Annotated Bibliography
July 2008
This bibliography is available on the Internet at:
http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/08/boys/Biblio/
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Helping Americas Youth
Throughout this bibliography certain programs have been highlighted in red
[linked to
http://www.helpingamericasyouth.gov/].
For more information about these programs, please visit the Helping
Americas Youth website at
http://www.helpingamericasyouth.gov/
and go to the Community Guide tab and click on the Community Guide
to Helping Americas Youth link to find these programs. |
This annotated bibliography is the result of a comprehensive review of literature
on the strengths and challenges that affect boys ages 10 through 18. Cited
on the list are scholarly journal articles and government documents.
The annotations included here aim not only to describe the main thrust of
each document but also to evaluate its strengths and weaknesses, including
the focus of its authors and its value and relevance to the field.
The literature review for this annotated bibliography adopted an ecological
systems framework to examine the multiple influences on boys development.
Simply put, this framework sees boys development as being influenced
by overlapping systems: their individual characteristics, their families,
their peers, their school environments, and their communities. Each of these
systems affects boys in different ways, and the systems interact with and
influence one another as well.
The literature search included computer searches of the major bibliographic
databases (e.g., PsychINFO, MEDLINE/PubMed, EBSCOhost) looking, in particular,
for two primary types of studies:
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Epidemiological studies that attempt to discover what factors make boys more
or less prone to certain outcomes, and
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Intervention studies that test whether certain programs or approaches increase
boys likelihood of success.
The literature search was limited to scholarly journal articles and government
documents and did not include dissertations, masters theses, or meeting
abstracts. Though the terms are not exhaustive, using the key terms boys,
adolescents, youth, meta-analysis, and review articles along with
substance abuse, mental health, education, mortality, victimization,
employment, juvenile delinquency, and constructive use of time,
several procedures were used separately to find as many empirical studies
as possible. These search methods led to both quantitative and qualitative
research studies.[1] The
primary sources identified in this way were then examined for other references
to appropriate sources. To search for other studies that evaluate whether
particular strategies to help boys actually work, an additional search was
conducted of online Federal directories of promising and best practices that
have been shown to build boys strengths and address the challenges
they face.
To decide whether to include an article or document in the bibliography,
the following criteria were used:
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The study falls into one or more of seven domains, or broad topics, that
were identified as most pertinent to the study of boys well-being.
The domains are 1) constructive use of time, 2) education, 3) employment,
4) juvenile delinquency, 5) mental health, 6) substance abuse, and 7)
victimization and mortality.
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The article or document was published in 2000 or later. Most earlier work
was excluded, but earlier reports and articles are included if they are
considered seminal in the field or contribute to tracking trends over time
(e.g., boys substance use from 1990 to the most recent studies on substance
use).
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The article or document focuses on boys ages 10 to 18. When nothing could
be found specifically on boys, materials on all youth ages 10 to 18 were
considered. Studies that examined younger or older boys or youth are included
occasionally if the findings seemed to have relevance for boys ages 10 to
18 as well.
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The article describes a study or studies conducted in the United States.
In most cases, studies conducted outside the United States were eliminated;
only a few influential non-U.S. studies were included if they had outcomes
specific to boys ages 10 to 18, were rigorous in design, and supported findings
from studies conducted in the United States.
-
Quantitative studies were included that followed the rule of thumb of a minimum
of 30[2] cases and/or employed
moderate to advanced statistical analytic models (e.g., ANOVA, multiple
regression, HLM, SEM).
-
Qualitative studies were included if they represented one of the five accepted
traditions of subjective inquiry (biography, grounded theory, phenomenology,
ethnography, or case
study).[3]
In sum, this annotated bibliography aims to provide evidence-based scholarly
work that highlights the challenges boys face and investigates what strengths,
such as the positive influence that caring adults in families, schools, and
communities can have on the well-being of boys and young men.
This bibliography is organized by each of the seven domains. The domains
are presented in alphabetical order. In addition, within each domain, the
citations are organized alphabetically by the last name of the lead author
who is identified by title, affiliation, and field of interest. Where
full text journal articles are available to the public, the authors
abstract have modified and are so noted in those annotations. In addition,
annotations of evaluations of interventions or programs are separated out
within each domain. Finally, if an annotation is relevant to two or more
domains, it is included in each domain.
[ Go to Contents ]
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Bernat, D. H., & Resnick, M. D. (2006).
Healthy
youth development: Science and strategies. Journal of Public Health
Management and Practice, November (Suppl.), S10S16.
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This article provides a review of the history, science, and practice of healthy
youth development. The authors discuss risk factors, protective factors,
and resiliency at different ecological levels (individual, family, peer,
school, and community). Risk factors are elements and experiences in an
adolescents life that can jeopardize healthy development. Protective
factors, on the other hand, are events or experiences that increase the
likelihood of positive outcomes. Both risk and protective factors can influence
one another in many ways. Resiliency, the process in which individuals show
positive outcomes despite adversity, helps mediate risk and protective factors.
The article also describes some of the critical elements of youth development
programs. The authors believe these programs should be informed by relevant
theories or validated best practices, including research findings regarding
how protective factors may work for different ethnic groups. The researchers
also suggest implementing multilevel interventions that reduce risk factors
while simultaneously promoting protective factors, thus increasing the likelihood
of sustained positive results beyond the narrow focus of one or a few risk
behaviors. Finally, the researchers call for rigorous evaluation of youth
development programs to examine whether the programs work to produce desired
outcomes and for whom they work. Dr. Bernat is a research fellow at the Healthy
Youth Development Prevention Research Center at the Department of Pediatrics,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
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Daniels, E., & Leaper, C. (2006).
A
longitudinal investigation of sport participation, peer acceptance, and
self-esteem among adolescent girls and boys. Sex Roles, 55,
875880.
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This study examined the relationship between sports participation, peer
acceptance, and self-esteem among the 10,500 participants in the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The sample for this study included
5,811 boys and 4,689 girls, ages 12 to 21. For boys, there was a strong positive
link among the three factors, which the authors attribute to a societal emphasis
on athleticism for boys. In school, athletic boys are often among the most
popular, and sports can be linked to boys feelings of self-worth. However,
results found that the relationship between participating in sports and having
higher self-esteem was affected by whether peers looked at the sport favorably.
Dr. Daniels is a professor of psychology at the University of California,
Los Angeles. Her areas of research interest include gender, social acceptance,
adolescence, and athletic participation.
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Darling, N., Bogat, G. A., Cavell, T. A., Murphy, S. E., &
Sánchez, B. (2006).
Gender, ethnicity,
development, and risk: Mentoring and the consideration of individual
differences. Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 765780.
[PDF - 16 pages]
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This article presents the factors that influence the success or failure of
mentoring relationships. Gender plays a big role in the success or failure
of mentoring relationships. Boys seemed to benefit more from mentors who
taught specific skills, versus those who tried to foster an emotional
relationship. Boys who were recommended to receive mentors generally needed
a male role model, and the relationships had a good rate of success. In one
study, over 70 percent of men who were mentored as a child (i.e., the Big
Brothers program) considered their mentor a significant adult in their life
whereas only 26 percent of women did so. Race, culture, and ethnicity
were also factors in mentoring relationships, with most adolescents responding
better to mentors to whom they can culturally relate. Findings also suggest
that mentoring programs should be clear about their goals and match mentors
with youth carefully and appropriately. Dr. Darling is an associate
professor of psychology at Oberlin University in Ohio. Her research focuses
on how adolescents influence and are influenced by various social relationships,
and how they interact to change the course of individual development.
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Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., Strycker, L. A., & Chaumeton, N.
R. (2002).
Relations
between youth antisocial and prosocial activities. Journal of Behavioral
Medicine, 25, 425438. [PDF - 14 pages]
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This study explores the relationship between prosocial and antisocial behaviors
in youth. In this study, the authors surveyed 356 mostly White 10-, 12-,
and 14-year-olds (179 boys and 177 girls) to determine whether adolescents
prosocial and antisocial activities affected their behavior in other areas.
Prosocial activities included sports, organized activities, volunteering,
and religious activities. Antisocial activities included substance abuse,
stealing, and lying. Results show that students engaged in prosocial activities,
especially sports, were less likely to use drugs or participate in delinquent
behaviors and were more likely to participate in other prosocial activities.
These students were also more likely to be living in two-parent households
that had higher incomes. Youth who were involved in substance abuse were
more likely to engage in other delinquent behaviors. The intended audience
for this paper includes other social science researchers as well as health
and youth policymakers. Dr. Duncan, a scientist at the Oregon Research Institute,
is a member of the Prevention and Health Behavior Group at the Center for
Scientific Review, National Institutes of Health.
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Ealey, S., Wituk, S., Schultz, J., Usher, J., Meissen, G., &
Pearson, R. (2006).
The
Community Development for Healthy Children Initiative. Journal of
Community Practice, 14, 129138. [You must pay to view/download]
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This study evaluated the Community Development for Healthy Children initiative,
which seeks to promote youth involvement and engagement by using three primary
strategies: (1) a multimedia campaign, (2) technical assistance and
support of local communities, and (3) minigrant opportunities. The goal of
the evaluation was to examine the extent to which the initiative made a
difference across the State of Kansas in four areas: raising awareness of
positive adult-youth interaction; actions on behalf of youth; adult-youth
interaction; and youth involvement in decision making. Surveys and interviews
with initiative participants were used to assess the initiatives successes
and challenges. Results indicate that the initiative achieved positive outcomes
in each of the four areas noted above. The initiative was especially successful
in creating an environment that helped adults have a better understanding
of youth and become more accepting of youth and their ability to become involved
in new ways. The authors noted that the initiative could be easily adapted
or modified based on local interests, strengths, and talents. Dr. Ealey is
a research associate and project facilitator at Wichita State University,
Self-Help Network, Center for Community Support and Research.
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Eccles, J. S. (1999).
The
development of children ages 6 to 14. Future of Children, 9,
3044. [PDF - 15 pages]
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This study examines the developmental changes that occur during the ages
of 6 to 14 and highlights ways in which the organization of programs, schools,
and family life better support positive outcomes for youth. The author discusses
the physical, emotional, and psychological changes that affect youth as they
navigate the middle-childhood years. Childrens reasoning is transformed
during this stage of development, and they shift from total dependence on
their family to an increased reliance on peers and adults in the school and
community. Results suggest that out-of-school programs may be very beneficial
for youth during this stage of development. Such programs may provide youth
with a setting where they can express their individuality, master new skills,
and seek emotional support from adults. Out-of-school programs that offer
mixed-age groups and activities that highlight effort rather than competition
can support the youths confidence in their ability to be productive
members of their communities. Finally, the author suggests that such programs
can offer youth developmentally appropriate activities that allow them leadership
opportunities that recognize and respect youths increasing maturity.
Dr. Eccles is professor of psychology, education, and womens studies
at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. She is particularly interested
in the role schools, families, neighborhoods, and ethnicity play in the
development of motivational systems.
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Ferguson, K. M., Dabir, N., Dortzbach, K., Dyrness, G., &
Spruijt-Metz, D. (2006).
Comparative
analysis of faith-based programs serving homeless and street-living youth
in Los Angeles, Mumbai, and Nairobi. Children and Youth Services Review,
28, 15121527.
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The aim of this article is to identify how faith-based organizations around
the world use faith, religion, and spirituality in serving homeless youth.
The authors interviewed staff and clients of faith-based organizations working
with homeless youth in Los Angeles, California; Mumbai, India; and Nairobi,
Kenya. The study found that across these three programs, faith and religion
play important roles in the way faith-based organizations function; all the
programs reported that they provide clients with a moral code of behavior,
hope for the future, and direction and that they have a structure that honors
various faith traditions. In addition, the study found that positive program
outcomessuch as changes in a clients feelings, environment, status,
skills, knowledge, behavior, and attitudeswere comparable across the
three programs. The first author is an assistant professor in the School
of Social Work at the University of Southern California. The authors
research interests include vulnerable children, homeless and street youth,
and social and spiritual capital.
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Ferguson, K. M., Wu, Q., Dyrness, G., & Spruijt-Metz, D. (2007).
Perceptions
of faith and outcomes in faith-based programs for homeless youth: A grounded
theory approach. Journal of Social Service Research, 33,
2543. [You must pay to view/download]
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This article examines how faith-based organizations use faith, religion,
and spirituality in providing services to homeless youth as well as whether
youth benefit from these programs. Participants included 11 faith-based
organizations serving youth in Los Angeles. Both surveys and in-depth
interviews were used to collect data from program staff and youth participants.
Results indicate the concept of faith was used to build relationships with
youth and to instill a sense of hope; religion was used to teach new information
and connect youth with services; and spirituality was used to teach youth
about honesty, forgiveness, love, and self-control. Outcomes for youth included
improved emotional feelings, health status, and skills (e.g., computer, reading,
anger management). Dr. Ferguson is an assistant professor in the School of
Social Work at the University of Southern California. The authors research
interests include vulnerable children, homeless and street youth, and social
and spiritual capital.
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Hamilton, S. F., Hamilton, M. A., Hirsch, B. J., Hughes, J., King, J.,
& Maton, K. (2006).
Community
contexts for mentoring. Journal of Community Psychology, 34,
727746. [You must pay to view/download]
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In this article, the authors state the case for natural mentoring in community
contexts. This form of mentoring involves relationships that develop naturally,
in familiar environments, rather than being forced to grow through the formality
of a mentoring program. The authors discuss four environments in which children
and adults normally associate: classrooms, youth development organizations
(such as the Boys Club or YMCA), work or community service, and faith-based
organizations. The authors review the literature, noting the intellectual,
social, physical, psychological, and emotional benefits for children who
have a positive relationship with an adult in each of these environments.
Dr. Hamilton is professor of human development and associate director of
the Family Life Development Center at Cornell University. His primary research
interests include adolescent development, education, transitioning to adulthood,
and fostering natural mentoring.
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Huebner, A. J., & Mancini, J. A. (2003).
Shaping
structured out-of-school time use among youth: The effects of self, family,
and friend systems. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32,
453463. [PDF - 11 pages]
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This article explores the predictors of adolescent participation in four
types of structured out-of-school activities; volunteering, extracurricular
activities, clubs, and religious organizations. Data were collected from
509 students in grades 9 through 12 in 2 rural, ethnically diverse high schools.
Forty-seven percent of the sample was male, and 54 percent of the youth were
European American. Involvement in structured activities was assessed via
a four-item survey that asked the youth to respond to how often they spent
their time in each structured activity. Results indicate that a variety of
factors were related to how adolescents spent their out-of-school time. Parental
support significantly predicted whether the youth participated in extracurricular
activities; peer pressure significantly predicted participation in nonschool
clubs. Parents economic status, marital status, and parental monitoring
were significant predictors of whether the youth participated in volunteer
activities. Finally, participation in religious activities was shaped by
having parents who were married, having friends who also participated, being
female, and race/ethnicity (e.g., African-American youth participated in
religious activities more than any other racial/ethnic group). Dr. Huebner
is an assistant professor in the Department of Human Development at Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Falls Church , Virginia. Her
major research interest is in out-of-school opportunities for youth.
