A
abatement is the reduction of the degree or
intensity of emissions.
activities implemented jointly
-- see Joint Implementation.
adaptability refers to the degree to which
adjustments are possible in practices, processes, or structures of systems to projected or
actual changes of climate. Adaptation can be spontaneous or planned, and be carried
out in response to or in anticipation of changes in conditions.
additionality refers to the issue of whether
greenhouse gas emissions reduction or sequestration in a Joint
Implementation or Clean Development Mechanism
project occurs over and above the baseline and constitutes a new reduction that would not
have otherwise occurred without the existence of the project.
allocation is the division of emissions permits
or allowances among greenhouse gas emitters for the purpose of establishing a market in tradable permits. There are several possible
methods for allocating permits, including "grandfathering"
and permit auctioning.
Annex I parties, or Annex B parties, in
climate change negotiations refer to industrialized countries that are trying to return
their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000 as per Article 4.2 of The Kyoto Protocol.
AOSIS refers to the Alliance of Small Island States.
It is an ad hoc coalition of low-lying and island countries that are particularly
vulnerable to sea-level rise and that also share common public policy positions on climate
change. The 42 members and observers are American Samoa, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas,
Barbados, Belize, Cape Verde, Comoros, Cook Islands, Cuba, Cyprus, Dominica, Federated
States of Micronesia, Fiji, Grenada, Guam, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Jamaica, Kiribati,
Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Nauru, Netherlands Antilles, Niue, Palau,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands,
St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Tonga,
Trinidad and Tobaga, Tuvula, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Vanuatu.
assigned amounts are binding emissions
reductions commitments agreed upon by Annex B countries in The
Kyoto Protocol that are based on 1990 baseline emissions.
atmospheric concentrations are the quantity of greenhouse
gases relative to the global volume of
the atmosphere, expressed in parts per million
(ppm). Atmospheric concentrations
are often cited for carbon
dioxide (CO2) alone or for CO2
equivalents, in which case they are
adjusted to reflect all greenhouse
gases.
Rising atmospheric concentrations
can occur even with unchanged levels
of annual greenhouse gas emissions.
auctioning of emissions permits is a method by
which permits for greenhouse gas emissions may be allocated among emitters and firms in a
domestic emissions trading regime based upon willingness to pay for these permits.
Supporters of this method of emissions trading assert that the advantage of auctioning is
that it would provide governments with revenue and provide price signals to the new and
developing market for permits. Critics contend that auctioning's disadvantage is that it
may be less politically acceptable to those entities that would stand to gain from grandfathering of permits.
B
banking entails saving emissions permits or Certified Emissions Reductions for future use in
anticipation that these will accrue value over time.
benefit-cost analysis is an economic
technique applied to public decisionmaking that attempts to quantify in dollar terms the
advantages (benefits) and disadvantages (costs) associated with a particular policy. For
example, a policy that requires a power plant near the Grand Canyon to install pollution
abatement equipment would reduce air emissions from the plant and improve the visibility
at the Grand Canyon for visitors (a benefit), but would increase the cost of electricity
to customers (a cost).
binding targets refer to environmental standards
that are to be met in the future.
bubble refers to the idea that emissions reductions
anywhere within a specific area count toward compliance. For example, if a plant with
multiple emissions sources is treated as being "under an emissions bubble,"
regulators assess only the total emissions of the plant, not the emissions of each
individual source, in determining compliance.
C
CAFE standards require automakers to meet a
sales-weighted Corporate Average Fuel Economy level for its fleets of new cars and
light trucks sold each year. Meeting the standard generally requires selling several
higher-mileage vehicles to offset the sales of each vehicle with moderate fuel economy.
One standard governs passenger cars, and another governs light trucks. The standards took
effect in 1978 as a response to the 1970s Arab oil embargoes to help reduce American
demand for imported oil and promote energy conservation.
carbon dioxide (CO2) is the major greenhouse
gas implicated in global warming,
usually expressed in terms of carbon.
