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Physical Activity Promotion and
School Physical Education
A Note from the Editors
In 1956, President Eisenhower established
the President's Council on Youth Fitness. The new cabinet
level Council was particularly interested in the physical
fitness and activity levels of children and adolescents.
Though the Council (currently the President's Council
on Physical Fitness and Sports, PCPFS) now serves as
a catalyst to promote activity, fitness, sports and
health for people of all ages, we thought it appropriate
that we focus on children and youth in the final years
of the century. Accordingly we asked several leading
experts to provide us with three PCPFS Digests devoted
to youth. The first of this series was published as
the back-to-school issue in the fall of 1998 with Russ
Pate serving as lead author focusing on the promotion
of physical activity among youth with an emphasis on
out-of-school programs. The second, in June 1999, was
written by Tom Rowland, and focused on the activity
levels of teens. Some strategies for promoting activity
among this population were discussed. This year our
back-to-school issue once again focuses on youth. Jim
Morrow is the lead author of this final issue in our
three part series on youth. Morrow and his colleagues
focus their comments on school physical education and
how it can be an important part of our national physical
activity promotion effort. Morrow and co-authors were
not asked to describe all of the benefits of regular
physical education but to outline how physical education
can contribute to the promotion of regular physical
activity and its associated fitness and health benefits.
Introduction
Millions of children and youth return
to school after a summer break. Upon their return to
the classroom, they will begin anew their academic and
extracurricular activities. Parents, teachers, administrators,
and students focus on education as preparation for the
future. Completed coursework prepares students for college
and careers that will benefit children and adolescents
throughout life. While many parents, students, and administrators
turn their focus toward the traditional academic issues
associated with schooling, they must not forget the
significant health and physical benefits that derive
from an excellent physical education program. As with
cognitive information achieved in schooling, the student's
psychomotor development must also be addressed. Development
of the psychomotor domain can be important for the individual's
health and well-being, as well as for that of the community.
Fitness activities in the school setting have important
individual, societal, and economic implications. It
is often stated that a child's mind is a terrible thing
to waste. This is true, but it is also terrible to waste
the other 90% of the child's body.
The Surgeon General's Report on Physical
Activity and Health (Physical Activity and Health: A
Report of the Surgeon General [SGR], 1996) clearly outlines
the health benefits of physical activity for all ages.
These benefits as summarized in the July 1996 issue
of the PCPFS Digest, are now widely known and many national
efforts have been undertaken to promote physical activity
among all segments of the population. Because youth
are less susceptible than adults to the chronic disease
states associated with physical inactivity, the SGR
has less direct evidence of health benefits for youth
than for adults. Still experts point to the need for
the development of physical activity patterns early
in life and the school is an obvious place for the development
of these patterns (Sallis & McKenzie1991). There
is little doubt that children and youth can learn about
and acquire beneficial lifestyle behaviors through quality
physical education programs. Though national health
goals call for daily physical education for all school
children, many youth are not enrolled in any type of
physical education program.
Donna E. Shalala (SGR, 1996) suggests,
"schools and universities need to reintroduce daily,
quality physical activity as a key component of a comprehensive
education." The operative word is "quality."
Surgeon General Dr. David Satcher called physical inactivity
a "major epidemic" in the United States and
stated, "I think we've made a serious error by
not requiring physical education in grades K through
12.We are paying a tremendous price for this physical
inactivity. People pay with pain and suffering and society
pays with money and lost productivity" (NASPE,
1998). It is clear that the amount of physical education
available to youth is decreasing in spite of the support
among public health experts for sound school programs.
In the following pages, answers to key questions about
physical education and physical activity will be addressed.
What is the current status of physical
education in the schools?
Though most youth experience physical
education at some point in their school experience,
few have daily physical education. Elementary and middle
school aged youth are much more likely to participate
in regular physical education than high school students,
however, daily physical education is rare even for the
lower grade levels. Children who receive physical education
typically have one to three days per week of involvement.
