Tales of King Arthur
Lightly he grasped the handle of the sword with one hand, and it came forth straightway! Then, glad that his brother should not be without a sword, he swiftly gat upon his horse and rode on, and delivered the sword to Sir Kay, and thought no more of aught but the splendid knights and richly garbed lords that were at the jousts.
—From King Arthur's Knights by Henry Gilbert
Introduction
The stories of King Arthur and his Court have entertained young and old alike for over a thousand years. In this lesson, students will discover how historical events gradually merged with fantasy to create the colorful tales we enjoy today. They will read some of the more familiar stories, learn about the code of chivalry of the Round Table, ponder the symbolism of the Holy Grail, and then choose a favorite Arthurian character for a bit of role-playing.
Guiding Questions:
- Who was King Arthur and how did his legend evolve?
- What were the ideals of the knights of the Round Table?
Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, students will be able to:
- Describe King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table
- Explain the historic and the mythical aspects of the Arthurian legend
- Discuss the rules of chivalry honored by Arthur's knights
- Relate several familiar tales associated with King Arthur
- Explain the significance of the quest for the Holy Grail
Background Information for the Teacher
The figure of King Arthur was probably based upon a Celtic
king or chieftain who lived in southwestern England during the 6th century and
led his warriors against invading armies of Saxons. This fearless leader was
famous in his own time, and over the centuries his legend grew as storytellers
awed their audiences with tales of his exploits. His name first appears in a
long Welsh poem of the 7th century, Y Goddodin. He is referred to by
the Welsh chronicler Nennius in the 9th century and figures prominently in British
historical annals of the 10th century. In 1138 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote the
"semi-historical" History of the Kings of Britain, devoting half of
his work to the exploits of Arthur. Blending and embellishing many strands of
the oral tradition, then setting the action in his own times, he forged the
first Arthurian novel. Manuscripts were translated from Latin into the Anglo-Saxon
tongue and Norman French and widely distributed throughout Britain. It became
the bestseller of its time.
At the end of the 12th century, French poet Chretien
de Troyes further embellished the legend, adding new tales of chivalrous knights
as well as the tragic romance of Lancelot and Guinevere. A decade later, Robert
de Borron reintroduced the theme of the grail (drawing upon early Celtic folklore)
and gave prominence to the magician, Merlin. By now, the stories had taken on
greater Christian overtones, although certain pagan elements remained. King
Arthur had come to embody the ideal Christian knight. In the 15th century, Sir
Thomas Malory reworked the somewhat unwieldy collection of tales into a long
unified epic entitled Le Morte d'Artur. Written in a lyrical English
prose (rather than Latin), it was an instant hit. Malory's work became the definitive
version of the story of King Arthur. Of course, by now the Celtic hero of centuries
past had been lost in the long series of transformations.
In more recent times, Victorian poet Lord Tennyson repopularized
the Arthurian legend in his long poetic work, Idylls of the King, and
in the early 20th century T.H. White created his well-loved, whimsical adaptation,
The Once and Future King. Arthur and his court of chivalrous knights
are alive and well in the 21st century—gracing the stage in productions
of Lerner and Loewe's musical Camelot, appearing on the wide screen
in films like Excalibur, First Knight, and Merlin, and waiting
to be rediscovered by new generations of readers in books about their fabulous
adventures.
Preparing
to Teach this Lesson
- Review the activities of the lesson plan. Locate and bookmark suggested
materials and websites. Download the reading passages cited in Activities
2, 4, 5, and 6 and mark the places where students are to begin and end reading
aloud. Download and duplicate the charts provided in pdf format in Activities
2, 6, and 7 and the Venn Diagram in Activity 5.
- Additional background information can be found at the following links available
through EDSITEment-reviewed resource Labyrinth:
- Gather together a collection of books about the Middle Ages and stories
about King Arthur from your school library. These will be useful for providing
additional illustrations of the material covered in the lesson as well background
information. (For recommended books on King Arthur, see Extending the Lesson.)
Suggested
Activities
1. Setting the Stage
2. The Sword in the Stone
3. The Chivalrous Knights of the Round Table
4. Excalibur
5. The Holy Grail
6. Sailing to Avalon
1. Setting the Stage
Begin the lesson by asking who has heard of King Arthur.