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Jekielek, S. M., Moore, K. A., Hair, E. C., & Scarupa, H. J.
(2002).
Mentoring:
A promising strategy for youth development (Research Brief). Washington,
DC: Child Trends. [PDF - 8 pages]
-
This study evaluated ten national and District of Columbia based mentoring
programs for their effectiveness and influence on youth development.
The authors used experimentally designed evaluations to judge five of these
programs, while the other five were assessed using non-experimental
analysis. The study focused on three major areas where mentoring could
improve an at-risk adolescents life: educational achievement, health
and safety, and social and emotional development. Result show that
at-school, mentored youth have better attendance and attitudes, an increased
likelihood they will go to college, and better social interactions.
Minority boys especially noted feeling more emotionally supported.
While mentored adolescents also are less likely to initiate substance and
alcohol use, results show there is no change in tobacco use. Mentoring
relationships are more effective the longer they last, and can adversely
affect a youth if the duration of the relationship is too short. Findings
offer suggestions to enhance mentoring programs including their need for
structure and thoughtful matching of mentors with protégés.
Child Trends is an independent, nonpartisan research center focused exclusively
on emerging trends and issues that affect children.
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Larson, R., Dworkin, J., & Gillman, S. (2001).
Facilitating
adolescents constructive use of time in one-parent families.
Applied Developmental Science, 5, 143157. [You must pay
to view/download]
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This study investigates the positive effects that single-parent households
may have on the development of children and adolescents. Cross-sectional
data were collected from 101 mother-only families and analyzed to evaluate
what factors create a positive single-parent family and result in
adolescents constructive use of time. Adolescents ranged in age from
10 to 19. Five factorsfamily management, mothers use of time,
mothers emotional well-being, mothers employment, and cooperation
between mother and fatherwere examined. Results show that a consistent
family routine and a mothers firm parenting were significantly and
positively related to adolescents constructive use of their free time.
It was also found that children are more likely to read and participate in
religious activities if their mother does so as well. If a mother and father
maintained a good relationship, their children were more likely to be involved
in sports. Dr. Larson is a professor of human development and family studies
and directs the Youth Development Research Project at the University of
Illinois.
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McHale, J. P., Vinden, P. G., Bush, L., Richer, D., Shaw, D., &
Smith, B. (2005).
Patterns
of personal and social adjustment among sport-involved and noninvolved urban
middle-school children. Sociology of Sport Journal, 22,
119136. [You must pay to view/download]
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The authors use data about child and adolescent participation in organized
team sports to evaluate strategies to keep young people constructively occupied.
The authors surveyed 423 seventh-grade students (216 males and 207 females)
about their experiences with sports and the activities effects on their
self-esteem, behavior, and drug use. The youth attended school in the
economically disadvantaged, high-crime area of Worcester, Massachusetts.
The authors used interviews and a self-reported questionnaire on self-esteem,
drug use, and delinquent activity. Teachers were also asked to rate peer
behavior of the participants. Boys reported higher levels of self-esteem
than girls. Both boys and girls involved in sports reported higher self-esteem
than their peers who did not play sports. Fewer sports-playing boys reported
using marijuana than boys with no involvement in team sports. Dr. McHale
is an associate professor of clinical psychiatry at the University of California,
Berkeley. His research interests include community psychology, family diversity,
and primary prevention.
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Nebbitt, V. E., Lombe, M., & Lindsey, M. A. (2007).
Perceived
parental behavior and peer affiliations among urban African American
adolescents. Social Work Research, 31, 163169. [You
must pay to view/download]
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In this article, the authors examine the effects of parenting behavior on
adolescents choice of peer groups, and they also assess the effects
of age and gender on the relationship between parenting behavior and
youths friendships. Researchers surveyed 238 African-American adolescents
living in urban public housing projects. Girls reported significantly higher
parental supervision than boys. No gender differences were found for parental
encouragement and support. Results suggest that parental supervision and
encouragement may have a protective effect against adolescents becoming friends
with delinquent youths. The authors suggest that these findings may have
implications for social work practice. Dr. Nebbitt is an assistant professor
of social work at Howard University. His research focuses on the relationship
between neighborhood risk and protective factors and health outcomes among
adolescents.
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Pedersen, S. (2005).
Urban
adolescents out-of-school activity profiles: Associations with youth,
family, and school transition characteristics. Applied Developmental
Science, 9, 107124. [You must pay to view/download]
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This study examined adolescents participation over time in school-based
activities, religion, and team sports and the factors that predict engagement
in these activities. Data were collected in four waves, each two years apart,
from 1,430 inner-city youth in two cohorts: a younger cohort
(i.e., in their final year of elementary school at Wave 1) and an
older cohort (i.e., in their last year of middle school at Wave
1). Across waves, the majority of participants were girls and the most commonly
reported race/ethnicity was Latina. Results show that participation in
school-based activities decreased during adolescence while participation
in religious activities increased. Three general profiles of participation
were found: (1) above-average participation in multiple domains (i.e., school,
religion, and/or sports); (2) above-average engagement in one domain; and
(3) low participation. Parental unemployment predicted low or decreasing
engagement in these activity domains. Dr. Pedersen is currently a postdoctoral
fellow at the University of Montreals Research Unit on Childrens
Psychosocial Maladjustment.
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Porterfield, S. L., & Winkler, A. E. (2007).
Teen time use
and parental education: Evidence from the CPS, MTF, and ATUS. Monthly
Labor Review, 130, 3756. [PDF - 20 pages]
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This study used data from the Current Population Survey to examine trends
in teen employment during the 1995-1996, 1999-2000, and 2003-2004 school
years for adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19. In addition, data from
the 1975-1976 and 2003-2004 Monitoring the Future survey and the 2003 and
2004 American Time Use Survey were used to look at trends in teen time use.
Results show that the teen employment rate fell in the years under study.
More specifically, the employment rate for boys dropped from 33 percent in
the 19951996 school year to 25 percent in the 20032004 school
year. The most commonly reported ways in which teens spend their time were
watching television, social activities, and sports or exercise. Over the
past several decades, the percentage of students engaged in community or
volunteer service has increased. Adolescents from families with more highly
educated parents spend more time on homework, extracurricular activities,
hobbies, reading, and writing. Dr. Porterfield is an associate professor
of social work in the School of Social Work at the University of Missouri,
St. Louis.
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Scales, P. C., Roehlkepartain, E. C., Neal, M., Kielsmeir, J.
C., & Benson, P. L. (2006).
Reducing
academic achievement gaps: The role of community service and service
learning. Journal of Experiential Education, 29, 3860.
[You must pay to view/download]
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The authors identify several factorssuch as socioeconomic status (SES),
community service and service learning, and academic achievementthat
have been linked to a range of indicators of adolescent well-being. In this
study, the authors used diverse data from 217,000 middle and high school
students to examine the relationships among SES, community service and service
learning, and academic success. First, principals were asked describe their
perception of the effect of service learning on academics and other social
outcomes. Next, students were asked to provide information about their service
to others, duration of service learning, grades, and demographics. Results
show that principals of urban schools, high poverty schools, and schools
with mostly minority students were more likely to say that service learning
has a positive effect on academics. Findings suggest that community service
and service learning appear to be related to a smaller gap in academic outcomes
between low- and high-SES students. Dr. Scales, a senior fellow at the Search
Institute, is a developmental psychologist whose research interests include
adolescent development, family life, effective schools, and healthy communities.
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Sinha, J. W., & Cnaan, R. A., Gelles, R. J. (2007).
Adolescent
risk behaviors and religion: Findings from a national study. Journal
of Adolescence, 30, 231249. [PDF - 41 pages]
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The study sought to determine whether and to what extent religion plays a
role in buffering risk behaviors in adolescents (e.g., substance use, truancy,
and sexual activity). Participants were a nationally representative sample
of 2,004 youth, ages 11 to 18, residing at home. The authors measured the
young peoples involvement in organized religious activities as well
as attitudes toward religion. The study found that teens who placed a high
value on religion and religious participation were less likely to engage
in risky behaviors, irrespective of age or other social and demographic factors.
The authors caution that this study does not investigate how and whether
religious teachings are internalized and shape behavior; they do not suggest
that religiosity and religious participation protect youth from engaging
in risky behaviors. However, the authors suggest that prevention programs
that collaborate with or are offered by local religious congregations are
important partners in supporting healthy youth development. The first author
is a postdoctoral visiting fellow at the Center for the Study of Religion
at Princeton University. The authors research interests include faith-based
social services, and the role and impact of religion or faith in
adolescents attitudes, behaviors, and life choices.
Constructive Use of Time Interventions/Programs
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Tebes, J. K., Feinn, R., Vanderploeg, J. J., Chinman, M. J., Shepard,
J., Brabham, T., et al. (2007). Impact of a positive youth development program
in urban after-school settings on the prevention of adolescent substance
use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 239247.
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This study examines the effectiveness of an afterschool positive youth
development (PYD) program for urban, minority adolescents at risk for substance
use and other problem behavior. Previous research has shown that unsupervised
out-of-school time is associated with various negative youth outcomes, including
criminal behavior and substance use. The PYD program in this study used an
18-session, evidence-based approach to teach substance use prevention skills.
The program also included health education and cultural heritage activities.
The study compared 149 adolescents in the intervention group with 155 adolescents
in a control group. Adolescents in the intervention group were significantly
more likely to view drugs as harmful and showed significantly lower substance
use 1 year after beginning the program. Dr. Tebes is an associate professor
of psychology at the Psychiatry and Child Study Center at Yale University.
His research focuses on the prevention and treatment of mental illness.
[ Go to Contents ]
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Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Kabbani, N. S. (2001). The
dropout process in life course perspective: Early risk factors at home and
school. Teachers College Record, 103, 760-822.
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This study uses a life course perspective to examine the school dropout process
using data from the Baltimore School Study (BSS), a long-term panel-study
that monitors the educational and life process of a representative sample
of children. According to self-reports, 42 percent of the 729 BSS students
dropped out of school before graduation with the majority leaving school
before completion of 10th grade. Boys in the BSS were at greater
risk of dropout. The researchers noted several risk/resource factors in 3
domains related to dropout rates; social (i.e., poverty status, family dynamics,
change in the family, sex, and race), academic (i.e., repeating a grade,
special education services), and personal (i.e., parental support, student
attitude). Researchers examined the interaction of the domain factors and
their relationship to high school dropout rates over time. The risks
and resources present at early levels of schooling predicted dropout rates
almost as well as those present later in schooling. The findings may
help to identify key points from 1st through 9th grade
that are primed for dropout prevention and intervention programs. Dr.
Alexander is a professor of sociology at the Johns Hopkins University. His
research seeks to identify features of the home, the school, and the individual
that seem to promote or impede positive school adjustment.
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Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Olson, L. S. (2001). Schools,
achievement, and inequality: A seasonal perspective. Educational Evaluation
and Policy Analysis, 23, 171191.
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This longitudinal study examined how home and community influences are related
to academic achievement gaps between students of upper and lower socioeconomic
status (SES). Study participants were a racially diverse, random sample of
790 children from 14 predominantly low-income and 6 predominantly middle-class
schools in Baltimore, Maryland. Reading and math tests were administered
each spring from first through fifth grades to measure in-school gains and
each fall to measure summer gains. Analytic models (e.g., hierarchical linear
modeling) were used to calculate the rate of academic growth over the 5-year
investigation. Results showed that lower SES students lagged behind higher
SES students in first grade on reading and math scores, and by fifth grade
they were farther behind. Boys rate of growth lagged significantly
behind girls. Although the boys were 9 years old at the end of the study,
the authors suggest that these outcomes may have relevance for boys ages
10 to 18. Dr. Alexander is a professor of sociology at Johns Hopkins University.
His research seeks to identify features of the home, school, and individual
that promote or impede positive school adjustment.
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Bali, V. A., & Alvarez, R. M. (2003). Schools and educational
outcomes: What causes the "race gap" in student test scores? Social Science
Quarterly, 84, 485507.
-
The authors analyzed test scores of students in the Pasadena (California)
Unified School District to determine whether school policies, class size,
percentage of teachers with full credentials, number of computers per student,
percentage of teachers who represent minority groups, and school programs
that target students with special talents or academic disadvantages affect
test scores differently for different racial groups. The authors found that
a high rate of credentialed teachers had the most significant effect on test
scores, benefiting all students in both reading and math. However, school
policies on credentialing did not close the race gap because nonminority
students also benefited. Factors found to close the race gap slightly included
reduced class size (for Hispanic and nonminority students); higher number
of school computers per 100 students (for Hispanic students); and racial/ethnic
diversity of teachers, which benefited Hispanic students in math and reading
and African-American students in math, but which negatively affected nonminority
students. These findings reflect those of other studies that examine racial
differences in achievement scores (Ferguson, 1998; Meier, Wrinkle, &
Polinard, 1999). Dr. Bali is an assistant professor of political science
at Michigan State University. Her current research focuses on the politics
of grade retention policies.
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Bloom, B., & Cohen, R. A. (2007). Summary health statistics for
U.S. children: National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Vital Health
Statistics, 10, 234, 179.
-
This report summarizes health statistics from the 2006 National Health Interview
Survey for American children, in which more than 29,000 households were
interviewed, including 10,000 children younger than age 18. The survey includes
information on asthma, allergies, learning disabilities, attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), prescription medication use, respondent-assessed
health status, school-loss days, and utilization of healthcare services.
Overall, 82 percent of children were considered to be in excellent or good
health. Overall good health was related to coming from families with higher
income and with health insurance. In addition, the survey indicated that
boys are more likely than girls to have been diagnosed with asthma (16 percent
compared with 11 percent), to have a learning disability (10 percent compared
with 6 percent), to have a diagnosis of ADHD (11 percent compared with 4
percent), and to have received regular prescription medications for at least
3 months (15 percent compared with 12 percent). The report does not address
mental health or drug abuse issues. Dr. Bloom is a staff member of the Division
of Health Interview Statistics at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., Oesterle, S., Fleming, C. B., &
Hawkins, J. D. (2004). The importance of bonding to school for healthy
development: Findings from the Social Development Research Group. Journal
of School Health, 74, 252261.
-
Summarizing two longitudinal studies (the Seattle Social Development Project
and Raising Healthy Children), these authors evaluated the importance of
school connectedness on a variety of problem and positive behaviors among
children and adolescents. The study also discussed the theoretical importance
of school connectedness and the influence of selected interventions in improving
school connectedness and socialization. These studies provide evidence that
school bonding is important for the healthy development of young people;
strong school bonding was associated with less tobacco, alcohol, and drug
use, as well as lower rates of criminal involvement, gang memberships, and
dropping out of school. The positive effects of school bonding extended to
high-risk groups in particular, including aggressive boys. The findings are
consistent with prior research (Resnick et al., 1997; Werner, 1992) and suggest
that focusing on how children are taught and teaching children social and
emotional competence are critical to achieving academic success. Dr. Catalano
is a professor of social work at the University of Washington, Seattle. His
professional interests include promoting positive youth development and
preventing problem behaviors.
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Ceballo, R., McLoyd, V. C., & Toyokawa, T. (2004). The influence
of neighborhood quality on adolescents educational values and school
effort. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 716739.