One metric ton of carbon
equals 3.667 metric tons of CO2.
Other greenhouse gases are often
given as carbon or CO2 equivalents,
based on their respective global
warming potentials.
carbon intensity shows the relationship
between the amount of carbon
dioxide emitted by a country and
what its economy produces, measured
by the gross domestic product.
A lower number implies that the
economy functions well without emitting
many pollutants. Conversely, a
higher number indicates that in order
to run its economy, a country
emits a great deal of pollutants.
carbon sequestration is the process by
which carbon is sequestered or captured,
usually in a natural formation
such as the ocean, forests, or soil, to
keep it out of the atmosphere.
carbon sink -- see carbon sequestration.
carbon taxes discourage the use of fossil fuels and
aim to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by placing a surcharge on the carbon content of
oil, coal, and gas.
Certified Emission Reductions (CERs)
or Certified Emission Reduction Units (CERUs) are verified and authenticated units of
greenhouse gas reductions from abatement or sequestration projects which are certified by
the Clean Development Mechanism.
clean coal refers to methods to reduce
pollutants emitted when coal is
burned, either by using coal with
lower sulfur content or by using various
methods to reduce the amount of
sulfur emitted into the atmosphere.
Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) is a modified version of Joint Implementation
that was included in The Kyoto Protocol for project-based
activities in developing countries. In Article 12.2 of the Protocol, the parties
established the CDM for the purposes of assisting developing countries in achieving
sustainable development and helping Annex I parties meet their emissions limitation and
reduction obligations. Under the supervision of an executive board, private and public
funds may be channelled through this mechanism to finance projects in developing
countries. As in the case of JI, but with slightly different language, any party "may
involve private and/or public entities" in the regime. One innovative aspect is that
a share of the proceeds from project activities is to be used to cover the administrative
expenses of the clean development mechanism . Another part of those proceeds will be used
to help particularly vulnerable developing countries meet the costs of adapting to a
changing climate. As the Protocol stands now, developing country commitments are
restricted to voluntary participation in CDM and the undertaking of general obligations
such as the formulation of national programs and political as well as scientific
cooperation among each other.
climate change can be caused by an increase in the
atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases which inhibits the transmission of some of
the sun’s energy from the earth’s surface to outer space. These gases include
carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and other
chemicals. The increased concentrations of greenhouse gases result in part from
human activity -- deforestation; the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline, oil, coal
and natural gas; and the release of CFCs from refrigerators, air conditioners, etc.
co-control benefit refers to the additional
benefits derived from an environmental policy that is designed to control one type of
pollution, while reducing the emissions of other pollutants as well. For example, a policy
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions might reduce the combustion of coal, but when coal
combustion is reduced, so too are the emissions of particulates and sulfur dioxide. The
benefits associated with reductions in emissions of particulates and sulfur dioxide are
the co-control benefits of reductions in carbon dioxide.
command-and-control regulation requires
polluters to meet specific emissions-reduction targets and often requires the installation
and use of specific types of equipment to reduce emissions.
commitment periods are a range of years
within which parties to The Kyoto Protocol are required to
meet their GHG emissions reduction target, which is averaged over the years of the
commitment period. The first commitment period will be 2008-2012.
Conference of Parties (COP) is the supreme body of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. It comprise 170+ nations that
have ratified the Convention. Its first session was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995, and
is expected to continue meeting on a yearly basis. The COP's role is to promote and review
the implementation of the Convention. It will periodically review existing commitments in
light of the Convention's objective, new scientific findings, and the effectiveness of
national climate change programs.
contingent valuation method is a
survey based economic method that is often used to quantify in dollar terms the benefits
(or costs) of an environmental policy.