Discuss with students to determine how much they know about him and what sources—movies,
books, and so on—inform their ideas. Then ask whether they think King
Arthur was a real person. (Most people believe he was mythical.) Explain that
the stories about Arthur are based upon the exploits of a chieftain who really
lived many centuries ago. Discuss the background material provided at the beginning
of this lesson plan, stressing how the stories evolved and changed over the
years. You might want to create a timeline on the board to help the students
better understand the chronology. Indicate the period of the Middle Ages (from
the 5th century to the 15th), and then point out when the "real" Arthur lived
and when the major versions of the legend appeared.
Next, locate the geographical setting of the stories.
Access the map of Europe
available through Labyrinth and
locate southwestern England. Explain that this is where the battles were fought
between the Celts and the Saxons in the 6th century. Now go to Anglo-Saxon
England in 10th century also available through Labyrinth.
Find Winchester and Glastonbury. These cities are closely connected with the
legend of King Arthur. Note how closely southern England lies to France. This
is where the Saxons crossed the Channel to invade England during the Dark Ages.
(William the Conqueror took the same route in 1066!) The proximity of the two
countries also encouraged the spread of the tales from Britain to France.
Now that the students have a general idea of the setting
behind the evolution of the tales of King Arthur and where they took place,
tell them they will be reading and sharing opinions about some of the more famous
episodes.
2. The Sword in the Stone
In this activity the students will read together a passage describing how Arthur
became king taken from King Arthur's Knights by Henry Gilbert. Like
many tales derived from folklore, the stories of King Arthur are a blend of
history and fantasy. As the students read this passage, they should think about
which aspects seem realistic and which are more fanciful or unrealistic.
Access Gilbert's
King Arthurs Knights Chapter 1 available through Internet
Public Library. Gilbert's book, published in 1911, was intended to offer
a more "kid-friendly" version of Malory's Morte d'Arthur. It is indeed
a gripping, beautifully written version of the legend, but because the style
and vocabulary can present a challenge for modern students, you might consider
having passages read aloud as a group under your guidance. If you do so, consider
pausing after each paragraph or two to discuss specific images, characters,
or events. You should write any difficult words on the board and explain their
meanings.
Begin by calling upon a student or students to read aloud up to the paragraph
that begins "As it neared the feast of Christmas." Remind the class that the
Saxons were tribesmen who invaded England in the 6th century (when the "real"
King Arthur lived). Point out that "pagans" were non-Christians. (You might
use this word to begin your vocabulary list on the board.) After this section
has been read, ask for a volunteer to explain the meaning of the red and white
dragons.
Select students to continue reading the text, ending at the paragraph that
begins "So that the kings and lords should be kept together…" Then ask what
event in this passage seems most unrealistic or fanciful. (The sudden appearance
of the sword in the stone.) Doesn't this add a measure of suspense that makes
one want to read further?
Read together the rest of the passage. Then ask the students their opinion
of the character of Sir Kay. What causes him to confess that he has lied. (Remember
the influence of the Christian church in the stories.) Once he realizes he is
king, what promise does Arthur make to Sir Kay? What does this tell about Arthur's
character? View an illustration of this famous scene by accessing Arthur
Draws the Sword from the Stone available through Labyrinth.
Next, arrange the students in groups. Hand out a copy of the chart History/Fantasy
in the Tales of King Arthur available in pdf format to each group. Instruct
the students to discuss in their groups the story they have just read. They
should select four elements of the story that seem realistic and note these
in the first column of their chart. Then they should consider elements that
seem unreal, magical, or mythical, noting them down in the second column of
the chart. After all the charts have been completed, call upon a volunteer from
each group to describe realistic and one fanciful element appearing on the group
chart. Ask students to discuss what effect including fantastic elements has
on the story. How does it both add to and detract from Arthur’s legitimacy
as king? What is the general effect of mixing realistic and non-realistic elements?
3. The Chivalrous Knights of the
Round Table
By reading a selection from Gilbert’s King Arthur’s
Knights Chapter 2, students will learn how Arthur, once he became king, Arthur
led an army of knights and defeated the Saxons, expanded his kingdom, and brought
about a peace that lasted for 12 years. He also took a wife—Guinevere—and
established his court at his castle at Camelot. As a wedding gift from his father-in-law
he was presented with a large, round table. It was a magical table that could
expand to accommodate fifty, one hundred, or even one hundred and fifty knights.