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This study examined interview data from a sample of 262 low-income
African-American single mothers and their 7th- and 8th-grade children and
the relationship between neighborhood conditions and adolescents
educational values and school effort. The study found that neighborhood
characteristics can affect African-American adolescents educational
values. Specifically, a concentration of more affluent neighbors was associated
with a higher valuing of education among African-American adolescents.
Adolescents residing in communities with more middle-class neighbors tend
to view education as more important and more useful. The negative impact
of impoverished neighborhood conditions on school-related outcomes found
in this study is highly consistent with other studies in this area
(Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, Klebanov, & Sealand,
1993; Crane, 1991; Datcher, 1982; Dornbusch, Ritter, & Steinberg,
1991; Duncan, 1994; Garner & Raudenbush, 1991). Dr. Ceballo is an
associate professor of psychology at the University of Michigan. Her research
investigates how contextual aspects of poverty influence childrens
development and family functioning.
-
Crum, R. M., Storr, C. L., & Anthony, J. C. (2005). Are educational
aspirations associated with the risk of alcohol use and alcohol use-related
problems among adolescents? Substance Use and Misuse, 40,
151169.
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This longitudinal study examined the relation between students educational
aspirations and alcohol use and use-related problems. Interview data were
collected from 1,183 middle school students from 19 schools in an urban school
district. Students were asked whether they had ever drunk alcohol and their
age at first use. They were also asked about alcohol use-related problems,
including whether they had been scolded for alcohol use, had gotten in trouble
at school or home, or had health problems related to alcohol use. Students
were also asked how far they thought they would progress in school. In initial
interviews, 50 percent of the sample reported using alcohol; a year later,
59 percent reported alcohol use. Contrary to the researchers expectations,
students with lower educational aspirations were not more likely to increase
alcohol use or experience more alcohol-related problems in the year between
interviews. The authors suggested that a year may not have been an adequate
interval to study the relationship between educational aspirations and alcohol
use. Dr. Crum is an associate professor of epidemiology at the Johns Hopkins
University Bloomberg School of Public Health.
-
Davis, K. D., Winsler, A., & Middleton, M. (2006). Students
perceptions of rewards for academic performance by parents and teachers:
Relations with achievement and motivation in college. Journal of Genetic
Psychology, 167, 211220.
-
The authors of this study examine the effect of external rewards on
students desire to learn and do well in school. The authors surveyed
136 college students to determine the types of external rewards their parents
and teachers provided for academic performance from elementary school through
high school. Results showed that although teacher rewards declined for both
genders over the years, boys received significantly fewer rewards from parents
as they aged whereas girls parental rewards remained stable. However,
the authors found that boys responded more strongly to rewards from teachers
than from parents, with those receiving many rewards from teachers performing
better in college and reporting high academic goals for themselves. The authors
hypothesize that boys may internalize the receipt of teacher rewards as an
indication of their academic ability, thereby boosting their confidence and
motivation. The authors therefore encourage teachers to provide positive
reinforcements, particularly for male students. The first author is a doctoral
candidate in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at the
Pennsylvania State University. The authors research interests include
adolescent development, school readiness, and urban education.
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Downey, D. B., & Vogt Yuan, A. S. (2005). Sex differences in
school performance during high school: Puzzling patterns and possible
explanations. Sociological Quarterly, 46, 299321.
-
The authors investigated why boys and girls excel at different aspects of
schooling by analyzing results of the National Education Longitudinal Studies
of 1988, 1990, and 1992. Specifically, they considered sex differences, the
influence of extracurricular activities, and teacher evaluations of boys
and girls. With respect to grades, the authors found that teachers generally
view boys as behaving more poorly in the classroom, which influences their
grading of boys downward; the opposite is true for female students. With
respect to free time, girls spend more time reading and taking art classes,
which may contribute to their higher reading and verbal test scores. In contrast,
boys spend more time working on computers for educational purposes and
participating in math and science fairs, which likely accounts for some of
their edge in math test scores. This article is intended for other social
science researchers. Dr. Downey is a professor of sociology at the Ohio State
University and Deputy Editor of the American Sociological Review.
Her research focuses on the effects of family size and parents involvement
in student development.
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Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K. Huston, A.
C., Klebanov, P., et al. (2007). School readiness and later achievement.
Developmental Psychology, 43, 14281446.
-
This article sought to establish links between three key elements of school-entry
readiness (i.e., academic, attention, and socioemotional skills) and later
school reading and math achievement. Data were analyzed from six large
longitudinal data sets. Across all six studies, the strongest predictors
of later achievement were school-entry math skills, followed by reading and
attention skills. By contrast, measures of socioemotional behaviors, including
internalizing and externalizing problems and social skills, were generally
insignificant predictors of later academic performance, even among children
with relatively high levels of problem behavior. Finally, the authors found
that patterns of association were similar for boys and girls and for children
from high and low socioeconomic backgrounds. Modified authors abstract.
Dr. Huston is a professor of child development at the University of Texas
at Austin. Her research interests focus on understanding the effects of poverty
on children and the impact of child care and income support policies on
childrens development.
-
Feldman, S. S., & Wentzel, K. R. (1990). Relations among family
interaction patterns, classroom self-restraint, and academic achievement
in preadolescent boys. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82,
813819.
-
This study investigated the relationship between parent-son interactions
at home and the childs behavior and academic achievement at school.
Sixty-five predominantly White families living in San Francisco participated
in the research. All family members participated in videotaped family interaction
tasks in the home. Mothers, fathers, and sixth-grade sons also participated
in separate interviews and completed surveys. Teachers provided information
regarding the childs classroom behavior and academic outcomes. Results
showed that positive interactions between parents were related to higher
academic achievement in their sons. Positive father-son interactions at home
influenced the childs positive behavior in class, which influenced
academic achievement. Dr. Feldman is an associate director of the Human Biology
program at Stanford University and director for the curriculum on Children
and Society. Her research focuses on socialization of children and adolescents.
-
Feldman, S. S., Wentzel, K. R., Weinberger, D. A., & Munson,
J. A. (1990). Marital satisfaction of parents of preadolescent boys and its
relationship to family and child functioning. Journal of Family Psychology,
4, 213234.
-
This study examined whether parents who have satisfying marriages have better
child and family outcomes. The authors also looked at the emotional health
of the parents and whether their child-rearing strategies influenced child
and family outcomes. Fifty mothers and forty-three fathers with sixth-grade
sons living in San Francisco participated in the study. Mothers and fathers
and sixth-grade sons participated in separate interviews. Parents completed
self-report measures of marital satisfaction, child-rearing practices, and
emotional health. The childs achievement was measured with standardized
test scores. Results found that fathers who reported satisfying marriages
had sons with less aggressive classroom behavior and more positive academic
achievement. These findings suggest that a fathers marital satisfaction
may be related to positive father-son interaction, which was linked to positive
school outcomes in a study by Feldman and Wentzel (1990; see above). Dr.
Feldman is an associate director of the Human Biology program at Stanford
University and director for the curriculum on Children and Society. Her research
focuses on socialization of children and adolescents.
-
Gennetian, L. A., Duncan, G., Knox, V., Vargas, W., Clark-Kaufman, E.,
& London, A. S. (2004). How welfare policies affect adolescents
school outcomes: A synthesis of evidence from experimental studies. Journal
of Research on Adolescence, 14, 399423.
-
Using data from eight random-assignment studies and employing meta-analytic
techniques, this article provides evidence that welfare-to-work policies
targeted at low-income parents have small adverse effects on some school
outcomes among adolescents ages 12 to 18 years at follow up. These adverse
effects were observed mostly for school performance outcomes and occurred
in programs that required mothers to work or participate in employment-related
activities and those that encouraged mothers to work voluntarily. About 2
percent more of the employed mothers reported that their adolescents repeated
a grade in school. Adolescent boys with employed mothers repeated grades
less often than did adolescent girls. The most pronounced negative effects
on school outcomes occurred for the group of adolescents who had a younger
sibling, possibly because of the increased home and sibling care responsibilities
they assumed as their mothers increased their employment. An increased percentage
of these adolescents received special educational services, were suspended,
or dropped out of school. All outcome measures are based on parents
reports. Dr. Gennetian is a senior associate at Manpower Demonstration Research
Corporation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization that seeks to enhance
the effectiveness of social policies and programs through rigorous research.
-
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing
instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology,
99, 445476.
-
Prior research posits that adolescents no longer possess strong enough writing
skills to succeed in school and in adulthood. As a result, the authors analyzed
123 studies to identify effective writing instruction strategies for students
in 4th through 12th grades. Based on their findings, they make 10 recommendations
for educators seeking to improve the writing skills of adolescents: (1) teach
strategies for planning, revising, and editing; (2) teach strategies and
procedures for summarizing reading material; (3) have students work together
to plan, draft, revise, and edit compositions; (4) set clear and specific
goals; (5) allow students to use word processing; (6) teach how to write
increasingly complex sentences; (7) provide teachers with professional
development; (8) assign writing to sharpen inquiry skills; (9) assign writing
to help students gather and organize ideas before writing a draft; and (10)
provide good models for each type of writing. Dr. Graham is a professor of
special education and literacy in the Department of Special Education at
Vanderbilt University. His primary research interests include learning
disabilities, writing instruction and writing development, and the development
of self-regulation.
-
Jeynes, W. H. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement
to urban elementary school student academic achievement. Urban
Education, 40, 237269.
-
This meta-analysis of 41 studies examines the relationship between parental
involvement and the academic achievement of urban elementary school children.
Results indicated that greater parental involvement, as defined by parental
participation in the educational processes and experiences of their children,
was related to the greater academic achievement of children, as measured
by overall academic achievement, grade point average, and standardized tests.
Although this relationship held for boys as well as for girls, overall, the
parental involvement showed somewhat greater effect for boys than for girls
as well as for White students. The author feels this finding is significant
and believes that parental involvement may be one means of reducing the
achievement gap that exists between White students and some racial minority
groups. However, the author defines minority as nonwhite, and
it is not clear whether specific minority groups were examined. In general,
the authors findings were consistent with previous studies
(Fan & Chen, 2001) that indicate a strong relationship between parental
involvement and academic outcomes. Dr. Jeynes received his doctorate from
Harvard University and is a professor of education at California State
University, Long Beach. He has written and spoken extensively on urban education
and parental involvement.
-
Jones, K. (2004). Assessing psychological separation and academic performance
in nonresident-father and resident-father adolescent boys. Child and
Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21, 333354.
-
This article examines the effect of fathers residency, psychological
separation from the father, the quality of the father-son relationship, and
the frequency of contact with the father on boys academic performance.
Participants included 50 White middle-class boys, 14 to 17 years old. The
study found that boys living in father-resident homes performed better
academically than boys living apart from their fathers. However, the quality
of the relationship between father and son was a much stronger predictor
of academic performance than resident status; whether or not they resided
with their fathers, boys performed better academically when they had frequent
contact with their fathers and when their attitudes and beliefs were similar
to those of their fathers. The author recommends that clinicians working
with underperforming students should actively engage fathers in the treatment
process and focus on issues of psychological connectedness. The author is
an assistant professor in the School of Social Work at the University of
Arkansas at Little Rock. His primary research interests include father-child
relationships and the effects of father absence on child development.
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Kenney-Benson, G. A., Pomerantz, E. M., Ryan, A. M., & Patrick,
H. (2006). Sex differences in math performance: The role of childrens
approach to schoolwork. Developmental Psychology, 42, 1126.
-
Current research indicates that girls outperform boys in math grades but
not in math test scores. To investigate these differences, this study used
a sample of 518 students to assess the relationship between boys and
girls approaches to math schoolwork (i.e., achievement goals, classroom
behavior, learning strategies, and self-efficacy) and their math performance.
Overall, the authors found that girls strive for mastery and refrain from
disruptive classroom behavior. These strategies accounted for girls
advantage over boys in terms of math grades and contributed to their adoption
of positive learning strategies over time. However, self-efficacy (i.e.,
a persons beliefs about his or her capabilities to produce effects)
was the strongest predictor of performance on achievement tests. The authors
suggest that girls may feel anxiety in test situations without the familiarity
of their teacher and classroom, whereas boys may use their anxiety about
testing to push them toward optimal performance. The authors conclude that
the testing environment may underestimate girls abilities, whereas
the classroom underestimates boys abilities. Dr. Kenney-Benson is an
assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at Allegheny College.
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Ma, X. (2001). Stability of school academic performance across subject
areas. Journal of Educational Measurement, 38, 1-18.
-
The study investigates the stability of academic achievement across subject
areas (math, science, reading and writing) among students and among schools.
Data were collected from 6,883 sixth-grade students and 148 schools to include
both individual-level (academic performance) and school-level (disciplinary
climate, academic press, and parental involvement) variables. Overall,
results show that students academic performance differed across subject
areas. That is, students did well in some subject areas but not equally
well in other subject areas. However, results did show that schools were
differentially effective in different subject areas. Findings indicate that
individual teachers or departments are more effective or successful than
others within the same school. Finally, the differences in success
were more evident among students than among schools. Findings suggest that
to ensure students have equal opportunities to succeed academically, schools
need to strive for consistency across different subject areas and/or departments.
Dr. Ma is a Professor at the University of Kentucky. His research interests
include mathematics education, school effectiveness, policy research, and
advanced quantitative methods.
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Mandara, J. (2006). The impact of family functioning on African American
males' academic achievement: A review and clarification of the empirical
literature. Teachers College Record, 108, 206223.
-
This article reviews the current state of knowledge of family functioning
and clarifies the available research on how parenting styles, physical
discipline, racial socialization, and parents academic involvement
relate to the academic achievement of African-American children, particularly
males. The review found that African-American boys were more likely to be
psychologically and behaviorally adjusted and succeed academically if they
came from families in which parents (1) are authoritative
(characterized as being supportive and nurturing while exerting a reasonable
structure and discipline) (2) encourage racial and cultural pride and (3)
are involved in schoolwork, limit nonproductive activities, and create a
constant and positive dialogue with teachers and school officials. This article
is intended for social science researchers, human service workers, and policy
makers. Dr. Mandara is an assistant professor of human development and social
policy at the Northwestern University School of Education and Social Policy.
His research examines the nature and effects of socialization and fathers
involvement and how they interact with gender, race, and socioeconomic status
to affect youths academic and social development.
-
Marsh, H. W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building
or a subversion of academic goals? Sociology of Education, 64,
172189.
-
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of part-time employment
during high school. A review of the literature suggests different perspectives.
Although some studies point to the negative effects, saying that working
distracts students from school, others suggest benefits, claiming that working
builds character and self-esteem. The author analyzed data that surveyed
more than 10,000 students when they were high school sophomores and again
when they were high school seniors. Results indicate that working during
the sophomore year is not related to a higher dropout rate for those students.
Furthermore, work done in the summer has no apparent effect on youth
academically. Those students who work to save money for college reported
the most positive influence from working, including attending college. Results
of this study support those by Greenberger and Steinberg (1986). Dr. Marsh
is a professor in the Department of Educational Studies at St. Cross College,
Oxford University. His research interests include self-concept, motivation,
and measuring teaching effectiveness.
