more than half of postdocs (appendix table 2-35 ). The majority of those working in the United States (excluding postdocs) obtained their doctorates from U.S. universities. Stay rates based on stated plans at receipt of doctorate indicate how much the United States relies on inflow of doctorate holders from different countries and whether working in the United States remains an attractive option for foreign students who obtain U.S. doctorates. (See chapter 3 for an analysis using an alternative stay-rate measure based on examination of Social Security records several years after earning a doctorate.)

Until the early 1990s, about half of foreign students who earned S&E degrees at U.S. universities reported that they planned to stay in the United States after graduation, and about one-third said they had firm offers for postdoctoral study or employment (NSB 1998). In the 1990s, however, these percentages increased substantially. In the 1992–95 period, for example, of the foreign S&E doctoral degree recipients who reported their plans, 68% planned to remain in the United States after receiving their degree and 35% already had firm offers. By 2000–03, 74% of foreign doctoral recipients in S&E fields with known plans intended to stay in the United States and 51% had firm offers to do so (appendix table 2-33 ). Foreign doctorate recipients in physical sciences and mathematics/computer sciences were more likely, and those in social/behavioral sciences, less likely, to have firm plans to stay. Although the number of S&E doctoral degrees earned by foreign students declined after 1996, the percentage of students who had firm plans to remain in the United States continued to increase through 2001 before declining in 2002 and 2003 (figure 2-25 ).

Stay rates vary by place of origin. In the 2000–03 period, 64% of U.S. S&E doctoral recipients from China and 67% of those from India reported accepting firm offers for employment or postdoctoral research in the United States, up from 47% and 53%, respectively, in the period from 1992 to 1995 (figure 2-26 ; appendix table 2-33 ). Recipients from Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea were less likely to stay in the United States. Over the same 2000–03 period, 41% of S&E doctoral degree recipients from Taiwan, 42% of those from Japan, and 46% of those from South Korea reported accepting firm offers to remain in the United States. Although the number of S&E doctorate students from Taiwan and South Korea fell in the late 1990s (and in the case of Taiwan, into the 2000s), the percentage who intended to stay in the United States after receipt of their degree increased. Among U.S. S&E doctoral degree recipients from Europe, a relatively high percentage from the United Kingdom planned to stay, whereas relatively small percentages from France, Italy, and Spain (compared with other Western European countries) planned to stay after graduation. The percentage of 2000–03 doctoral degree students who had firm plans to stay in the United States was higher for Canada (54%) than for Mexico (30%) (appendix table 2-33 ).

Doctoral Degrees by Time to Degree

The NSF Survey of Earned Doctorates tracks patterns and trends in the time it takes to earn an S&E doctorate. The survey measures time to degree in several ways, including median number of years between baccalaureate receipt and doctorate receipt (also known as total time to degree) and median number of years registered in graduate school between graduate entry and doctorate receipt (also known as registered time to degree).

Data on the time from baccalaureate to doctorate show increases from 1973 through the early 1990s, followed by declines in all S&E fields. Over the past three decades, increases ranged from about 6 months longer in engineering, physical sciences, and mathematics to nearly 3 years longer in social sciences (figure 2-27 ). Total time to degree (as measured by elapsed time from baccalaureate) was longest in each of the S&E fields in the early to mid-1990s. By 2003, it had shortened considerably. Physical sciences had the shortest time to degree at 7.1 years, and social sciences, the longest at 10.9 years (appendix table 2-34 ).

Median registered time to degree, as measured by number of years registered in graduate school between entry and doctorate receipt, also followed a similar pattern of increase over the past 30 years for all fields. It averaged about 1 year longer in most S&E fields and almost 2 years longer in agricultural sciences, psychology, and social sciences. Among S&E fields in 2003, registered time to degree was shortest in the physical sciences (6.4 years) and longest in the social sciences (8.3 years).

Postdocs

Postdoctoral fellowships provide recent doctorate recipients with "an opportunity to develop further the research skills acquired in their doctoral programs or to learn new research techniques" (Association of American Universities 1998). Typically, postdoctoral fellows or postdocs have temporary appointments involving full-time research or scholarship whose purpose is to further their education and training. The titles associated with these positions and the conditions of employment vary widely. The status of post-doctoral fellows within the academic hierarchy is not well defined and varies among institutions, although the concept that the postdoctoral experience represents the last step on a person's training for becoming an independent investigator and faculty member is generally accepted (COSEPUP 2000, 2004).

Since 1983, the number of doctoral degree recipients with science, engineering, and health postdoctoral appointments at U.S. universities more than doubled from 20,700 in 1983 to 46,700 in 2003. Approximately two-thirds of those were in biological, medical, and other life sciences (figure 2-28 ).

Noncitizens account for much of the increase in the number of S&E postdocs, especially in biological sciences and medical and other life sciences. The number of S&E postdocs with temporary visas at U.S. universities increased from approximately 7,500 in 1983 to 27,000 in 2003. The number of U.S. citizen and permanent resident S&E postdocs at these institutions increased more modestly from approximately 13,200 in 1983 to 19,700 in 2003 (figure 2-29 and appendix table 2-35 ). Noncitizens accounted for 58% of S&E postdocs in 2003.

An increasing share of academic S&E postdocs are funded through federal research grants. In fall 2003, 56% of S&E postdocs at U.S. universities were funded through this mechanism, up from 48% in 1983. Federal fellowships and traineeships fund a declining share of S&E postdocs—14% in 2003, down from 24% in 1983. In 2003, the remainder (about 30%) of S&E postdocs were funded through nonfederal sources (table 2-6 ).

Although the majority of postdocs are employed in academic institutions, federal agencies and federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) also employ sizable numbers of postdocs. NIH, for example, employed approximately 2,600 intramural postdocs in 2004 (NIH, Office of the Director, internal report). In 2003, almost 3,000 postdocs were employed in FFRDCs, which are federally funded but administered by universities and colleges, industrial firms, or nonprofit organizations. Most (16) of the 22 FFRDCs employing postdocs are funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The largest FFRDC postdoc employers were Aerospace FFRDC (almost 700 postdocs) and Los Alamos National Laboratories (about 400). Other large FFRDC post-doc employers include Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, and Stanford Linear Accelerator Center Research Division (table 2-7 ).

Chapter 3 provides more detail on postdoctoral employment, including reasons for postdoc, length of postdoc, salaries, and subsequent employment. See sidebar "Postdoctoral Appointments."

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National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics
Science and Engineering Indicators 2006
Arlington, VA (NSB 06-01) [February 2006]