Whenever a new knight joined Arthur's court, his name appeared on the back of
one of the seats at the table.
Have students read from King
Arthur’s Knights Chapter 2 until the following paragraph (either in
class, or at home):
Both the knights and the common people shouted with joy, and acclaimed Sir
Lancelot as a noble and mighty knight. But the young man was full modest,
and withdrew from the press. King Arthur gave to him the Dolorous Tower and
the lands which had belonged to Sir Caradoc, and Lancelot caused the old dame
and her sone to be given a fair piece of land and a hut, and many other wrongs
and evil customs that had been done by Sir Caradoc, Sir Lancelot caused to
be righted.
Ask students , what is the advantage of having a meeting
at a round table rather than a rectangular one. Students might point out that
all persons are seated in an equal manner at a round table. If the table is
rectangular, the leader or leaders are usually seated at one end, a dominant
position. Round tables are far more democratic! Explain that Celtic warriors
often met in circles to avoid fighting over who was superior to whom, so here
is another element of the legend that is based on fact. They can see illustrations
of Arthur's Round Table by accessing the following images available through
Labyrinth:
"Sir Galahad Is Brought to the Court of King Arthur", as well as the Round
Table of King Arthur on the wall of the Great Hall of Winchester Castle.
The table was constructed in the 13th century (long after the time the legendary
Arthur was supposed to live) and still hangs in the castle. At the second site,
scroll down and view the second image in the left margin. As you can see, the
Round Table was used for banquets and feasts as well as official meetings.
At the end of the 12th century, Chretien de Troyes introduced
the notion of chivalry into the Arthurian legend. From his time onward, every
knight of the Round Table was expected to adhere to the rules of a strict code
of honorable behavior. Have students reread Gilbert’s preface in which he
recounts a version of the chivalric code: The duties of a "good and faithful
knight" were quite simple, but they were often very hard to perform. They were:
to protect the distressed, to speak the truth, to keep his word to all, to be
courteous and gentle to women, to defend right against might, and to do or say
nothing that should sully the fair name of Christian knighthood.
Discuss the following questions with the class:
- Why is it necessary to have rules such as these, even if they are not always
followed to the letter?
- Which rules might be most difficult to follow? Why?
- What rules of good conduct govern groups of people in modern life? Who
are they similar to or dissimilar from chivalric codes?
- What does the story of Lancelot teach about the importance of chivalric
codes? How does Lancelot’s behavior adhere to the code? How does he
compare to Sir Caradoc?
4. Excalibur
Arthur's famous sword, Excalibur, was first mentioned
in the 11th century Welsh prose romance Culhwch and Olwen. Explain
to the students that while "the sword in the stone" helped make Arthur king,
another sword, Excalibur, became his favorite weapon. How he obtained this sword
is among the most famous episodes of the Arthurian legend. It is retold in Bulfinch's
Mythology accessible through Labyrinth
at Bulfinch's Mythology,
Age of Chivalry Chapter III Part III. Scroll down to the section entitled
"King Arthur Gets a Sword from the Lady of the Lake." Then call upon students
to read the passage aloud. Because the language is somewhat "old-fashioned,"
caution them to read slowly. The word "churl" used in the first sentence means
"peasant." (In medieval times a churl was a freeman of the lowest rank.). The
word "recreant" in the 18th line means "cowardly" or "untrue." Add these to
the vocabulary list on the board you started with Activity 2.
Once the passage has been read, call upon students to
retell the main events in their own words. An illustration of this scene can
be viewed at The
Return of Arthur available through Labyrinth.
The knight put to sleep by Merlin is Pellinore; in later episodes he will actually
join the fellowship of the Round Table. Pellinore is also the father of Perceval,
whom we'll be meeting later in this lesson. Although Excalibur is a beautiful
sword, it is the scabbard that has magical powers - as long as Arthur is wearing
it, he will never lose a drop of blood in battle.
Ask the students for their reactions to this passage.
Although magic plays a major role in the scene at the lake, is the scene believable?
Arthur agrees to give the Lady of the Lake whatever she asks in the future in
exchange for the sword. Is this wise? What new element does this promise add
to the unfolding drama? (Mystery? Suspense?)