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Morgan, S. A. (2006). Introduction: Four classwide peer tutoring
programsResearch, recommendations for implementation, and future
directions. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 22, 14.
-
This article serves as a brief overview for an issue of
Reading & Writing Quarterly. The issue focuses on four peer
tutoring programs: (1) Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS), a reading
program evaluated by researchers at Vanderbilt University; (2) START (Select
a tutoring format, Train the tutors, Arrange the environment, Run the program,
and Test for effectiveness), developed by researchers at Ohio State University;
(3) Classwide Peer Tutoring-Learning Management System, which includes a
computer technology component to assist classroom teachers and support offsite
locations; and (4) Classwide Student Tutoring Teams, developed at the State
University of New York, Fredonia. In this overview, the author discusses
the importance of evidence-based reading programs as part of the No Child
Left Behind (NCLB) Act and describes the role that peer tutoring programs
can and do play in NCLB reforms. Dr. Morgan is an associate professor in
the Special Education Program in the College of Education at The Ohio State
University. Her primary research interests include the acquisition, maintenance,
and generalization of academic skills by elementary and high school students
with mild to moderate disabilities.
-
Morisi, T. L. (2008). Youth enrollment and employment during the school
year. Monthly Labor Review, 131, 5163.
-
This study used data from the Current Population Survey to examine school
enrollment and employment patterns during the 2006-2007 school year for
adolescents ages 16 to19. During the 2006-2007 school year, 59 percent of
adolescents were enrolled in school, but not employed. Of those who were
enrolled in school and employed, 21 percent were boys and 26 percent were
girls. In contrast, 8 percent of adolescents were neither enrolled in school
nor employed during the 2006-2007 school year; this percentage has been
relatively stable since the early 1990s. In terms of race/ethnicity, White
adolescents were employed at greater rates than Black or Hispanic adolescents.
The employment rate for students has decreased since 2000 and results of
the present study suggest that the greater academic pressures (e.g., taking
more courses, taking AP courses, academic requirements for community service)
faced by adolescents may account for this decline. Interestingly, the data
indicate that greater educational attainment is related to less unemployment
and greater earnings. Dr. Morisi is an economist in the Office of Employment
and Unemployment Statistics at the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
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Noguera, P. A. (2003). The trouble with Black boys: The role and influence
of environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African
American males. Urban Education, 38, 431459.
-
This review paper begins with an analysis of the factors that place certain
individuals, specifically African-American males, at greater risk than others
for academic failure. Drawing on research from a variety of disciplines,
the author explores the ways in which environmental and cultural factors
shape the relationship between identity, particularly related to race and
gender, and academic performance. The author finds that research on effective
schools has shown that when optimal conditions for teaching and learning
are provided, high levels of academic success for students, including
African-American males, can be achieved. Dr. Noguera is a professor in the
Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. He has written extensively
on topics such as urban school reform, conditions that promote student
achievement, and race and ethnic relations in American society.
-
Nunn, G. D., & Miller, M. (2000). At-risk adolescents
perceptions of learning temperaments: Implications for educational intervention.
Journal of Instructional Psychology, 27, 266272.
-
This article examined the learning temperaments and needs differences between
at-risk students receiving psychosocial and academic interventions and an
average-performing comparison group. The author surveyed 701 10th- through
12th-grade students: 293 males and 408 females. Students were mostly middle
to lower middle class and largely White. Outcome variables were measured
using the Nunn Assessment of Learning Temperament. Findings show that at-risk
students perceive themselves as less competent than other students. At-risk
students also preferred less formally structured learning experiences, responding
positively to more abstract (e.g., Socratic method, guided discovery) and
informal (e.g., music and movement) methods. Boys in particular preferred
learning experiences that involved physical/kinesthetic movement, such as
constructing, touching, and moving around the classroom. Dr. Nunn is a professor
and program director of the School Psychology program at Idaho State University
and has developed several nationally recognized programs in the areas of
counseling, mental health, and interventions in schools.
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Pruett, M. K., Davidson, L., McMahon, T. J., Ward, N. L., & Griffith,
E. E. H. (2000). Comprehensive services for at-risk urban youth: Applying
lessons from the community mental health movement. Childrens Services:
Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 3, 6383.
-
This article first reviews the current status of at-risk inner-city youth.
Next, it describes lessons learned from the community mental health movement
related to the process of creating integrated, community-based systems of
care. Lessons learned include the need for wraparound, community-based services
for at-risk populations; the creation of mechanisms for establishing and
managing public sector service systems that combine local, State, and Federal
funds; and the roles of empowerment and the integration of services with
community resources in working with a disenfranchised and underserved population.
Finally, the authors describe their own work in implementing a comprehensive
model of service delivery for youth at risk. Their model integrates prevention,
treatment, and advocacy for youth and their families and helps build bridges
between schools and their communities to provide a community support services
program that addresses the interrelated problems of school dropout and youth
violence. Dr. Pruett is a noted speaker, clinician, and scholar. She is a
professor at the Smith College School for Social Work.
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Robinson, D. R., Schofield, J. W., & Steers-Wentzell, K. L. (2005).
Peer and cross-age tutoring in math: Outcomes and their design implications.
Educational Psychology Review, 17, 327362.
-
The article summarizes findings from 28 studies that looked at the effect
of peer and cross-age tutoring in mathematics for African-American, other
minority, and Caucasian students. The authors review research that reveals
positive academic, attitudinal, and socioemotional outcomes for tutors and
tutees in tutoring programs that ranged in duration from 2 weeks to several
years. Positive outcomes included students improved attitude towards
school and a sense of academic efficacy and their enhanced self-concepts.
Longer tutoring programs may not foster greater, immediate gains, and same-sex
pairs may benefit more from peer tutoring programs than mixed-sex pairs.
The authors discuss implications of findings for the development of peer
and cross-age tutoring programs, including the importance of finding ways
to emphasize the fact that tutors and tutees are assuming new roles in the
classroom because this may be linked to more positive outcomes for tutor
and tutee. The authors are researchers at the Learning Research and Development
Center at the University of Pittsburgh.
-
Rothstein, D. S. (2007). High school employment and youths academic
achievement. Journal of Human Resources, 42, 194213.
-
This study investigates whether employment during high school affects
students grade point average. It was hypothesized that grade point
average is an indicator of longer term academic achievement outcomes, such
as whether one graduates from high school and enrolls in a 2- or 4-year college.
Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 on almost
9,000 students ages 12 to 17, the author finds that more than a third of
youth work at some point during 10th grade, about 60 percent work during
11th grade, and more than two-thirds work during 12th grade. Consistent with
prior research (Turner, 1994; Tyler, 2003), the authors findings are
that high school employment has small, negative effects on academic grade
point average for both males and females. Dr. Rothstein is a research economist
at the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
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Scales, P. C., Roehlkepartain, E. C., Neal, M., Kielsmeir, J.
C., & Benson, P. L. (2006). Reducing academic achievement gaps:
The role of community service and service learning. Journal of Experiential
Education, 29, 3860.
-
The authors identify several factorssuch as socioeconomic status (SES),
community service and service learning, and academic achievementthat
have been linked to a range of indicators of adolescent well-being. In this
study, the authors used diverse data from 217,000 middle and high school
students to examine the relationships among SES, community service and service
learning, and academic success. First, principals were asked to describe
their perception of the effect of service learning on academics and other
social outcomes. Next, students were asked to provide information about their
service to others, duration of service learning, grades, and demographics.
Results show that principals of urban schools, high-poverty schools, and
schools with mostly minority students were more likely to say that service
learning has a positive impact on academics. Findings suggest that community
service and service learning appear to be related to a smaller gap in academic
outcomes between low- and high-SES students. Dr. Scales, a senior fellow
at the Search Institute, is a developmental psychologist whose research interests
include adolescent development, family life, effective schools, and healthy
communities.
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Skinner, C. H., Neddenriep, C. E., Robinson, S. L., Ervin, R., &
Jones, K. (2002). Altering educational environments through positive peer
reporting: Prevention and remediation of social problems associated with
behavior disorders. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 191202.
-
In this article, the authors describe and analyze disciplinary systems designed
to prevent inappropriate or antisocial behavior among students in the classroom.
Often, teachers rely on students to monitor and report their peers
antisocial behavior; however, the authors find that this type of classroom
management strategy may adversely affect the social development and social
relations of students with behavior and/or social and emotional disorders.
Students with behavior disorders may be more likely to be rejected by peers
and, therefore, may receive fewer opportunities to develop and master their
social skills. The authors review and analyze two alternative strategies
by which students are encouraged to monitor and report appropriate prosocial
behaviors among their classmates. The authors find that these strategies
increase both positive peer interaction and students initiation of
social interactions while decreasing negative peer interaction rates of socially
rejected children. Dr. Skinner is a professor of school psychology at the
University of Tennessee. His research focuses on developing behavioral theory
and applying procedures in educational settings to prevent and remedy students'
social, emotional, and academic problems.
-
Staff, J., & Mortimer, J. T. (2007). Educational and work strategies
from adolescence to early adulthood: Consequences for educational attainment.
Social Forces, 85, 11691194.
-
Using longitudinal data from the Youth Development Study, the authors
investigated the relationship between the number of hours adolescents worked
and their educational aspirations. More than 1,000 ninth graders located
in an economically representative greater metropolitan area were surveyed.
The teens were surveyed annually from 9th through 12th grades, supplying
information regarding their work experiences, educational plans for the future,
and school achievement. Results show that more financially advantaged youth
who reported high levels of educational promise (higher grades) struck a
better balance between work and school hours compared with students who were
less economically advantaged and had lower educational promise, who worked
more intensely and sporadically. However, researchers suggested that students
who were able to balance part-time work and school were more likely to succeed
in higher education, regardless of their initial level of educational promise.
Dr. Staff is an assistant professor of Crime, Law, and Justice and Sociology
at Penn State University. His research interests include criminology and
life course studies.
-
Stewart, E. B. (2007). Individual and school structural effects on African
American high school students academic achievement. High School
Journal, 91, 1634.
-
This study examined the effects of individual- and family-level factors and
school characteristics on students academic achievement. Data were
drawn from the National Educational Longitudinal Study to produce a sample
of 1,238 African-American 10th-grade students. The results suggest that
individual-level predictors, such as student effort, parent-child discussion,
and associations with positive peers, play a substantial role in increasing
students' achievement. Furthermore, the results also suggest that school
climate, in particular the sense of school cohesion felt by students, teachers,
and administrators, is important to successful student outcomes, such as
higher grades. Dr. Stewart is a research faculty member at the Center for
Criminology and Public Policy Research at Florida State University. Her research
interests focus on understanding how teachers can effectively integrate
technology into their classes and on the education of African-American students.
-
Vitaro, F., LaRocque, D., Janosz, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2001).
Negative social experiences and dropping out of school. Educational
Psychology, 21, 401415.
-
This study explores whether disruptiveness and poor academic performance
are key triggers that lead boys to drop out of school. Using a sample of
751 low-income boys, the authors also examined social and familial factors
as potential buffers of early school withdrawal. Results confirmed that early
disruptiveness and poor academic performance predict dropout, but the influence
of these variables varied according to dropout age. Low social acceptance
from classmates did not affect early school disengagement. However, having
deviant/dropout friends played a significant role in whether a boy dropped
out of school. Family factors did not serve as a buffer on this influence.
The authors discuss the social and psychological processes that lead early
disruptive boys to drop out of school, and they highlight the importance
of targeting early disruptiveness and academic difficulties to prevent school
dropout. Modified author abstract. Dr. Vitaro is affiliated with the Research
Unit on Childrens Psychosocial Maladjustment at the University of
Montréal.
-
Warren, J. R., & Cataldi, E. F. (2006). A historical perspective
on high school students paid employment and its association with high
school dropout. Sociological Forum, 21, 113143.
-
This article documents historical trends in the paid employment of African
American and White high school students. Using data from 1968 to 2000, the
authors examine the relationship between African-American and Caucasian high
school matriculation and employment and how this connection has changed over
time. Results indicate that employment rates have stayed relatively constant
among African-American and Caucasian youth. Furthermore, although data indicate
that a sophomore working more than 20 hours per week does have an increased
chance of dropping out, the same is true for students kept back for 1-year
in high school. Popular culture often believes that more teenagers are working
today than ever before, but todays employment rates for boys are similar
to those of 1980. Dr. Warren is an associate professor of sociology at University
of Minnesota, and his areas of research are social stratification and the
sociology of education.
-
Whitlock, J. L. (2006). Youth perceptions of life at school: Contextual
correlates of school connectedness in adolescence. Applied Developmental
Science, 10, 1329.
-
This study used quantitative and qualitative methods to examine the relationship
between school connectedness and perceived developmental supports in a sample
of suburban high school students in the northeastern United States. The study
included 305 predominantly White 8th, 10th, and 12th graders. Overall, findings
from this study suggest that factors contributing to school connectedness
include the perception that students feel cared for by teachers and staff,
that they are included in school decision making (e.g., have input in school
policies), and that they are taught relevant material in an engaging manner.
Interestingly, seniors expressed feeling less supported and less academically
connected than did the 8th and 10th graders, although positive parental
relationships mediated this difference. The authors work is intended
for education policymakers, educators, and other researchers in this field.
The author is a professor at Cornell University and is the Director of the
Cornell Research Program on Self-Injurious Behaviors. Her research focuses
on adolescent health, adolescent development and identity formation, and
self-injurious behavior in adolescents and young adults.
-
Williams, J. H., Davis, L. E., Johnson, S. D., Williams, T. R., Saunders,
J. A., & Nebbitt, V. E. (2007). Substance use and academic performance
among African American high school students. Social Work Research, 31,
151161.
-
In this study, the authors examined to what extent substance use, family,
individual, and financial concerns were associated with academic performance
among a sample of 212 African American students attending an urban high school
located in the midwestern United States. The student body was 99 percent
African-American, with approximately equal numbers of boys and girls. The
results indicated that marijuana use, parental substance use, and family
financial concerns were associated with students academic intentions.
Grade point average was associated with both marijuana use and parental substance
use. These results highlight the importance of taking into account parental
substance use when examining the link between substance abuse and academic
performance among African-American students. Dr. Williams is dean of the
Graduate School of Social Work at the University of Denver. His primary areas
of research include mental health, delinquency, youth violence, and social
issues of the African-American community.
Education Interventions/Programs
-
Battistich, V., Schaps, E., Watson, M., Solomon, D., & Lewis,
C. (2000). Effects of the Child Development Project on students drug
use and other problem behaviors. Journal of Primary Prevention, 21,
7599.
-
This study examines the effectiveness of the Child Development Project (CDP)
on students drug use and other problem behaviors. CDP is a school-based
prevention program developed to promote childrens resilience to risk
and to foster positive social, emotional, and intellectual development. Study
participants were 5,500 students and 550 teachers at 24 rural, urban, and
suburban elementary schools. The schools had diverse student populations;
approximately half the students were male. Following baseline assessments,
the program was introduced over a period of 3 years. Similar schools in the
same districts served as comparison groups. Evaluation findings indicated
that when the program was implemented widely throughout a school, there were
significant reductions in students use of drugs. Students in the CDP
schools were also significantly less likely to run away from home or be involved
in a gang. Dr. Battistich is an associate professor in the Division of
Educational Psychology, Research and Evaluation at the University of Missouri-St.