D
decision framework is a way of organizing and
evaluating information.
developing countries, or less developed
countries (LDCs), are those countries which are in the process of becoming
industrialized but have constrained resources with which to combat their environmental
problems.
differentiation in the context of the Framework Convention refers to differing national circumstances that
might imply differing obligations. It can refer to North-South distinctions, or to
differences within the rich Annex 1 countries. The differences can
reflect population, income, economic composition, or energy endowment.
discounting is a method used by economists to
determine the dollar value today of a project’s future costs and benefits. This is
done by weighting money values that occur in the future by a value less than 1, or
“discounting” them. Because environmental decisionmakers are increasingly forced
to evaluate policies with costs and benefits that will be spread out over tens -- perhaps
hundreds -- of years, discounting is used to help evaluate the value of measures that deal
with problems such as stratospheric ozone depletion, global climate change, and the
disposal of low- and high-level radioactive wastes.
double dividend refers to the notion that
environmental taxes can both reduce pollution (the first dividend) and reduce the overall
economic costs associated with the tax system by using the revenue generated to displace
other more distortionary taxes that slow economic grow at the same time (the second
dividend).
downstream refers to any point in the economy,
and in particular, at the level of energy consumers rather than suppliers. It is commonly
interpreted to be industrial boilers, electric utilities and other major energy users, but
also applies, in theory, to all consumers of gasoline, coal, electricity etc. Conversely, upstream
refers to the point (or close to it) where fossil fuels enter the economy. In the
U.S., it means at the input to oil refineries, at coal processing plants and where natural
gas enters pipelines.
E
ecosystem is the complex of plant, animal, fungal, and
microorganism communities and their associated non-living environment interacting as an
ecological unit. Ecosystems have no fixed boundaries; instead, their parameters are set
according to the scientific, management, or policy question being examined. Depending upon
the purpose of analysis, a single lake, a watershed, or an entire region could be
considered an ecosystem.
emissions are pollutants released into the air
or waterways from industrial processes, households or transportation vehicles. Air
emissions pertain to atmospheric air pollution; water emissions refer to
pollutants released into waterways.
emissions leakage is a concept often used
by policymakers in reference to the problem that emissions abatement achieved in one
location may be offset by increased emissions in unregulated locations. Such leakage can
arise, for example, in the short term as emissions abaters reduce energy demand or timber
supply, influencing world prices for these commodities and increasing the quantity emitted
elsewhere; and it can arise in the longer term, for example, as industries relocate to
avoid controls.
emissions taxes are taxes levied on air or water
emissions, usually on a per ton basis. Emission taxes provide incentives for firms and
households to reduce their emissions and therefore are a means by which pollution can be
controlled. The greater the level of the emissions tax, the greater the incentive to
reduce emissions.
emissions trading is an economic
incentive-based alternative to command-and-control regulation. In an emissions trading
program, sources of a particular pollutant (most often an air pollutant) are given permits
to release a specified number of tons of the pollutant. The government issues only a
limited number of permits consistent with the desired level of emissions. The owners of
the permits may keep them and release the pollutants, or reduce their emissions and sell
the permits. The fact that the permits have value as an item to be sold or traded gives
the owner an incentive to reduce their emissions.
energy security is a term used to describe a
variety of issues from the economic cost of oil supply disruptions to the cost of military
expenditures to secure international trade.
environmental equity or environmental
justice refers to the environmental protection for all citizens so that no segment of
the population, regardless of race, ethnicity, culture, or income, bears a
disproportionate burden of the consequences of environmental pollution.
EU bubble in the context of international climate
change negotiations refers to the notion that the European Union (EU) as a whole would
accept some aggregate limit on carbon reductions but that the limit would not have to be
shared pro rata by all members. One could then have a weaker reduction limit for, say,
Portugal than Germany, provided that the total reflected the internationally agreed-upon
goal (e.g., stabilization at 1990 levels in 2010). In effect, a bubble allows the EU to
achieve differentiation of national standards -- something that is quite controversial in
the negotiation process.