Remind the students of the code of chivalry discussed
in Activity 3. Ask them to consider in what ways Arthur has
followed the code in this passage. Have each student make a list of examples.
Then have the members of the class share their ideas.
5. The Holy Grail
One of the most familiar themes of the Arthurian legend
is the quest for the Holy Grail. Actually, in the earliest versions of the story
the grail is not the wine chalice most people think of. In Celtic folklore, the
magical vessel is a pearl-rimmed cauldron - a provider of plenty and a source
of prophecy. (Celtic cauldrons were used in ceremonial feasting in very ancient
times.) A later version of the story refers to a stone, which provides food and
drink and prevents anyone who sees it from dying within the week. Chretien de
Troyes describes a flat dish brought to the table during various courses of a
meal. This is a graal, a word derived from the Latin word gradale (a dish brought
to the table). (The word "graal" was used in most texts until fairly recently,
when it was replaced by "grail.")
- Chretien's tale (Le
Conte del Graal) is the oldest story in which one of Arthur's knights
(Perceval) encounters a magical graal. Perceval is described as a rather slow-witted
(but brave and well-meaning) fellow. (His character is based upon Peredur,
a naïve "country bumpkin" appearing in an early Celtic tale.) Soon after Perceval
is knighted, he is given some rather bad advice: he is told that it is rude
to ask questions about something he doesn't understand. Under these conditions
Perceval encounters the grail. Read the following passage aloud:
The young knight, Perceval, has been riding through the woods and suddenly
enters a desolate wasteland. Continuing on, he comes upon a large castle,
which is guarded and inhabited by an order of knights and ruled by the Fisher
King. The king, who has been wounded in the thigh and is dying, invites Perceval
to dine with him. The meal begins with a strange procession: it is led by
a young man carrying a lance dripping with blood, followed by two squires
with golden candelabra and a beautiful woman carrying a silver graal set with
precious jewels. The woman places the graal on the table, and it supplies
food for the full company of knights.
Percival is most intrigued about what is going on around him, yet mindful
of being told not to ask unneeded questions, so he holds his tongue. After
the meal, he falls asleep. When he awakes, he is lying in the woods. The castle
has disappeared.
For many years, Perceval searches for the mysterious castle. He later discovers
that the Fisher King is his uncle and that had he only asked about the function
of the graal, the old king would have been healed and the wasteland surrounding
his castle would have been transformed into a green and fertile countryside.
(Chretien died before completing this story. Some scholars believe that he
intended to have Perceval return to the castle and ask about the graal. But,
of course, we'll never know for sure.)
Ask the students for their reactions to this story. How do they feel about
Perceval's simple character? What is the moral of the story? What might the
graal symbolize?
About 10 years after the death of Chretien de Troyes, French poet Robert de Boron
redefined the graal as a chalice—the cup from which Christ drank at the Last
Supper and which was later used by Joseph of Arimathea to catch His blood as He
was taken down from the cross. This Holy Graal was supposedly brought by Joseph
to Glastonbury in Britain. (This city is indicated on the second map accessed
in Activity 1.) The vessel now took on a Christian meaning, and the quest for
the holy chalice became the highest spiritual pursuit a knight could undertake.
In Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, Sir Bors is the
first of the knights of the Round Table to see the graal. Read Henry Gilbert's
version of his adventure by accessing Gilbert's
King Arthur's Knights Chapter 9 through Internet
Public Library. Scroll down to paragraph beginning "It chanced that seven
nights before…" Tell the students to look for similarities with the earlier
tale about Perceval as this story is read aloud. (These include the setting
of a castle in a desolate region, the appearance of a strange weapon—in
the first tale it was a bleeding sword, in this one it is a flaming spear—and,
of course, the appearance of a magical, health-restoring vessel.) A painting
of the graal by Dante Rossetti can be seen at Attainment
of the Sanc Grael available through Labyrinth.