Louis.
-
Corn, K. L., & Moore, D. D. (1992). Reach for the
S.T.A.R.S.Students Teaching and Reaching Students: A two-faceted peer
facilitating program at Greenfield-Central High School. School Counselor,
40, 6872.
-
In this article, the authors describe the design, implementation, and operation
of peer tutoring and peer support groups at a high school after the emotional
impact of a students suicide. Although the high school administrators
felt that they had always facilitated a supportive environment, this suicide
caused them to research new ways that they could further help their students
cope. The groups were intended to bring together people with mutual problems
and concerns and reach more students than individual counseling could. Peer
tutors and facilitators were selected based on teacher recommendations. Peer
tutoring was popular, with 85 percent of the requests being for math assistance.
Of those tutored, 43 percent saw their grades rise. Categories for the personal
development groups were selected by students and teachers and included death,
divorce, self-esteem, family relationships, and pregnancy. After participating,
students showed better decision-making skills, increased self-esteem, and
improved relations with others. The authors suggest that this article could
help other high school administrators and teachers develop student-led mentoring
and tutoring programs and recommend these groups as a way to help more students
with a schools limited resources. The authors were both affiliated
with Greenfield-Central High School at the time this article was written.
-
Durlak, J. A., Taylor, R. D., Kawashima, K., Pachan, M. K., DuPre, E.
P., Celio, C. I., et al. (2007). Effects of positive youth development programs
on school, family, and community systems. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 39, 269-286.
-
This study provides the review of 526 youth development programs (YDP) that
were geared towards social system change. They found that 64 percent of the
interventions attempted some type of system-wide change involving schools,
families, or community-based organizations. The interventions goals
were to foster personal and social skills in children and adolescents. Results
of the review indicate that attempts to change social systems affecting children
and adolescents can be successful. Results also show that successful school-based
youth development programs attempted to change aspects of the schools
social climate. Findings suggest components of YDPs may be used to enhance
the family environment and/or modify parenting practices and connect young
people to prosocial adult role models through mentoring relationships, and
after school programs. Dr. Durlak is a professor of psychology at Loyola
University in Chicago. His primary research interests are in prevention and
promotion programs for children and adolescents.
-
Freiberg, H. J., Connell, M. L., & Lorentz, J. (2001). Effects
of Consistency Management on student mathematics achievement in seven Chapter
I elementary schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk,
6, 249-270.
-
In this study, the authors measured the effectiveness of the
Consistency
Management & Cooperative Discipline (CMCD) program. The CMCD
program is based on five themes: prevention, caring, cooperation, organization,
and community. The study took place in 7 urban elementary schools with a
95 percent Latino population over the course of 1 school year. About 200
students in 3 schools who received the CMCD intervention were compared with
300 students in 4 schools not receiving the intervention. Researchers used
the mathematics subtest of the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills to measure
math achievement. Students in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades in the
intervention group showed higher achievement gains than students from the
schools without the CMCD program. Researchers also noted that schools with
the CMCD intervention showed improved teacher and student attendance rates,
and students in these classes exhibited lower levels of disruptive behavior.
Dr. Freiberg is a professor in the College of Education and Director of the
CMCD project at the University of Houston in Texas.
-
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R. &
Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening
protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine,
153, 226-234.
-
This study examined the long term effects of a universal intervention program
on elementary school students from a high crime urban area. The researchers
created an intervention with 3 conditions. One hundred forty-nine students
received the full intervention (e.g., teacher training, child social and
emotional skill development, and parent training) from 1st through
6th grade, 243 students received the intervention in
5th and 6th grade only, and the 206 students in the
control group received no intervention. Self-report, school, and court records
which examined measures of sexual activity, school performance, and delinquency
were collected when students were in 5th grade and again at age
17. Results indicate that when compared to the control group, students in
the full intervention group were significantly less likely to be sexually
active, less likely to have fathered a child, and have significantly higher
levels of school achievement. It is important to note that students in the
late intervention group did not differ significantly from those in the control
group. These results suggest the potential positive effect of early prevention
and intervention programs. Dr. Hawkins is the Endowed Professor of Prevention
and Founding Director of the Social Development Research Group, School of
Social Work at the University of Washington in Seattle. His research focuses
on understanding and preventing child and adolescent health and behavior
problems.
-
Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2004). The Coping Power Program
for preadolescent aggressive boys and their parents: Outcome effects at the
1-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72,
571578.
-
This study evaluates the effectiveness of the
Coping Power
Program, a preventive intervention for aggressive children. The intervention
addresses deficits in social competence, self-regulation, school bonding,
and positive parental involvement. The study included 1,578 fourth- and
fifth-grade boys and their families, randomly assigned to the intervention
or control group. One year following the intervention, the evaluation found
that the Coping Power Program produced lower rates of covert
delinquent behavior among boys than among boys in the group that did not
receive the program. The evaluation also found improvements in teacher-rated
behavior in school among boys participating in the program. This article
is intended for social science researchers and program providers who may
be interested in implementing the Coping Power Program. Dr. Lochman is a
professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Alabama. His
research interests include prevention and treatment of aggressive and antisocial
behavior in children and adolescents and contextual and parenting risk factors
for childrens aggressive behavior.
-
McMaster, K. L., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. (2006). Research on
Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies: The promise and limitations of peer-mediated
instruction. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 22, 525.
-
This article summarizes the features and activities of the Peer-Assisted
Learning Strategies (PALS) program and describes procedures for implementing
the program for kindergarten through high school students. Sample PALS lesson
sheets are included. The authors summarize findings for PALS in large-scale
experimental research in 33 classrooms where two groups of students were
involved in the peer-assisted learning strategies and compared with a group
of students who were not involved. Students in the PALS groups had better
reading scores than the comparison group of students. The authors conclude
that PALS is effective as a supplement to conventional teaching methods to
promote reading skills. Dr. McMaster is a professor at the University of
Minnesota whose research focuses on the development of instructional practices
for academically diverse learners, including students at risk and students
from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Drs. Douglas and
Lynn Fuchs, along with colleagues, developed the PALS program to strengthen
reading competencies. The U.S. Department of Educations Program
Effectiveness Panel approved the PALS reading program for
inclusion in the National Diffusion Network on effective educational practices.
-
Terrion, J. L. (2006). Building social capital in vulnerable families:
Success markers of a school-based intervention program. Youth &
Society, 38, 155176.
-
The objective of this qualitative study was to determine markers of success
for participants and stakeholders in the
Families
and Schools Together (FAST) program. FAST is a school-based program with
the goals of improving family functioning and preventing school failure.
Semi-structured interview data were collected from six FAST parent participants
and six FAST stakeholders (e.g., social worker, teacher, school principal).
Results revealed six markers of success for FAST participants: (1) increased
participation in, and connectedness to, the community by parents; (2) increased
time spent and quality of communication between parents and children; (3)
improved relations between parents and schools; (4) enhanced personal development
of parents and children (e.g., sense of empowerment, confidence); (5) improved
relationships or development of new relationships by children; and (6) decreased
amount of undesirable behavior by children. The author suggests that these
success markers indicate the development of social capital (i.e., social
resources on which an individual can draw) among FAST participants. Dr. Terrion
is an assistant professor in the Department of Communication at the University
of Ottawa. Her research interests include mentoring relationships and their
effect on mentors and mentees.
-
Theodore, L. A., Bray, M. A., & Kehle, T. J. (2004). A comparative
study of group contingencies and randomized reinforcers to reduce disruptive
classroom behavior. School Psychology Quarterly, 19, 253271.
-
This research compares the effectiveness of three different strategies to
reduce disruptive classroom behavior. Three 17-year-old males with serious
emotional disturbance and oppositional defiance disorder participated in
the study, which took place in a classroom setting. An alternating treatment
design was used to determine the different treatment effects for independent,
interdependent, and dependent group strategies. The frequency of disruptive
behavior (e.g., voicing obscene words, not following directions, talking
to students who were working, verbal putdowns) was measured using direct
observation. Results suggest that for the three adolescents, dependent group
strategy was slightly more effective than the independent or interdependent
group strategies. A possible reason for the effectiveness of the dependent
strategy was that each participant was aware that his behavior could affect
his peers earning rewards. The authors suggest that group strategies
not be used if there is a possibility of retaliation against the target students.
The authors propose that these findings are useful for school psychologists
who are considering ways to manage disruptive classroom behavior. Dr. Theodore
is an assistant professor of psychology at Hofstra University.
-
Wassef, A., Mason, G., Collins, M. L., OBoyle, M., & Ingham,
D. (1996). In search of effective programs to address students emotional
distress and behavioral problemsPart III: Student assessment of
school-based support groups. Adolescence, 31, 116.
-
In this article, the authors present findings from students assessment
of a school-based support group for emotional and behavioral problems.
Students ages 14 to 19, who were experiencing emotional
distress or behavioral problems, volunteered to participate in the groups.
Students met in classroom settings for 50 minutes each week during the school
year. Discussion sessions were facilitated by two adult volunteers who were
not mental health workers but who had completed training on group facilitation.
Students talked about school- and home-related issues and ways to cope with
stressful situations. At the end of the 3-year implementation period, data
were collected from 131 participants, assessing the effects of the discussion
groups on their schoolwork, relationships with others, and how they felt
about themselves. Students reported developing new ways to deal with problems,
increased self-esteem, and an increased ability to support friends. The authors
suggest these findings can be used by educators to implement programs for
school-based, peer support groups. Dr. Wassef is an assistant professor in
the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the University of
Texas Medical School at Houston.
-
Wright, J., & Cleary, K. S. (2006). Kids in the tutor seat: Building
schools capacity to help struggling readers through a cross-age
peer-tutoring program. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 99107.
-
This article describes the evaluation of a cross-age peer tutoring intervention
program designed to improve the reading speed rate of delayed readers. Four
elementary schools in a single urban district were selected for the study.
Across the 4 schools, 27 tutor/tutee pairs were selected from the 2nd, 3rd,
and 4th grades. Students being tutored in the study increased their reading
speed at an average rate of one additional word per weekly tutoring session.
The authors note that children being tutored in the study built their fluency
at a rate that matched or approached that of typical readers at their grade
level. The tutors reading speed rates also increased over the 20-week
intervention period. The findings of this research are supported by the results
of a large-scale study on peer-assisted learning strategies reported by McMaster
and colleagues (McMaster, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2006; see above). Dr.
Wright is a school administrator with the Baldwinsville (New York) Central
School District.
[ Go to Contents ]
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Apel, R., Paternoster, R., Bushway, S. D., & Brame, R. (2006).
A job isnt just a job: The differential impact of formal versus informal
work on adolescent problem behavior. Crime & Delinquency, 52,
333369.
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In this article, the authors address the relationship between adolescent
involvement in work and delinquency. Through the analyses of data from the
1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, the authors found that adolescents
who work intensively in formal jobs are more delinquent and abuse substances
more often than those who do not. Those adolescents who engaged in informal
employment (i.e., babysitting, lawn work) were more likely to abuse substances
but less likely to be involved in delinquency. However, the authors also
found that youth at high risk for delinquency and substance use, particularly
boys, are more likely to seek formal employment. These findings are consistent
with those of other studies (Bushway & Reuter, 2002; Uggen, 2000).
Dr. Apel is an assistant professor in the Department of Criminology and Criminal
Justice at the University of South Carolina. His research interests include
patterns of victimization and the relationship between employment and deviance
during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood.
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Carter, E. W., & Lunsford, L. B. (2005). Meaningful work: Improving
employment outcomes for transition-age youth with emotional and behavioral
disorders. Preventing School Failure, 49, 6369.
-
This article is a literature review that seeks to identify the components
of secondary educational programming that may contribute to improved employment
outcomes for adolescents with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). The
authors recommend that comprehensive and effective transitional programming
for young adults with EBD address four key skill areassocial, vocational,
academic, and self-determinationand four key support areascommunity
linkages, workplace supports, family involvement, and student involvement.
This article is intended for practitioners providing secondary transition
services to adolescents with EBD. Dr. Carter is an assistant professor in
the Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison. The authors research interests include
adolescents with disabilities, students with behavioral problems, and secondary
transition from school to adult life.
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Gardecki, R. M. (2001). Racial differences in youth employment. Monthly
Labor Review, 124, 5167.
-
This study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997 (NLSY
97) to examine factors that affect youth employment and whether there are
differences based on race/ethnicity. Results of this study show that job
holding among teens has increased over the past several decades, with about
60 percent of youth employed at the time of this survey. More non-Black,
non-Hispanic adolescents (71 percent) held jobs than either Black or Hispanic
adolescents (52 percent each). Regardless of racial group, the authors found
that job holding during adolescence increases the probability of later
employment. In terms of factors that affect the probability of adolescent
employment, being Black or Hispanic decreases the probability of employment,
while being female increases the probability of employment. Completion of
more years of formal education increases the probability of employment, as
does a belief that the majority of ones peers plan to attend college.
Parental employment has a positive impact on youth employment while living
in areas with high poverty or unemployment rates decreases the probability
of employment. At the time of publication, Dr. Gardecki was a senior research
associate at the Center for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State University.
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Johnson, M. K. (2004). Further evidence on adolescent employment and substance
use: Differences by race and ethnicity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,
45, 187197.
-
Previous research studies have found that adolescents who spend more time
in paid work report higher levels of substance abuse; this article examines
whether this is also evident across racial and ethnic groups. Using data
from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, the study found
that the effect of work intensity on substance use was mostly limited to
White adolescents. This study does not empirically address the reasons for
the difference across racial and ethnic groups. However, the author suggests
that minority adolescents living in economically depressed areas with fewer
employers and high unemployment rates are less likely to be employed, so
minority teens who are able to find employment may have characteristics that
distinguish them from their peers. In addition, adolescents who are working
to save money for schooling or to contribute to their families may be less
likely to engage in substance use than their peers who are using their earnings
primarily for leisure. The author cautions policymakers that laws restricting
the number of hours per week teens can work could have unintended adverse
consequences for some minority groups. Dr. Johnson is assistant professor
of sociology at Washington State University. Her research focuses on education
and work-related processes during adolescence and the transition to adulthood.
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Marsh, H. W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building
or a subversion of academic goals? Sociology of Education, 64,
172189.
-
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of part-time employment
during high school. A review of the literature suggests different perspectives.
Whereas some researchers point to the negative effects, saying that working
distracts students from school, others suggest benefits, claiming that working
builds character and self-esteem. The author analyzed data that surveyed
more than 10,000 students when they were high school sophomores and again
when they were high school seniors. Results indicate that working during
the sophomore year is not related to a higher dropout rate for those students.
Furthermore, work done in the summer has no apparent effect on youth
academically. Students who work to save money for college reported the most
positive influence from working, including attending college. Results of
this study support those by Greenberger and Steinberg (1986). Dr. Marsh is
a professor in the Department of Educational Studies at St. Cross College,
Oxford University. His research interests include self-concept, motivation,
and measuring teaching effectiveness.