The generic concept of "bubble" refers to the idea that emissions reductions
anywhere within a specific area count toward compliance. For example, if a plant with
multiple emissions sources is treated as being "under an emissions bubble,"
regulators assess only the total emissions of the plant, not the emissions of each
individual source, in determining compliance.
evapotranspiration is the loss of water
from the soil both by evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing in the soil
and rises with air temperature
externalities occur when the activity of one person
has an inadvertent impact on the well-being of another person. Many aspects of
environmental degradation, such as air pollution, global warming, loss of wilderness, and
contamination of water bodies, are viewed as externalities of economic transactions.
F
first commitment period is the
time - generally understood to be between
2008 and 2012 - during which signatories are to reach
their targeted emissions reductions under
the terms of the Kyoto Protocol.
flexibility mechanisms as established by The Kyoto Protocol
seek to increase the flexibility and reduce the costs of making emissions reductions; the
three primary mechanisms contained within the Protocol are the Clean Development Mechanism, emissions trading, and Joint
Implementation (or activities implemented jointly).
forest dieback refers to a high incidence of
decline and individual tree death due to a change in climate conditions that makes
trees vulnerable to disease and insect predation.
fossil fuels include coal, petroleum and natural
gas.
fuel cycle refers to the total life of a fuel in
all its uses and forms. For example, the fuel cycle of coal is extraction; transportation;
combustion; air emissions, and ash removal, transportation and disposal.
G
general circulation models are
complex computer simulations of climate and its various components used by researchers and
policy analysts to predict climate change. Typically run on “super
computers,” these models can approximate future climates and give some clues to how
climate has changed or might change over time.
general equilibrium theory demonstrates
the advantage of looking beyond first-stage effects. In the context of climate
policy, it implies that the various parts of an economic system are interrelated, and the
net effect of an action may be markedly different from the initial (and intended) effect.
geographic information systems (GIS)
are organized collections of computer hardware, software, geographic data,
and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and
display all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS is being used by many
researchers in the environmental field to view a number of different indicators
simultaneously as data layers on a geographic grid. By associating data of all kinds with
points on a map, GIS can illustrate patterns and trends that might otherwise be
incomprehensive. For example, using GIS, a researcher can map multiple health indicators
at and around a specific toxic waste site.
global warming is the progressive gradual rise of
the earth's surface temperature thought to be caused by the greenhouse effect and
responsible for changes in global climate patterns.
Global Warming Potentials (GWPs)
are an index created in The Kyoto Protocol that allows for
equal comparison of the various greenhouse gases due their varying power to accelerate
global warming and/or the duration of their presence in the atmosphere.
grandfathering of emissions permits is a
method by which permits for greenhouse gas emissions may be allocated among emitters and
firms in a domestic emissions trading regime according to their historical emissions.
Supoorters of this method of emissions trading assert that this would be administratively
simple but some critics argue that this method would reward firms with high historical
emissions and unfairly complicate entry into markets by new firms and emitters.
greenhouse effect is the progressive, gradual
warming of the earth's atmospheric temperature, caused by the insulating effect of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases that have proportionately increased in the atmosphere.
The greenhouse effect disturbs the way the Earth’s climate maintains the balance
between incoming and outgoing energy by allowing short-wave radiation from the sun to
penetrate through to warm the earth, but preventing the resulting long-wave radiation from
escaping back into the atmosphere.
greenhouse gases include the common gases of
carbon dioxide and water vapor, but also rarer gases such as methane and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) whose properties relate to the transmission or reflection of
different types of radiation. The increase in such gases in the atmosphere, which
contributes to global warming, is a result of the burning of fossil fuels, the emissions of
pollutants into the atmosphere, and deforestation.
H
hot air in recent climate
change negotiations refers to reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, for example,
in the former Soviet Union, due to economic collapse, as opposed to intentional efforts to
curb emissions.
I
incentive-based regulation uses
the economic behavior of firms and households to attain desired environmental goals.