In high school, the likelihood of
being enrolled in physical education decreases each
year with only a few 12th graders likely to be enrolled
(SGR, 1996). Physical education enrollment declines
from over 80% of 9th grade boys and girls to 45% and
39% of 12th grade boys and girls, respectively. According
to the Surgeon General's Report (1996) overall enrollment
in daily physical education classes has declined among
high school students from 42 percent in 1991 to 27 percent
in 1997. Recent data (YRBS, 1998) suggest that only
48.8% of students in grades 9 through 12 are enrolled
in physical education classes and only 27.4% attend
physical education classes daily. It is encouraging
that 73.9% of students enrolled in physical education
classes self-report engaging in exercise for at least
20 minutes during the average class. Figures 1 and 2
illustrate data from the SGR (1996) showing physical
education enrollment for high school students.
**The graphs are not available.
Please contact the President's Council for a copy of
this digest with the graphs in provided.
How active are American youth?
Young children are among the most
active of all segments of the population. Though the
assessment of physical activity during the elementary
school years is difficult, there is ample evidence to
indicate that children are among the most active age
group in our population. By the teen years, activity
levels begin to decline. In the June issue of the PCPFS
Digest, Rowland (1999) documents the decline in physical
activity through the teenage years and into adulthood.
The decline is more dramatic among teenage girls than
boys. At age 13 only about 6 to 7% of all teens report
no physical activity while that number is nearly 1/4
of all girls and 1/5 of all boys by the age of 19. Pate
referenced data from the 1997 Youth Risk Behavior Survey
(YRBS, 1998) that indicate less than 2 in 3 students
in grades 9 through 12 participate in vigorous physical
activity and less than 1 in 5 participates in moderate
physical activity. Looney and Plowman (1990), using
data from the National Children and Youth Fitness Studies,
found that passing rates for the FITNESSGRAM (CIAR,
1987)
1-mile run declined from over 80%
in 8 year-old girls to less than 50% in 15 year-old
girls. Inactive lifestyles are no doubt in part responsible
for this decrease in fitness though care should be taken
when interpreting the data because of the relatively
low relationship of physical activity to physical fitness
among teens (see later section). The activity trends
in youth suggest that it is important to develop an
appreciation for physical activity and develop lifestyle
behaviors in children and youth that can be adopted
and maintained into adulthood. As Rowland (1999) notes,
"adolescence appears to be a risk factor for inactivity".
Several reports suggest that the critical
time for adoption of physical activity behaviors is
during adolescence. Some evidence supports the notion
of "tracking" or the continuation of behaviors
in adulthood that were initiated in childhood and adolescence
(Beunen et al., 1992, 1994; Raitakari et al., 1994,
Telama, Yang, Laakso, & Viikari, 1997; Vanreusel
et al., 1993). This being the case, sound physical education
programs would seem to provide excellent opportunities
to introduce students to behaviors that impact them
throughout life.
How much physical activity is enough
for youth?
The Surgeon General's Report and the
epidemiological research that preceded it indicate that
moderate levels of activity can play a significant role
in providing health benefits for adults. Corbin, Pangrazi,
and Welk (1994) outlined the different models of activity
including the lifetime physical activity model that
notes the health benefits of moderate activity. For
children they proposed a Children's Lifetime Physical
Activity Model. That model provided the basis for the
recent Physical Activity Guidelines for Children (Corbin
& Pangrazi, 1998). These guidelines indicate the
need for at least 60 minutes of physical activity and
up to several hours per day for pre-adolescents. These
guidelines note that children are typically active intermittently
rather than continuously. Clear differences in activity
patterns are evident for young children and adults.
It is important that these differences be considered
when developing physical activities for youth of different
ages. A recent report (Health Education Authority, 1998)
from Europe also notes the need for longer periods of
activity among children as opposed to adults. Clearly
the type and quantity of activity recommended for children
differs from that for adolescents and adults.