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Morisi, T. L. (2008). Youth enrollment and employment during the school
year. Monthly Labor Review, 131, 5163.
-
This study used data from the Current Population Survey to examine school
enrollment and employment patterns during the 2006-2007 school year for
adolescents ages 16 to19. During the 2006-2007 school year, 59 percent of
adolescents were enrolled in school, but not employed. Of those who were
enrolled in school and employed, 21 percent were boys and 26 percent were
girls. In contrast, 8 percent of adolescents were neither enrolled in school
nor employed during the 2006-2007 school year; this percentage has been
relatively stable since the early 1990s. In terms of race/ethnicity, White
adolescents were employed at greater rates than Black or Hispanic adolescents.
The employment rate for students has decreased since 2000 and results of
the present study suggest that the greater academic pressures (e.g., taking
more courses, taking AP courses, academic requirements for community service)
faced by adolescents may account for this decline. Interestingly, the data
indicate that greater educational attainment is related to less unemployment
and greater earnings. Dr. Morisi is an economist in the Office of Employment
and Unemployment Statistics at the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
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Paternoster, R., Bushway, S., Brame, R., & Apel, R. (2003). The
effect of teenage employment on delinquency and problem behaviors. Social
Forces, 82, 297335.
-
The authors of this longitudinal study set out to determine whether working
increases the likelihood of teen delinquent behavior. Data were drawn from
the 1997 and 1999 National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth. Respondents were
12 to 16 years old. Contrary to expectations, results showed no significant
association between adolescent work and antisocial behavior. This finding
is also contrary to much of the previous research in this area
(Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993; Wright, Cullen, & Williams,
1997). The authors suggest that delinquent behavior may be the result of
pre-employment differences between youth rather than the effects of working.
Dr. Paternoster is a professor of criminology and criminal justice at University
of Maryland and a researcher at the Maryland Population Research Center.
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Pickering, L. E., & Vazsonyi, A. T. (2002). The impact of adolescent
employment on family relationships. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17,
196218.
-
This article examines the effect of adolescent employment on family
relationships, specifically looking at emotional closeness, parental monitoring,
conflict, communication, and time spent together. Data were collected from
three categories of adolescents: nonworkers, low-intensity workers (less
than 20 hours per week), and high-intensity workers (20 or more hours per
week). The study found that low-intensity adolescent workers reported the
highest level of family functioning, high-intensity workers reported the
lowest levels, and nonworkers were in between. The authors also found that
relationships between work intensity and family process were highly similar
between males and females and between younger and older adolescents. This
article is intended for other social science researchers. Dr. Pickering is
an assistant professor in the Department of Child and Family Studies at the
University of Southern Mississippi. His research interests include protective
factors against adolescent deviant behavior, family and parenting processes,
and adolescent adjustment and well-being.
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Porterfield, S. L., & Winkler, A. E. (2007). Teen time use and
parental education: Evidence from the CPS, MTF, and ATUS. Monthly Labor
Review, 130, 3756.
-
This study used data from the Current Population Survey to examine trends
in teen employment during the 1995-1996, 1999-2000, and 2003-2004 school
years for adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19. In addition, data from
the 1975-1976 and 2003-2004 Monitoring the Future survey and the 2003 and
2004 American Time Use Survey were used to look at trends in teen time use.
Results show that the teen employment rate fell in the years under study.
More specifically, the employment rate for boys dropped from 33 percent in
the 19951996 school year to 25 percent in the 20032004 school
year. The most commonly reported ways in which teens spend their time were
watching television, social activities, and sports or exercise. Over the
past several decades, the percentage of students engaged in community or
volunteer service has increased. Adolescents from families with more highly
educated parents spend more time on homework, extracurricular activities,
hobbies, reading, and writing. Dr. Porterfield is an associate professor
of social work in the School of Social Work at the University of Missouri,
St. Louis.
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Ringel, J. S., Ellickson, P. L., & Collins, R. L. (2007). High
school drug use predicts job-related outcomes at age 29. Addictive Behaviors,
32, 576589.
-
This article examines the relationship of high school drug use and subsequent
job-related outcomes. The authors used data from a longitudinal study of
students who participated in
Project
ALERT, a school-based drug prevention program. Overall, the results suggest
that adolescent hard drug use is linked with poorer occupational and job
quality outcomes as much as 10 years after high school. The results differed
by gender; females who use hard drugs as adolescents tend to end up in lower
skill, lower status jobs, whereas males are more likely to end up in jobs
with fewer benefits (e.g., health insurance, retirement benefits, and paid
vacation). The authors suggest that hard drug use may have an effect on an
individuals access to high-quality jobs because of limited educational
attainment and/or job performance. In addition, they suggest that early drug
use may continue into early adulthood, affecting current job performance,
job access, and job quality. This article is intended for social science
researchers. Dr. Ringel is an economist with the RAND Corporation. Her primary
research interests include adolescent drug use, the economic costs of substance
abuse, and drug prevention.
-
Roche, K. M., Ensminger, M. E., Chilcoat, H., & Storr, C. (2003).
Establishing independence in low-income urban areas: The relationship to
adolescent aggressive behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family,
65, 668680.
-
The authors assert that adolescents in low-income, urban areas often assume
independent, adult-like roles but that relatively little is known about the
relationship between these roles and other adolescent behaviors. This study,
therefore, examined the association between independent roles occurring within
different contexts (e.g., family, peer, work) and aggressive behavior among
516 low-income, urban middle school students. Overall, adolescents were found
to be less aggressive when establishing independence within familiar contexts
and more aggressive outside familiar settings. Adolescent employment was
associated with increased aggression. However, unemployed adolescents tended
to be more aggressive when dating and attending parties than employed
adolescents. Higher levels of parental monitoring and lower levels of deviant
peer affiliation and neighborhood aggression were related to decreases in
youth aggressive behavior during middle school, which is consistent with
previous research findings (Herrenkohl et al., 2000; Loeber &
Stouthamer-Loeber, 1986). The authors stress the complexity of teenagers
lives today and note that aggressive behavior can be influenced by any number
of variables. Dr. Roche is an assistant professor in the Bloomberg School
of Public Health at Johns Hopkins University. Her research focuses on the
influence of families and neighborhoods on adolescent health and well-being.
-
Rothstein, D. S. (2007). High school employment and youths' academic
achievement. Journal of Human Resources, 42, 194213.
-
This study investigates whether employment during high school affects
students grade point average. It was hypothesized that grade point
average is an indicator of longer term academic achievement outcomes, such
as whether one graduates from high school and enrolls in a 2- or 4-year college.
Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 on almost
9,000 students ages 12 to 17, the author finds that more than a third of
youth work at some point during 10th grade, about 60 percent work during
11th grade, and more than 66 percent work during twelfth grade. Consistent
with prior research (Turner, 1994; Tyler, 2003), the authors findings
are that high school employment has small, negative effects on academic grade
point average for both males and females. Dr. Rothstein is a research economist
at the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
-
Staff, J., & Mortimer, J. T. (2007). Educational and work strategies
from adolescence to early adulthood: Consequences for educational attainment.
Social Forces, 85, 11691194.
-
Using longitudinal data from the Youth Development Study, the authors
investigated the relationship between the number of hours adolescents worked
and their educational aspirations. More than 1,000 ninth graders located
in an economically representative greater metropolitan area were surveyed.
The teens were surveyed annually from 9th through 12th grades, supplying
information regarding their work experiences, educational plans for the future,
and school achievement. Results show that more financially advantaged youth
who reported high levels of educational promise (higher grades) struck a
better balance between work and school hours compared with students who were
less economically advantaged and had lower educational promise, who worked
more intensely and sporadically. However, researchers suggested that students
who were able to balance part-time work and school were more likely to succeed
in higher education, regardless of their initial level of educational promise.
Dr. Staff is an assistant professor of Crime, Law, and Justice and Sociology
at Penn State University. His research interests include criminology and
life course studies.
-
Staff, J., & Uggen, C. (2003). The fruits of good work: Early
work experiences and adolescent deviance. Journal of Research in Crime
and Delinquency, 40, 263290.
-
In this article, the authors characterize the ideal job held during the high
school years and examine the potential link between early work experiences
and adolescent deviant behavior (disruption in school, alcohol use, and arrest).
The researchers used data from the Youth Development Study, a longitudinal
study of more than 1,000 students who were assessed over several years beginning
in ninth grade. Researchers examined different job characteristics and their
potential link to adolescent outcomes. Through extensive statistical analyses,
the results demonstrated that to reduce delinquency, adolescents jobs
must support academic achievement and offer genuine opportunities to learn
something useful. Researchers also noted that jobs in which students worked
alone and were paid high wages were associated with increased delinquent
behavior. Dr. Staff is an assistant professor of Crime, Law, and Justice
and Sociology at Penn State University. His research interests include
criminology and life course studies.
-
Warren, J. R., & Cataldi, E. F. (2006). A historical perspective
on high school students paid employment and its association with high
school dropout. Sociological Forum, 21, 113143.
-
This article documents historical trends in the paid employment of
African-American and Caucasian high school students. Using data from 1968
to 2000, the authors examine the relationship between African-American and
Caucasian high school matriculation and employment and how this connection
has changed over time. Results indicate that employment rates have stayed
relatively constant among African-American and Caucasian youth. Furthermore,
although data indicate that a sophomore working more than 20 hours per week
does have an increased chance of dropping out, the same is true for students
kept back for 1 year in high school. Popular culture often believes that
more teenagers are working today than ever before, but todays employment
rates for boys are similar to those of 1980. This article is intended for
other scientific researchers concerned about the association between adolescent
employment and high school dropout rates. Dr. Warren is an associate professor
of sociology at University of Minnesota, and his areas of research are social
stratification and the sociology of education.
[ Go to Contents ]
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Apel, R., Paternoster, R., Bushway, S. D., & Brame, R. (2006).
A job isnt just a job: The differential impact of formal versus informal
work on adolescent problem behavior. Crime & Delinquency, 52,
333369.
-
In this article, the authors address the relationship between adolescent
involvement in work and delinquency. Through the analyses of data from the
1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, the authors found that adolescents
who work intensively in formal jobs are more delinquent and abuse substances
more often than those who do not. Adolescents who engaged in informal employment
(i.e., babysitting, lawn work) were more likely to abuse substances but less
likely to be involved in delinquency. However, the authors also found that
youth at high risk for delinquency and substance use, particularly boys,
are more likely to seek formal employment. These findings are consistent
with those of other studies (Bushway & Reuter, 2002; Uggen, 2000).
Dr. Apel is an assistant professor in the Department of Criminology and Criminal
Justice at the University of South Carolina. His research interests include
patterns of victimization and the relationship between employment and deviance
during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood.
-
Bullock, B. M., Deater-Deckard, K., & Leve, L. D. (2006). Deviant
peer affiliation and problem behavior: A test of genetic and environmental
influences. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 2941.
-
This study investigates the genetic and environmental causes of childhood
deviant peer affiliation and problem behavior by assessing 77 identical and
72 fraternal predominantly White twin pairs, ages 6 to 14. Each twin and
his or her closest friend were assessed. Findings suggest that although children
and adolescents are influenced to engage in problem behavior by deviant friends,
individual differences among youth may also contribute to this process. The
findings support the existing literature. Dr. Bullock is a research scientist
and child and adolescent psychologist at the Child and Family Center at the
University of Oregon. Her research includes examining the verbal behaviors
and family and peer dynamics that lead to the development of behavior problems,
anxiety, depression, and substance use from early childhood through adolescence.
-
Garbarino, J. (2001). Lost boys: Why our sons turn violent and how we
can save them. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 71,
169181.
-
In this article, the author proposes that the means children use to express
their frustrations and anxieties have been shaped over the years by the
environments in which they live. What was once responded to with words of
anger or vandalism is today responded to with threats and the use of weapons.
This article considers violent behavior in children from a psychosocial
perspective and provides different lenses to better understand and address
violence: an ecological perspective on human development, the accumulation
of risk and opportunity in children, a professional humility about resilience,
the inherent temperament of children, rejection, and spirituality. Regarding
risk and opportunity, the author points to consistent research that shows
that rarely, if ever, does a single risk or protective factor account for
much in the outcome of children. Rather, based on the findings, the author
concludes that the accumulation of risk and protective factors determines
an outcome. Dr. Garbarino is a professor of psychology at Loyola University
in Chicago. Dr. Garbarinos research interests include child maltreatment,
childhood aggression, and juvenile delinquency.
-
Hawkins, J. D., Herrenkohl, T. I., Farrington, D. P., Brewer, D., Catalano,
R. F., Harachi, T. W., & Cothern, L. (2000). Predictors of youth
violence. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 112.
-
This article reviews more than 50 research studies on risk and protective
factors and the development of serious and violent juvenile offending. Predictors
of violent behavior were presented in five domains: individual, family, school,
peer-related, and community and neighborhood factors. Analyses of data from
the various studies were performed to determine the strength of the relationship
between particular risk factors and violence. For youth ages 6 to 11, substance
use, parent-child interaction, and being male were predictors of future violent
behavior. For youth ages 12 to 14, predictors of violent behavior included
school attitudes/performance, lack of social ties, being male, and parent-child
relations. Many predictors of violent behavior are also predictors of substance
abuse, delinquency, school dropout, and teen pregnancy. Based on these findings,
the authors conclude that interventions targeting multiple predictors of
violent behavior may be more effective in preventing violence than those
that target single risk factors. Dr. Hawkins is a professor and the founding
director of the Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work
at the University of Washington, Seattle.
-
Jacobson, K. C., & Crockett, L. J. (2000). Parental monitoring
and adolescent adjustment: An ecological perspective. Journal of Research
on Adolescence, 10, 6597.
-
The purpose of this study was to examine whether higher levels of parental
monitoring were associated with higher adolescent grade point average (GPA),
lower levels of adolescent depression, lower levels of adolescent sexual
activity, and less juvenile delinquency. The authors also examined the
relationships between gender, grade level, and mothers work status
and parental monitoring and youth outcomes. Participants were 424 2nd- through
12th-grade students from a rural school district in Pennsylvania. The sample
included 197 boys. All students were White and came from predominantly
lower-to-middle class backgrounds. Students completed a questionnaire that
assessed their mental health and health-related behaviors. Results indicate
that an increased level of parental monitoring was related to lower levels
of delinquency for older adolescent boys. It was also observed that girls
had better outcomes when their mothers were employed, whereas boys had poorer
outcomes when their mothers were employed. No significant association was
reported for GPA. Dr. Jacobson is an assistant professor of psychiatry at
the University of Chicago, Department of Psychiatry. Her primary research
interests are how genetics and environmental influences interact in the
development of antisocial behavior.
-
Kaufmann, D. R., Wyman, P. A. Forbes-Jones, E. L., & Barry, J.
(2007). Prosocial involvement and antisocial peer affiliations as predictors
of behavior problems in urban adolescents: Main effects and moderating effects.
Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 417434.
-
This study examined the impact of prosocial involvement (i.e., engaging in
positive social activities) and association with antisocial peers on the
behavior of urban adolescents. The slight majority of the 199 youth who were
enrolled in this study were African American and boys (51 percent each).