Incentive-based programs involve taxes on emissions or tradable emissions permits. The
primary strength of incentive-based regulation is the flexibility it provides the polluter
to find the least-cost way to reduce emissions.
industrialized countries are
characterized by relative political stability and long-term industrial success.
Their per capita income is comparable to those of Canada, Northern Europe, and the United
States, and they have achieved a higher level of economic and environmental sustainability
than developing countries because of higher levels of capital and natural resources.
intergenerational equity in the
context of environmental policy refers to the fairness of the distribution of the costs
and benefits of a long-lived policy when those costs and benefits are borne by different
generations. In the case of a climate change policy designed to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, the costs of the emissions reductions will be borne by the current and near
term generations, while the benefits of an unchanged climate will be enjoyed by far
distant generations.
internalizing the externality is an
economic concept where the polluter directly bears the cost created by his pollution.
irreversibilities refer to changes that,
once set in motion, cannot be reversed, at least on human time scales.
J
Joint Implementation (JI), or activities implemented jointly, is a concept
where industrialized countries meet their obligations for reducing their greenhouse gas
emissions by receiving credits for investing in emissions reductions in developing
countries. Proponents of joint implementation argue that such an international trade in
emissions credits would achieve greenhouse gas reductions in industrialized countries at
much lower costs while providing foreign investment benefits to developing countries.
K
Kyoto forestsrefer to forests that
comply with the specifications of the Kyoto Protocol. Under Article 3, carbon
sequestration will be credited only for forests planted after January 1, 1990 and only for
carbon sequestered during the commitment period of 2008-2012.
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement struck by 159 nations attending the
Third Conference of Parties (COP-3) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (held in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan) to reduce worldwide emissions of greenhouse
gases. Delegates to COP-3 agreed to the following specific provisions:
Developed Countries -- Thirty-eight
developed countries agreed to reduce their emissions of six greenhouse gases.
Collectively, developed countries agreed to cut back their emissions by a total of 5.2
percent between 2008 and 2012 from 1990 levels. The six gases include carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and three ozone-damaging fluorocarbons not covered by the Montreal
Protocol that banned global chlorofluorocarbons (hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and
sulfur hexafluoride). The European Union agreed to reduce their emissions by 8 percent
below 1990 levels; the United States signed on to a 7 percent reduction; and Japan agreed
to a 6 percent reduction. Some countries, including Russia and Ukraine, are not bound to
make any reductions while countries with smaller economies such as Iceland, Norway and New
Zealand are allowed to actually increase their emissions. Australia was also allowed to
increase greenhouse gas emissions.
Countries with Economies in Transition -- Countries undergoing the process of
transition to a market economy but that are also classified along with the EU, Japan and
the U.S. as Annex I parties to the Convention – including the Czech Republic,
Hungary, and Poland, among others -- face smaller reductions.
Developing Countries -- Countries which are in the process of becoming
industrialized but have constrained resources with which to combat their environmental
problems -- which include China and India -- have no formal binding targets, but have the
option to set voluntary reduction targets.
L
leakage refers to emissions abatement achieved in one
location that is offset by increased emissions in unregulated locations.
M
MAPPS model is a global biological and geographical
model which simulates the potential natural vegetation that can be supported at any site
in the world under a long-term steady-state climate. Its acronym stands for mapped
atmosphere-plant-soil.
N
newly-industrialized economies refer
to regions, primarily in southeast Asia and the Pacific Rim, that have experienced rapid
economic growth rates in the last several decades. These include the economies of
Malaysia, Indonesia, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore.
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a form of air
pollution that is a brownish gas produced when nitric oxide emitted from power plants
combines with oxygen already in the atmosphere. It can damage trees and lead to acid rain,
which can harm lakes and streams and also corrode exposed materials. In the presence of
sunlight and volatile organic compounds, NO2 can contribute to the formation of
ground-level ozone, or smog.
nitrogen oxides (NOX) are often mentioned
in discussions of nitrogen-based air pollution as a reference to both nitric oxide (NO)
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). In addition to particulates and sulfur dioxide, NOX is
one of the major electricity-related pollutants. It can transform to nitrates in the
atmosphere (which is a fine particulate).
nonlinearities occur when changes in one variable
cause a more than proportionate impact on an other variable.
non-revenue-raising instruments are
environmental polices that do not raise revenue as a by-product of their environmental
regulation. Traditional command-and-control
regulations are non-revenue-raising and stand in contrast to instruments like emissions taxes which raise revenue.