Sallis and Patrick (1994) summarize
international physical activity recommendations for
adolescents indicating that they need daily moderate
activity and more vigorous activity at least 20 minutes
per day for a minimum of three days per week. In the
September PCPFS Digest, Pate et al., (1998) provides
an excellent review of the various activity guidelines
for youth and recommendations for promoting physical
activity in a variety of settings. Again, it is important
that physical education teachers consider these guidelines
when planning programs for adolescents. Guidelines for
School and Community Programs to Promote Lifelong Physical
Activity among Young People (1997) is an excellent resource
for teachers, parents, and communities to use when developing
physical activity programs that improve health and quality
of life for school-age children.
How does physical activity relate
to physical fitness in youth?
Professionals in physical education
need to be aware of the effect of heredity on physical
activity and fitness. Bouchard and Perusse (1994) reported
that biological inheritance accounts for substantial
components of physical activity behaviors and health-related
fitness factors. Biological inheritance was reportedly
associated with approximately 29% of habitual physical
activity, 25% of cardiorespiratory fitness, 30% of muscular
fitness, and 25% of percent body fat. While inheritance
plays a role in the physical activity behaviors and
health-related physical fitness, most of the variation
in these variables can be modified for positive health
outcomes. Thus, regular physical activity as a result
of involvement in sound physical education programs
can make an important contribution to physical fitness.
Nevertheless, it is important to realize
that not all students will be equally successful even
if exposed to regular physical activity. Meta-analysis
evidence suggests pre-pubescent children do not achieve
much aerobic benefit from endurance training (Payne
& Morrow, 1993). Payne, et al. (1997) do provide
meta-analysis evidence of a strength training benefit
in pre-pubescent children. Additionally, Morrow and
Freedson (1994) have indicated that the typical relationship
between physical activity and measured oxygen consumption
in adolescence is less than r = .20. Thus, biology and
physiology may set limits on the effectiveness
of programs for specific individuals. It is unreasonable
(and not supported by scientific literature) to expect
every child to make large increases in fitness level
as a result of regular physical activity that might
result from a quality physical education program. Over
a decade ago, Koslow (1988) called for a careful review
of what physiological changes physical educators could
expect to occur as a result of the typical physical
education class and how "dedication" to a
single fitness objective might hinder the overall effectiveness
of a physical education program. Koslow (1988) also
called for physical educators to examine their course
objectives and work toward achieving those that could
be attained. It is clear that regular physical activity
has its benefits but fitness benefits vary widely from
one child to another. It would be wrong to assume that
a fit child is an active child and that children low
in fitness are inactive.
For many years, physical educators
focused their attention on "physical fitness."
More recently, their attention has changed to encouraging
"physical activity." Differentiating between
physical activity (the "process") and physical
fitness (the "outcome") is important. The
relatively low relationship between fitness and physical
activity is one good reason for physical education to
focus on physical activity rather than on physical fitness.
Does physical education promote physical
activity in youth?
In 1992, the National Association
for Sport and Physical Education outlined the characteristics
of a physically educated person (NASPE, 1992). A physically
educated person is physically activity on a regular
basis, knows the implications of and the benefits from
involvement in physical activities, and values physical
activity and its contribution to a healthy lifestyle.
These and other outcomes have since been refined and
provide the basis for national standards for quality
physical education. These standards (NASPE, 1995) are
developed by grade level and include "sample benchmarks"
and "assessment examples."
Reports (Simons-Morton et al., 1993;
Simons-Morton, et al. 1994; Simons-Morton et al., (1997)
indicate that the amount of physical activity in physical
education classes is often below the levels suggested
in national health objectives (50% of class time). However,
Simons-Morton et al., (1991) provide evidence that quality
programs can result in increased physical activity in
physical education classes. Programs such as SPARK (Sallis
et al., 1997) also have shown that physical education
taught by qualified teachers increases the amount of
activity children receive and educational interventions
for classroom teachers can result in increased activity
levels of students taught by trained teachers. Dale,
Corbin, and Cuddihy (1998) have demonstrated that a
conceptual physical education program focusing on lifestyle
physical activity promotion can effectively reduce sedentary
behaviors among adolescent years after program completion.