Children and adolescents were administered measures of conduct, delinquent
behaviors, prosocial involvement (PI), and antisocial peer affiliation (APA)
at three time points: in 2nd or 3rd grade; at ages
9 to 11; and at ages 13 to 15. Teachers and parents also completed measures
of conduct and parents completed measures of delinquent behavior. Findings
indicate that youth who engaged in positive social activities had fewer friends
who engaged in antisocial behaviors. In addition, prosocial involvement predicted
lower rates of delinquency. In contrast, involvement with antisocial peers
predicted more conduct problems and delinquent behavior at ages 13-15. These
findings suggest that programs that promote prosocial involvement may benefit
youth who are at risk for engaging in delinquent behavior. Dr. Kaufmann is
affiliated with the University of Rochester. Her research interests include
adolescents socioemotional wellbeing, parent-child relationships, peer
relations and risk and psychosocial risk and protective factors.
-
May, D. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Virgo, K. (2002). The impact
of parental attachment and supervision on fear of crime among adolescent
males. Adolescence, 37, 267287.
-
The authors investigate whether parental attachment and supervision affect
whether adolescents fear being victimized. For this study, 318 adolescent
males in prison in a midwestern State were surveyed and reported on their
demographics, perceived safety, perceptions of risk, and the effect of parental
attachment and supervision. Although this sample is not truly representative
of the adolescent male population, the authors note that this samples
experiences might illustrate certain parental conditions that may contribute
to fear of victimization. Of the sample population, males who reported feeling
the most attached to their parents were also less fearful of criminal
victimization and felt safer in their environment than males with weaker
parental attachments. In addition, males who received closer supervision
from their parents were more fearful of criminal victimization but have lower
levels of perceived risk. Dr. May is an associate professor of correctional
and juvenile justice and coordinator of the graduate degree program at Eastern
Kentucky University. His areas of interest include alternative sentencing
effects and gender and racial differences within the criminal justice system.
-
McClelland, G. M., Teplin, L. A., & Abram, K. M. (2004). Detection
and prevalence of substance use among juvenile detainees. Juvenile Justice
Bulletin, 116.
-
In this bulletin, the authors compare self-reported drug use with the results
of urinalysis tests for the presence of drugs in a sample of 1,829 juvenile
offenders at a juvenile detention center in Cook County, Illinois. Results
indicate that the adolescents accurately reported their use of marijuana
but not cocaine and other drugs. The authors believe that adolescents underreport
the use of these drugs because the consequences of their use are more severe.
Because urinalysis is more accurate than self-report for detecting drug use,
the authors recommend using a combination of both self-report and testing.
Boys, across all racial groups, accurately self-reported their marijuana
use though accuracy improved with age. The authors point out that marijuana
use usually leads to more serious drug abuse, and 94 percent of the youth
surveyed had used drugs in their lifetimes. The findings from the study are
supported by those of other studies (Dembo et al., 1999; Mieczkowski, Newel,
& Wraight, 1998). Dr. McClelland is a senior analyst in the Department
of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern
University.
-
Meadows, S. O. (2007). Evidence of parallel pathways: Gender similarity
in the impact of social support on adolescent depression and delinquency.
Social Forces, 85, 11431167.
-
This study seeks to determine whether the mechanism that leads to depression
in adolescent girls and delinquency in adolescent boys is the same. It also
examines the role social support from parents, peers, and school plays in
the development of depression and delinquency. The author analyzed data from
12,958 adolescents who participated in the Add Health study, a nationally
representative school-based survey of health and health-related behaviors
of adolescents in grades 7 through 12. The author found that the development
of both depression and delinquency follow similar paths. Results also confirmed
that positive support from parents, peers, and teachers provides protection
against depression and delinquency. This article is intended for other social
science researchers. The author is a postdoctoral research associate in the
Office of Population Research and the Center for Research on Child Wellbeing
at Princeton University. Her primary research interests include mental health,
stress and social support, family and marriage, child well-being, crime and
delinquency, and gender.
-
Nebbitt, V. E., Lombe, M., & Lindsey, M. A. (2007). Perceived
parental behavior and peer affiliations among urban African American adolescents.
Social Work Research, 31, 163169.
-
In this article, the authors examine the effects of parenting behavior on
adolescents choice of peer groups, and they also assess the effects
of age and gender on the relationship between parenting behavior and
youths friendships. Researchers surveyed 238 African-American adolescents
living in urban public housing projects. Girls reported significantly higher
parental supervision than boys. No gender differences were found for parental
encouragement and support. Results suggest that parental supervision and
encouragement may have a protective effect against adolescents becoming friends
with delinquent youths. The authors suggest that these findings may have
implications for social work practice. Dr. Nebbitt is an assistant professor
of social work at Howard University. His research focuses on the relationship
between neighborhood risk and protective factors and health outcomes among
adolescents.
-
Pardini, D., Obradovic, J., & Loeber, R. (2006). Interpersonal
callousness, hyperactivity/impulsivity, inattention, and conduct problems
as precursors to delinquency persistence in boys: A comparison of three
grade-based cohorts. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,
35, 4659.
-
Boys who are inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive and who have conduct
problems may be at risk for exhibiting persistent delinquent behavior. Boys
who have few friends may also be at risk for delinquent behavior. However,
few studies have established the specific issues surrounding these behaviors
or examined how they may predict future delinquent behavior as boys grow
older. Using data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study, the authors explored these
issues with approximately 500 boys in 1st grade, 4th grade, and 7th grades.
Data were collected from parents, teachers, and students. Findings from this
study indicate that hyperactivity, impulsiveness, conduct disorder, and
inattentiveness were related from childhood to adolescence. However, conduct
problems significantly predicted ongoing delinquency in first-grade students,
whereas conduct problems and inattentiveness predicted ongoing delinquency
in the fourth-grade students. Interpersonal problems with classmates predicted
ongoing delinquency in seventh-grade students. The results suggest that the
influence of specific predictors of delinquent behavior may change from childhood
to adolescence. Dr. Pardini is a professor at the University of Pittsburgh
Medical Center.
-
Paternoster, R., Bushway, S., Brame, R., & Apel, R. (2003). The
effect of teenage employment on delinquency and problem behaviors. Social
Forces, 82, 297335.
-
The authors of this longitudinal study set out to determine whether working
increases the likelihood of teen delinquent behavior. Data were drawn from
the 1997 and 1999 National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth. Respondents were
12 to 16 years old. Contrary to expectations, results showed no significant
association between adolescent work and antisocial behavior. This finding
is also contrary to much of the previous research in this area
(Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993; Wright, Cullen, & Williams,
1997). The authors suggest that delinquent behavior may be the result of
pre-employment differences between youth rather than the effects of working.
Dr. Paternoster is a professor of criminology and criminal justice at University
of Maryland and a researcher at the Maryland Population Research Center.
-
Pedersen, S. (2005). Urban adolescents out-of-school activity profiles:
Associations with youth, family, and school transition characteristics.
Applied Developmental Science, 9, 107124.
-
This study examined adolescents participation over time in school-based
activities, religion, and team sports and the factors that predict engagement
in these activities. Data were collected in four waves, each two years apart,
from 1,430 inner-city youth in two cohorts: a younger cohort
(i.e., in their final year of elementary school at Wave 1) and an
older cohort (i.e., in their last year of middle school at Wave
1). Across waves, the majority of participants were girls and the most commonly
reported race/ethnicity was Latina. Results show that participation in
school-based activities decreased during adolescence while participation
in religious activities increased. Three general profiles of participation
were found: (1) above-average participation in multiple domains (i.e., school,
religion, and/or sports); (2) above-average engagement in one domain; and
(3) low participation. Parental unemployment predicted low or decreasing
engagement in these activity domains. Dr. Pedersen is currently a postdoctoral
fellow at the University of Montreals Research Unit on Childrens
Psychosocial Maladjustment.
-
Peterson, D., Taylor, T. J., & Esbensen, F. A. (2004). Gang
membership and violent victimization. Justice Quarterly, 21,
793815.
-
This study examined the relationship between gang membership, victimization,
and reasons for joining a gang. The study used both cross-sectional and
longitudinal data from a 5-year, multistate evaluation of a middle school-based
youth gang prevention program. The cross-sectional data included a sample
of 5,935 students, and the longitudinal data included a sample of 3,500 students.
Results from the cross-sectional data indicate that gang members experienced
higher levels of victimization than nongang youth before gang involvement,
during gang involvement, and after leaving a gang. Longitudinal data showed
that youth who joined gangs for protection did not have lower victimization
rates once in a gang compared with youth who joined gangs for different reasons,
such as being were forced to join, thinking it would be fun, or having a
sibling or friend in a gang. The authors suggest that interventions should
seek to lessen youths experiences as victims of violence, whereas
prevention efforts should help dispel the myth that gangs provide a safe
haven for their members. An assistant professor in the University at
Albanys School of Criminal Justice, Dr. Peterson studies the etiology
of delinquency and youth gang membership.
-
Pruett, M. K., Davidson, L., McMahon, T. J., Ward, N. L., & Griffith,
E. E. H. (2000). Comprehensive services for at-risk urban youth: Applying
lessons from the community mental health movement. Childrens Services:
Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 3, 6383.
-
This article first reviews the current status of at-risk inner-city youth.
Next, it describes lessons learned from the community mental health movement
related to the process of creating integrated, community-based systems of
care. Lessons learned include the need for wraparound, community-based services
for at-risk populations; the creation of mechanisms for establishing and
managing public sector service systems that combine local, State, and Federal
funds; and the roles of empowerment and the integration of services with
community resources in working with a disenfranchised and underserved population.
Finally, the authors describe their own work in implementing a comprehensive
model of service delivery for youth at risk. Their model integrates prevention,
treatment, and advocacy for youth and their families and helps build bridges
between schools and their communities to provide a community support services
program that addresses the interrelated problems of school dropout and youth
violence. Dr. Pruett is a noted speaker, clinician, and scholar. She is a
professor at the Smith College School for Social Work.
-
Richards, M. H., Larson, R., Miller, B. V., Luo, Z., Sims, B., Parrella,
D. P., et al. (2004). Risky and protective contexts and exposure to violence
in urban African American young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child
and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 138148.
-
This article focuses on factors that may place young people at greater or
lesser risk for exposure to community violence. The study examined which
contexts may increase or decrease the likelihood that youth will be exposed
to violence and whether exposure to violence leads to delinquent behaviors.
Researchers surveyed 167 6th- through 8th-grade, African-American students
of different income levels in Chicago. Results show that the more time
adolescents spent with peers, unmonitored, or engaged in unstructured activities,
the more likely it was that they would be exposed to violence and engage
in delinquent behavior. Overall, boys were more likely to be exposed to violence
and more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. These results are consistent
with previous studies that found that unstructured time with peers is related
to delinquent behaviors (Pettit, Bates, Dodge, & Meece, 1999). On
the other hand, time spent with families and in structured activities was
associated with less exposure to violence and fewer problem behaviors. Dr.
Richards is a professor of clinical psychology at Loyola University Chicago.
Her areas of interest include adolescence, African-American development,
and exposure to violence.
-
Roche, K. M., Ensminger, M. E., Chilcoat, H., & Storr, C. (2003).
Establishing independence in low-income urban areas: The relationship to
adolescent aggressive behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family,
65, 668680.
-
The authors assert that adolescents in low-income, urban areas often assume
independent, adult-like roles but that relatively little is known about the
relationship between these roles and other adolescent behaviors. This study,
therefore, examined the association between independent roles occurring within
different contexts (e.g., family, peer, work) and aggressive behavior among
516 low-income, urban middle school students. Overall, adolescents were found
to be less aggressive when establishing independence within familiar contexts
and more aggressive outside familiar settings. Adolescent employment was
associated with increased aggression. However, unemployed adolescents tended
to be more aggressive when dating and attending parties than employed
adolescents. Higher levels of parental monitoring and lower levels of deviant
peer affiliation and neighborhood aggression were related to decreases in
youth aggressive behavior during middle school, which is consistent with
previous research findings (Herrenkohl et al., 2000; Loeber &
Stouthamer-Loeber, 1986). The authors stress the complexity of teenagers
lives today and note that aggressive behavior can be influenced by any number
of variables. Dr. Roche is an assistant professor in the Bloomberg School
of Public Health at Johns Hopkins University. Her research focuses on the
influence of families and neighborhoods on adolescent health and well-being.
-
Ryan, L. G., Miller-Loessi, K., & Nieri, T. (2007). Relationships
with adults as predictors of substance use, gang involvement, and threats
to safety among disadvantaged urban high-school students. Journal of Community
Psychology, 35, 10531071.
-
This study examines whether specific types of relationships with parents
and school personnel protect teens from substance use, gang involvement,
and other threats to physical safety. The participants included 342 ethnically
diverse high school students in economically disadvantaged urban areas in
the southwestern United States. Among other factors, the authors measured
generalized parental support, open communication between adolescents and
adults (self-disclosure), parental monitoring, and relationships with
teachers/adults at school. The findings indicate that self-disclosure, parental
monitoring, and generalized support from parents and school personnel provide
a protective factor against teen substance use and threats to safety. On
the other hand, the study found that adult relationships are less important
than other factors, such as race/ethnic identity, substance use, and risk-seeking
behaviors in determining gang involvement. Overall, a teens self-disclosure
to parents had the greatest influence on preventing risk behaviors. In light
of this finding, the authors suggest that high-risk adolescents and their
parents could benefit from programs that work toward teaching communication
skills. The first author is affiliated with the Tucson Unified School District.
Dr. Miller-Loessi is a faculty associate in the School of Social and Family
Dynamics at Arizona State University.
-
Sharpe, E. G., & Litzelfelner, P. (2004). Juvenile case
characteristics and risk factors as predictors of re-offenses. Journal
for Juvenile Justice Services, 19, 7384.
-
Using a nonexperimental design, this study examined juvenile case records
to determine which case characteristics and risk factors may predict whether
juvenile offenders will go on to re-offend. The sample included first-time
offenders, ages 10 to 15, who entered the court system over a period of 3
years. The study found that youth who were in the custody of county or State
services at the time of the original offense or who committed a drug crime
were more likely to re-offend. Youth who had prior charges or known gang-related
activity were also likely to re-offend. The authors suggest that removing
or preventing these factors may disrupt the cycle of juvenile delinquency.
In addition, these findings can assist practitioners who work with youth
in identifying and providing intervention services to those who are likely
to commit crimes. Dr. Sharpe is affiliated with East Carolina University
School of Social Work and Criminal Justice Studies.
-
Staff, J., & Uggen, C. (2003). The fruits of good work: Early
work experiences and adolescent deviance. Journal of Research in Crime
and Delinquency, 40, 263290.
-
In this article, the authors characterize the ideal job held during the high
school years and examine the potential link between early work experiences
and adolescent deviant behavior (disruption in school, alcohol use, and arrest).