O
OECD refers to the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development. It includes Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada,
the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Korea, Japan, Luxemborg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
ozone at the ground level is a form of air pollution that
is produced when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons
react in sunlight. It is not to be confused with stratospheric ozone, which is found 9 to
18 miles high in the Earth’s atmosphere and protects people from harmful radiation
from the sun. Ground-level ozone pollution, or smog, is mainly a problem during hot summer
days.
P
particulate matter (PM) is a form
of air pollution that includes soot, dust, dirt and aerosols. It has readily apparent
effects on visibility and exposed surfaces, and can create or intensify breathing and
heart problems and lead to cancer and premature death.
policy stringency is the strict adherence to
policy goals and desired results by all relevant parties. An example of
environmental policy stringency is typically measured as a targeted reduction in carbon
dioxide emissions
polluter pays is the principle which states that
those who cause industrial pollution should offset its effects by compensating for the
damage incurred, or by taking precautionary measures to avoid creating pollution.
precautionary principle in the context of
the Framework Convention on Climate Change refers to the idea that
action to forestall large-scale, irreversible damage from climate change is warranted even
though the risks of climate change are not yet fully understood. The precautionary
principle thus puts a premium on the long-term safeguarding of the world's climate system,
even in the face of uncertainty about the impacts and the need to bear near-term costs of
mitigation.
Q
R
renewable resources are energy sources that
do not use exhaustible fuels. Sources of renewable energy include water, wind, solar
energy and geothermal energy, as well as some combustible materials, such as landfill gas,
biomass, and municipal solid waste.
restructuring refers to changes in the
ownership or internal operation of a public utility, and is often used to describe the
broader concept of increased competition in the electricity industry. It aims to separate
the functions of generation -- the process used to create electricity where some
form of energy is expended to drive a turbine, which in turn drives a generator which in
turn produces electric current; transmission -- the process of conducting the flow
of electricity at high voltages from the points of generation to the locations of groups
of electricity users; and distribution -- the process of transforming high-voltage
electricity to lower voltages and then physically delivering it to households, industrial
facilities, etc.
revenue-raising instruments in
environmental policy include emissions taxes, which are
levied against producers of pollution; and tradable
emissions permits, which can be bought or sold by coal-burning electric utilities and
other industries.
revenue-recycling occurs when the
revenue raised by an environmental policy is used to reduce other distortionary taxes or
government deficits or is rebated to households.
S
satellite remote sensing is the
collection of data on land use, industrial activity, weather, climate, geology and other
processes through Earth observations from satellites in outer space.
sensitivity is the degree to which a system will
respond to a change in climatic conditions.
sinks -- see carbon
sequestration.
Subsidiary Body for
Implementation (SBI) assists the COP in
the assessment and review of the effective implementation of the Convention. It is open to
participation by all parties and is comprised of government representatives who are
experts on matters related to climate change and reports regularly to the COP on all
aspects of its work. Under the guidance of the COP, the SBI assesses the overall
aggregated effect of the steps taken by the parties in the light of the latest scientific
assessments concerning climate change and assists the COP in the preparation and
implementation of its decisions.