Rowland (1998) has suggested that
young people may "compensate" for activity
received during the school day by reducing their afterschool
activity. Recent results (Dale, 1999) suggest that the
amount of activity youth get in school physical education
and recess does NOT reduce afterschool activity and
DOES contribute to the overall amount of activity received
during the day. The evidence suggests that well conducted
physical education programs can result in increased
activity levels during the school day as well as increased
active living outside the school setting.
Does time spent in physical education
in school decrease learning in other areas?
It has been suggested that the recent decreases in physical
education requirements are a result of two principal
factors. First, the demand for additional time for "academic"
classes is a common reason for reducing time in physical
education. Second, when financial crises exist physical
education is often one of the first subjects to be deleted.
Evidence suggests that time spent
in physical education DOES NOT decrease learning in
other subjects. Youth who spend less time in other subjects
to allow for regular physical education have been shown
to do equally well or better in academic classes. Two
of the primary studies to support this contention are
the Three Rivers Study (Trudeau et al., 1998) and SPARK
(Sallis et al., 1999). The health benefits from regular
physical education are an important benefit of the regular
school curriculum. The evidence suggests that the time
spent to get these benefits does not detract from learning
in other areas of the curriculum.
Are there other reasons (related to
health) for including regular physical education in
the curriculum?
YRBS (1998) data suggest that 60%
of high school females and 23% of high school males
are attempting to lose weight. Students report their
most commonly used method when attempting to lose or
control weight is exercise (51.5%), followed by dieting
(30.4%). Integrating the teaching of nutrition and physical
activity in school classes makes good sense and could
be an important contributor to decreasing the incidence
of obesity and helping adolescents who are attempting
to lose weight using ineffective techniques. The importance
of weight related issues in school-age children was
recently documented by Freedman et al., (1999). Energy
balance is of particular importance because of the increase
in body fatness documented in children and youth (Andersen
et al., 1998; Beunen et al., 1994; Gidding et al., 1996).
Table 1 presents important nutrition and health concerns
for young people.
Table 1
Physical Activity, Nutrition and the Health
of Young People*
Overweight and Obesity
- The percentage of overweight children
and adolescents has doubled in the last
30 years
- About 12.5% of 5.3 million U. S. young
people aged 6-17 are seriously overweight
Other Facts About Physical Activity
and Nutrition
- Only tobacco contributes to more deaths
than diet and physical inactivity
- Diet and inactivity are related to
a variety of chronic conditions including
heart disease, cancer, stroke, diabetes,
hypertension, and osteoporosis
- Early indicators of atherosclerosis
start in childhood and adolescence
- Obese children and adolescents are
more likely to become obese adults and
incur increased risk for disease
*From Nutrition and the Health
of Young People, 1997.
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Evidence suggests that quality physical
education programs can assist in the adoption of important
lifestyle behaviors. This is particularly important
concerning weight control (Guo et al., 1994; Must et
al., 1992) where adolescent weight has been found to
be an excellent predictor of adult obesity. A sound
physical education program, coupled with nutritional
guidance, can help maintain caloric balance. The disease
risk associated with increased body weight as an adolescent
is greatest for those who are most overweight.
Summary
Physical education and physical activity
can be an investment in the future. In the U.S., yearly
health care costs associated with diseases related to
a physically inactive lifestyle include cardiovascular
diseases (>$270 billion), cancers (>$100 billion),
diabetes (>$100 billion), obesity (>$100 billion),
psychological health ($150 billion), arthritis (>$65
billion), and osteoporosis (>$10 billion). The development
of physically active lifestyle behaviors can lower the
risk of these chronic diseases and have a great impact
on one's personal health, financial status, and the
health care costs of a nation.
Based on the article by Pate et al.,
(1999), methods of impacting schools to increase quality
physical education programs include having a district-level
coordinator, requiring physical education through all
grade levels, developing written curriculum and testing
materials, employing certified specialists in physical
education, and coordinating and collaborating with internal
district colleagues and external agencies and colleagues.
Implementing these actions can help improve the quality
of physical education programs.
Quality programs can be offered through
a variety of sources and not be limited to schools.