Discuss the similarities and differences between the
two stories of the grail—Perceval and the Fisher King and Sir Bors at the
"haunted" castle. How affective are the "thriller" elements of the second tale
- the empty armor, the ferocious boar rushing out of the dungeon, the food set
out to tempt Sir Bors? Ask the students who the old man might be. (Could he
be the Fisher King?) What is the symbolism of the grail? Point out the religious
emphasis in this story. In a later story in Malory's work Sir Bors, Sir Galahad,
and Sir Perceval (a new, more sophisticated knight than the simpleton you first
read about) find the grail in the hands of the spirit of Joseph of Arimathea
himself. The spirit tells them that no one will ever see the grail again: because
there is too much evil in England, it will disappear, and Arthur's kingdom will
be torn apart by warfare.
Conclude this activity by handing out copies of the
Venn diagram available in pdf
format (also available as an
online interactive). Divide the class into groups. Instruct the groups to
discuss the two stories of the grail—Perceval and the Fisher King and the
adventure of Sir Bors. Then each group should fill in the diagram, indicating
the similarities and differences between the two tales.
6. Sailing to Avalon
After many years of peace, Arthur's kingdom did indeed
erupt into a state of war. Sir Lancelot proved an unworthy friend, and he was
driven from Camelot. He returned to his homeland, France. Arthur decided to
pursue him there, leaving the kingdom in the hands of his nephew, Mordred. But
Mordred was an evil fellow, and he soon claimed the crown for himself. Arthur
was summoned home by Guinevere. He battled and slew Mordred, but he was mortally
wounded himself.
Read together Henry Gilbert's telling of the end of the
legend by accessing The
Death of Arthur available through Internet
Public Library. Select students to read the passage aloud up to the paragraph
that begins "When morning broke…" Then view the following images available through
Labyrinth:
Sir Bedivere Casts the Sword Excalibur into the Lake. Call upon students
to describe what is happening in the scene.
Ask the students if they remember Arthur's promise to
the Lady of the Lake (described in the passage in Activity 3). (In exchange
for the use of Excalibur, Arthur swore to do whatever she asked of him in the
future.) What she later asked was that he return the sword to her before he
died.
According to Celtic folklore, Arthur was carried away
to the island of Blessed Souls to be healed of his wounds. In Malory's version
of the story, he was taken to the island of Avalon (for this same purpose).
He never returned to Camelot, but it was said that one day he would return to
recover and rule his kingdom.
Review the main characters and events of the five episodes
studied in Activities 2-6 of this lesson plan. Then instruct the students, working
in five groups, to fill in the chart (Tales
of King Arthur) available in pdf format. Then call upon a volunteer in each
group to discuss one of the stories, following the data noted on the chart,
until all five stories have been presented. Conclude the activity by asking
which story/stories the students enjoyed the most—and why.
Assessment
By now the students have met many characters from the
legend of King Arthur. Lead a discussion about these characters, noting their
strengths and weaknesses. Ask the students to choose a favorite and to tell
what they like best about this character. Write down the names of the characters
on the board as they are mentioned. Now explain that there were many other colorful
characters appearing in the many tales that make up the Arthurian legend. Tell
the students they can find out more about these characters by researching both
online and in the library. They are to choose one character, research him or
her, and then fill out the form
available in pdf format.
- The students should choose from among this list of characters: King Arthur,
Sir Lancelot, Sir Gawain, Sir Perceval, Morgan Le Fay, Queen Guinevere, Merlin,
Mordred, Sir Bors, Sir Galahad, Sir Pellinor, the Fisher King, Sir Bevidere,
and the Lady of the Lake.
Circulate among the students as they are working to make sure that there is a
wide distribution of characters chosen. (Not everyone can be Arthur or Guinevere!)
When all the charts have been filled out, instruct the students to assume the
role of their favorite character. One at a time, they will then answer questions
posed by classmates until their identity has been guessed. This activity can be
done with the class as a whole or in smaller groups.
Extending the Lesson
- Continue the study of King Arthur by selecting chapters from the following
book to read aloud to the class: T.H. White's The Once and Future King, Rosemary
Sutcliff's The Sword at Sunset, or Mary Steward's The Merlin
Trilogy. The following books are recommended for independent reading:
Seeing Stone by Kevin Holland-Crossley; King Arthur and His
Knights of the Round Table by Roger Lancelyn Green, and Tales of
King Arthur by Felicity Brooks.
Selected EDSITEment Websites
The Labyrinth
[http://labyrinth.georgetown.edu/]
Standards Alignment
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