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and
Technological Advice (SBSTA) provides
the COP and its other subsidiary bodies with timely information and advice on scientific
and technological matters relating to the Convention. It is comprised of government
representatives competent in the relevant field of expertise and must report to the COP on
all aspects of its work.
sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a form of air
pollution that is a gas. It results from the combustion of fuels that contain sulfur. SO2
is most prevalent in the combustion of coal.
supplementarity refers to whether parties of
The Kyoto Protocol, while using flexibility
mechanisms such as emissions trading to lower greenhouse gas mitigation costs, also
institute adequate domestic energy and other policies for ensuring the achi evement of
long-term greenhouse gas reduction goals.
sustainable development is a broad
concept referring to the need to balance the satisfaction of near-term interests with the
protection of the interests of future generations, including their interests in a safe and
healthy environment. As expressed by the 1987 UN World Commission on Environment and
Development (the "Brundtland Commission"), sustainable development
"...meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs."
T
tax-interaction effect can occur when
environmental policies, such as emissions taxes or permits, and the conventional tax system interact.
This effect is the cost of the overall reduction in employment and investment caused by
environmental policies, which exacerbate the distortionary effects of pre-existing taxes
on labor and capital.
technology-forcing regulations are
requirements and standards set by governments to catalyze environmental research and
development. Some examples include corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) regulations
and other energy efficiency requirements.
technology transfer in the context of climate
change policy most often refers to the process by which energy-efficient technologies and
processes developed by industrialized nations are made available to the
less-industrialized nations. These transfers may be conducted solely through the efforts
of private parties or may involve governments and international institutions.
Title IV of the Clean Air Act Ammendments of 1990 set
goals for the electric utility industry to reduce annual sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions by
10 million tons and annual nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by 2.0 million tons from 1990
levels by the year 2000. Beginning in the year 2000, total utility SO2 emissions are then
limited to 8.9 million tons and total industrial SO2 emissions are expected to be 5.6
million tons. Title IV's control of SO2 emissions instituted two important innovations in
U.S. environmental policy. First, it introduced the SO2 emissions trading program where
firms are given permits to release a specified number of tons of SO2. The government
issues only a limited number of permits consistent with the desired level of emissions.
The owners of the permits may keep them and release the pollutants, or reduce their
emissions and sell the permits. The fact that the permits have value as an item to be sold
or traded gives the owner an incentive to reduce their emissions. Second, it established
an average annual cap on aggregate emissions by electric utilities. This cap was set at
about one-half of the amount emitted in 1980. The emissions cap represents a guarantee
that emissions will not increase with economic growth. Title IV used a more traditional
approach in setting NOX emissions rate limitations for coal-fired electric utility units,
although emissions rate-averaging among commonly-owned and operated utilities provides them
with some flexibility in compliance. Hence, there is no cap on NOX emissions, but Title IV
is expected to result in a 27 percent reduction of NOX from 1990 emissions levels.
tradable emissions permits are used in
an environmental regulatory scheme where the sources of the pollutant to be regulated
(most often an air pollutant) are given permits to release a specified number of tons of
the pollutant. The government issues only a limited number of permits consistent with the
desired level of emissions. The owners of the permits may keep them and release the
pollutants, or reduce their emissions and sell the permits. The fact that the permits have
value as an item to be sold gives the owner an incentive to reduce their emissions. See
also emissions trading.
U
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the centerpiece of global efforts to combat global warming. It
was adopted in June 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit, and entered into force on March 21,
1998. The Convention's primary objective is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would provent dangerous anthropogenic
(man-made) interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a
time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure
that food production is not threateneded, and to enable economic development to proceed in
a sustainable manner."
upstream refers to the point (or close to it) where
fossil fuels enter the economy. In the U.S., it means at the input to oil refineries, at
coal processing plants and where natural gas enters pipelines. Conversely, downstream
refers to any point in the economy, and in particular, at the level of energy consumers
rather than suppliers. It is commonly interpreted to be industrial boilers, electric
utilities and other major energy users, but also applies, in theory, to all consumers of
gasoline, coal, electricity etc.
V
vulnerability defines the extent to which climate
change may damage or harm a system. It depends not only a system’s sensitivity
but also on its ability to adapt to new climatic conditions.
W
X
Y
Z