A multidimensional approach to delivering quality cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor experiences which includes
teachers, school administrators, health care professionals,
parents, community agencies, and the participants themselves
can be most effective in changing lives. The key focus
should be to impact the lifestyle behaviors of children
and adolescents. Only as schools, communities, individuals,
professional associations, and agencies work together
can we impact the health and quality of life of children
and adolescents in a way that can be expected to be
adopted and maintained into adulthood. Chad, Humbert,
and Jackson (1999) illustrate the effectiveness of a
program designed to create awareness, support, and influence
decision makers with regard to the adoption of quality
daily physical education programs. These authors concluded
that the program " resulted in an increased awareness
and support of daily physical education among key stakeholders
however, had limited influence on school physical education
programming [and] if physical education is to play an
integral role in health promotion, it is imperative
that a population approach be undertaken which is aimed
at preparing children for a lifetime of regular physical
activity." (p. 63)
With all of the evidence supporting
physical activity and its relationship to health and
the quality of life, one must ponder why physical education
enrollment is decreasing. The reasons are many: financial
concerns in school districts, back to "basics"
movements, failure for professionals to influence decision
makers, and failure to successfully disseminate the
important messages about physical activity to decision
makers. The National Coalition for Promoting Physical
Activity (NCPPA, Indianapolis, IN) consists of approximately
150 organizations with interest in promoting messages
about the importance of physical activity. The National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE,
Reston, VA) has developed "SPEAK II" which
contains similar messages and information. These promotional
activities, including advocacy, can have an impact on
schools. However, individual schoolteachers, administrators,
and staff must play a role in working within their local
districts and schools to make a difference. All need
to contribute to promotion of activities and programs.
In summary, scientific literature
and professional thought clearly indicate a relationship
between physical activity and quality of life. Children
and adolescents are at a critical developmental period
for the adoption of significant lifestyle behaviors
(e.g., physical activity, nutrition, and tobacco use).
Rowland (1999) refers to adolescence as a "risk
factor" for physical inactivity. The importance
of physical and health education cannot be ignored during
this unique instructional opportunity. We must employ
multidimensional approaches involving a variety of constituencies
if we are to impact schools and professionals so that
effective physical education and non-school based interventions
are adopted during this important phase of life.
Our Nation's political leaders have
identified the important role that physical activity
and physical education plays in quality of life. The
recent bipartisan Physical Education for Progress (PEP)
Act introduced into the U. S. Senate calls for the appropriation
of $400 million over five years to provide grant support
for school districts to initiate, expand, and improve
physical education programs. This is an excellent example
of national interest in physical education and physical
activity. The PEP Act must receive wide public support
if it is to pass. The scientific and professional literature
supports physical activity and quality physical education;
the time is right for us to act and impact students
for a lifetime. Perhaps Herophilus, the father of scientific
anatomy, in 300 B.C. summed the issue best when he stated,
"Without health and fitness, wealth is without
value, knowledge is useless, art cannot become manifest,
and music cannot be played." Collectively, we can
develop, maintain, and offer programs that will help
students adopt and maintain healthy lifestyles that
will benefit individuals and society.
Published quarterly
by the
President's Council on
Physical Fitness and Sports
Washington, D.C.
Guest Authors:
James R. Morrow, Jr., PhD
Allen W. Jackson, EdD
Department of Kinesiology,
Health Promotion, and Recreation
University of North Texas
Denton, TX 76203
V. Gregory Payne, PED
Human Performance Department
San Jose State University
San Jose, CA 95192
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Co-Edited By:
Drs. Chuck Corbin and Bob Pangrazi
Arizona State University
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Physical Activity
and Fitness Quote
"Only as schools, communities, individuals, professional
associations, and agencies work together can we impact
the
health and quality of life of children and adolescents
in a way that can be expected to be adopted and maintained
into adulthood."
James R. Morrow, Jr.,
PhD and Allen W. Jackson, EdD
Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion, and Recreation
University of North Texas
Denton, TX 76203
V. Gregory Payne, PED
Human Performance Department
San Jose State University
San Jose, CA 95192
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