The researchers used data from the Youth Development Study, a longitudinal
study of more than 1, 000 students who were assessed over several years beginning
in ninth grade. Researchers examined different job characteristics and their
potential link to adolescent outcomes. Through extensive statistical analyses,
the results demonstrated that to reduce delinquency, adolescents jobs
must support academic achievement and offer genuine opportunities to learn
something useful. Researchers also noted that jobs in which students worked
alone and were paid high wages were associated with increased delinquent
behavior. Dr. Staff is an assistant professor of Crime, Law, and Justice
and Sociology at Penn State University. His research interests include
criminology and life course studies
-
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Loeber, R. (2002). Lost opportunities
for intervention: Undetected markers for the development of serious juvenile
delinquency. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 12,
6982.
-
This study explores the age at which boys begin to develop serious persistent
juvenile delinquency. The authors investigate the proportion of delinquent
boys who meet the criteria for a disruptive behavior disorder diagnosis and
the proportion of delinquent boys receiving help. The analyses included eight
waves of data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study, along with juvenile court
records, diagnostic information, and information about help for mental health
problems. Findings indicate that almost half the boys who eventually become
persistent serious offenders have already developed serious delinquent behavior
by age 12. Two-thirds of the boys in juvenile court had had behavior problems
for at least 5 years, and one-third were diagnosed as having a disruptive
behavior disorder by age 13. However, offenders with less than half the
persistent serious delinquency had received any help from either mental health
professionals or personnel in schools. Dr. Stouthamer-Loeber works with the
Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic at the University of Pittsburgh.
Her research includes the progression of antisocial and delinquent behaviors
in males, factors associated with the onset of conduct disorders, and factors
involved in parents seeking help for their childrens behavior
problems.
-
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Wei, E., Farrington, D. P., Wilkstöm,
P. O. (2002). Risk and promotive effects in the explanation of persistent
serious delinquency in boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
70, 111123.
-
This study examined the prevalence of persistent serious delinquency among
boys and risk and protective factors as predictors of delinquency. Persistent
serious juvenile delinquency was defined as engaging in serious delinquent
behavior (e.g., selling drugs, robbery) more than once over the course of
the study. Data were drawn from a larger longitudinal study; the sample for
the present study included 1,009 boys in the 1st (i.e., youngest
sample) and 7th grades (i.e., oldest sample). Fifty percent of
the boys were African American and fifty percent were Caucasian. The prevalence
of persistent serious delinquency was 22 percent in the youngest sample and
37 percent in the oldest sample. The strongest risk factors for delinquency
in the oldest sample were low school motivation, bad friends, and living
in a disadvantaged neighborhood while the strongest protective factors were
high accountability and good relationships with parents. The strongest risk
factors for delinquency in the youngest sample were cruel to people,
manipulative, low ability to feel guilt, and low school motivation and the
strongest protective factors were high accountability, trustworthiness, ability
to feel guilt, school motivation, and living in nondisadvantaged neighborhood.
Dr. Stouthamer-Loeber works with the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic
at the University of Pittsburgh. Her research includes the progression of
antisocial and delinquent behaviors in males, factors associated with the
onset of conduct disorders, and factors involved in parents seeking
help for their childrens behavior problems.
-
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Wei, E. H., Homish, D. L., & Loeber, R.
(2002). Which family and demographic factors are related to both maltreatment
and persistent serious juvenile delinquency? Childrens Services:
Social Policy, Research and Practice, 5, 261272.
-
This study examines the prevalence of maltreatment in boys and how maltreatment
is related to persistent serious delinquent behavior. The study sample consisted
of 503 boys in the Pittsburgh Youth Study and followed an experimental design
in which victims of maltreatment were compared with individuals in a
nonmaltreated control group. One-fifth of the sample had substantiated
maltreatment. The study also showed that maltreated boys have a higher rate
than nonmaltreated boys of persistent serious delinquency. Maltreated boys
and boys with persistent serious delinquency share many family risk factors,
including not living with both biological parents, having a teenage mother,
having a caretaker without a high school diploma, and having an unemployed
caretaker. After controlling for family interaction and family demographics,
maltreatment did not have an independent effect on persistent serious
delinquency, which is consistent with previous research. Dr. Stouthamer-Loeber
works with the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic at the University
of Pittsburgh. Her research includes the progression of antisocial and delinquent
behaviors in males, factors associated with the onset of conduct disorders,
and factors involved in parents seeking help for their childrens
behavior problems.
-
Taylor, T. J., Peterson, D., Esbensen, F. A., & Freng, A. (2007).
Gang membership as a risk factor for adolescent violent victimization.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 44, 351380.
-
This article describes a study that used cross-sectional survey data from
a sample of 5,935 eighth graders in public schools in 11 communities across
the United States. The study examined the different rates at which gang members
and nongang members experience violent victimization; what factors may contribute
to those differences; and whether, controlling for other factors, gang membership
is a salient correlate of violent victimization. Results indicate that gang
members were significantly more likely to be violently victimized and experience
a greater number of victimizations than their nongang peers. Gang members
also report greater levels of risk factors and lower levels of protective
factors. In addition, males were twice as likely as their female counterparts
to be violently victimized. These findings are consistent with other studies
that investigated the link between gang membership and violent victimization
(Miller, 1998, 2001; Peterson, Taylor, & Esbensen, 2004; see above).
Dr. Taylor is an associate professor in the Department of Criminology and
Criminal Justice at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. His primary research
interests include juvenile victimization and offending, with an emphasis
on the role of race/ethnicity.
-
Tolan, P. H., Gorman-Smith, D., & Henry, D. B. (2003). The
developmental ecology of urban males youth violence. Developmental
Psychology, 39, 274291.
-
In this study, the authors test a developmental ecological model of violence
with data from a longitudinal study of 294 African-American and Latino adolescent
boys and their caregivers living in low-income, urban communities. Results
indicate that youth involvement in violence depends on multiple social and
environmental factors, including parenting, peer violence, gang membership,
neighborhood social organization, and community structural characteristics
(e.g., economic, social, political). Parenting practices partially mediated
the relationship between neighborhood elements and gang membership. Findings
suggest that in the poorest and most crime-ridden communities, there is less
felt support among neighbors, a lower sense of belonging to the neighborhood,
and lower involvement in the community, which may lead to more violence among
youth. Dr. Tolan is director of the Institute for Juvenile Research and professor
of psychiatry at the University of Illinois at Chicago. His research focuses
on risk and prevention among children, youth and families, and their
developmental settings.
-
Van Horn, M. L., Hawkins, J. D., Arthur, M. W., & Catalano, R.
F. (2007). Assessing community effects on adolescent substance use and
delinquency. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 925946.
-
In this study, researchers asked community leaders to rate community-level
risk factors to investigate how well these ratings predict adolescent problem
behavior and substance abuse. The sample consisted of 30,978 students in
grades 6, 8, 10, and 12 and 602 community leaders in 41 predominantly White
communities. Community leaders rated their communities on four risk factors:
community norms favorable to substance use, community law enforcement permissive
of substance use, low neighborhood attachment (lack of feeling like part
of a community), and community disorganization (problems with the levels
and handling of crime and violence). Results indicate that community
leaders perceptions were valid and useful. Community leaders and students
demonstrated modest agreement in assessments of community risk factors. Leader
ratings of community norms and community law enforcement permissiveness were
directly related to levels of serious delinquency. Findings support that
community leaders ratings serve as a predictor of student problem
behaviors. The authors suggest that these findings have implications for
developing prevention efforts based on community-level risk and protective
factors. Dr. Van Horn is an assistant professor of quantitative psychology
at the University of South Carolina.
-
Wiesner, M., & Windle, M. (2004). Assessing covariates of adolescent
delinquency trajectories: A latent growth mixture modeling approach. Journal
of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 431442.
-
This study identifies the possible pathways that adolescents take that lead
to juvenile delinquency and explores potential factors that affect which
path young people take. The four-wave panel study focused on 1,218 high school
sophomores and juniors from three suburban high schools in upstate New York.
Using advanced statistical modeling, six distinct delinquency pathways, ranging
from rare offenders to high-level chronic offenders were identified. Results
showed that about two-thirds of adolescents who took pathways that led to
more serious offending began their delinquent activities before age 15.
Chronically delinquent youth were found to have poorer academic achievement,
unsupportive family environments, more negative life events, and adjustment
problems. The study results show a higher level of specificity between the
close relationships of distinctive offending trajectories than previous studies
showed. Dr. Weisner is an assistant professor at the Center for the Advancement
of Youth Health and the Comprehensive Youth Violence Center at the University
of Alabama, Birmingham.
-
Williams, J. H., Van Dorn, R. A., Ayers, C. D., Bright, C. L., Abbott,
R. D., & Hawkins, J. D. (2007). Understanding race and gender
differences in delinquent acts and alcohol and marijuana use: A developmental
analysis of initiation. Social Work Research, 31, 7181.
-
This study explores the relationship between juvenile crime and adolescent
substance abuse while looking at race and gender differences. Data were drawn
from the Seattle Social Development Project, a longitudinal study that identifies
childhood risk and protective factors relating to delinquency and substance
abuse. The study sample consisted of 588 African-American and Caucasian youth,
half of them male. Data were collected at five intervals, from 7th through
12th grades. Results show a significant relationship between the role of
family and peers and the use of substances or delinquent acts. A family that
is less economically well-off and less involved, especially in a male
adolescents life, increases the likelihood that the child will get
in trouble. Peers engaging in delinquent behavior increase the odds of a
boy becoming involved in substance use. African-American boys have higher
rates of delinquency, violent acts, and involvement with the law than Caucasian
youth, although Caucasian adolescents are more likely to initiate alcohol
or marijuana use. The authors recommend that better enforcement of consequences
for engaging in delinquent behavior is essential for youth development. Dr.
Williams is dean of the Graduate School of Social Work at University of Denver.
His primary areas of research include mental health, delinquency, youth violence,
and social issues in the African-American community.
-
Williams-Evans, S. A. & Myers, J. S. (2004). Adolescent violence.
The ABNF Journal, 15, 3134.
-
This review examines the literature regarding violence among adolescents
in the United States. The developmental stages of adolescence and the contextual
factors that influence adolescent development (e.g., parent-child relationships,
family environment) are discussed. The authors review social learning theory
and family systems theory and describe how these theories can be used to
understand adolescent violence. Implications of the results and suggestions
for addressing adolescent violence are provided. At the time of publication,
Dr. Williams-Evans was an associate professor of nursing at North Carolina
A & T State University School of Nursing.
-
Xie, H., Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (2002). The development
of social aggression and physical aggression: A narrative analysis of
interpersonal conflicts. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 341355.
-
This longitudinal study evaluates the relationship between social aggression
and physical aggression in childhood and future maladjustment (e.g., poor
school performance and school dropout). The authors conducted interviews
with 510 participants in the 4th, 7th, and 12th grades. Results support previous
research that boys tend to use physical aggression, whereas girls are more
likely to use social aggression. While social aggression did not have a negative
influence on future development of the aggressor, the study supports findings
from previous research that physical aggression is related to future
maladjustment of the aggressor. A suggestion the article offers to explain
this difference is that behaviors involved in social aggression are part
of normal social interaction whereas physical aggression is not accepted
as normative behavior and is often linked to risk factors in other areas
of development. The first author is an assistant professor of psychology
at Temple University. The authors research interests include gender
differences in the development of different forms of aggressive behaviors,
peer social dynamics in school, and the developmental pathways of risk and
resilience throughout development.
-
Xie, H., Li, Y., Boucher, S. M., Hutchins, B. C., & Cairns, B.
D. (2006). What makes a girl (or boy) popular (or unpopular)?
African American childrens perceptions and developmental differences.
Developmental Psychology, 42, 599612.
-
The authors of this study interviewed 489 African-American 1st, 4th, and
7th graders from high-risk, inner-city neighborhoods to determine what factors
contribute to a childs popularity (or unpopularity). Results show that
factors that influence the perception of popularity change as a function
of a childs age and gender. The older students were more likely than
younger students to identify antisocial behaviors as a contributor to popularity.
Aggressive and deviant behaviors were more positively associated with boys
popularity. Findings suggest that peer social networks may support the
development of more aggressive and deviant behaviors among African-American
adolescent boys in high-risk contexts. The authors suggest further study
of how individual, peer, and social networks influence minority childrens
development in high-risk settings and the effect of these networks on the
development of gender differences in antisocial behaviors. The first author
is an assistant professor of psychology at Temple University. Her research
focuses on gender differences in the development of different forms of aggressive
behaviors, peer social dynamics in school, and the developmental pathways
of risk and resilience throughout development.
Juvenile Delinquency Interventions/Programs
-
Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. B. (1998). Comparison of two community
alternatives to incarceration for chronic juvenile offenders. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 624633.
-
This study explored whether two community alternatives to incarceration for
chronic juvenile offenders were effective in reducing recidivism. Over a
4-year period, 79 boys, ages 12 to 17, who had histories of serious and chronic
delinquency and who were referred for community placement by the juvenile
justice system, were randomly assigned to either
Multi-Dimensional
Treatment Foster Care (MTFC) or group care (GC). Each boy in MTFC
participated in weekly individual therapy focusing on building skills in
problem-solving, social perspective-taking, and nonaggressive methods of
self-expression. Boys in the GC group were treated with a peer-culture approach.
Results indicate that participation in MTFC resulted in more favorable outcomes
than participation in GC. Boys ran away less frequently from MTFC than from
GC, completed their programs more often, and were locked up in detention
or training schools less frequently. MTFC boys also had fewer criminal referrals
and reported fewer delinquent acts and violent or serious crimes, suggesting
that MTFC was effective in the short run at reducing criminal activity for
serious juvenile offenders. Longer term outcomes remain to be demonstrated.
Dr. Chamberlain works with the Center for Research to Practice and Oregon
Social Learning Center.
-
Farrell, A. D., Meyer, A. L., & White, K. S. (2001). Evaluation
of Responding in Peaceful and Positive Ways (RIPP): A school-based prevention
program for reducing violence among adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child
and Adolescent Psychology, 30, 451463.
-
In this article, the authors evaluate the effectiveness of a school-based
violence prevention program for adolescents,
Responding
in Peaceful and Positive Ways (RIPP). The program focuses on situational
and relationship violence, aiming to build social skills and personal
responsibility among students. Students in the program were tested before
and after the year long course and then 6 and 12 months later. Results indicate
that participants had fewer disciplinary problems and suspensions during
the year than those in the control classrooms. Boys maintained this behavior
through the 12-month followup. Students also reported more frequent use of
peer mediation and less involvement in fights. Those reporting improved behavior
tended to be those initially exhibiting high levels of aggression. The authors
note that the program is more effective when there is schoolwide participation,
and recommend additional training components for teachers, parents, and the
community. Dr. Farrell is a professor at Virginia Commonwealth University
and director of the Clark-Hill Institute for Positive Youth Development.
His research focuses on the identification of risk and protective factors
related to adolescent problem behaviors, such as violence and drug use.
-
Griffith, D. M., Allen, J. O., Zimmerman, M. A., Morrel-Samuels, S., Rieschl,
T. M., Cohen, S. E., et al. (2008). Organizational empowerment in community
mobilization to address youth violence. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 34(Suppl 3), S89S99.
-
In this article, the authors describe a case study of a Michigan citys
youth violence prevention center. The goals of the center were to prevent
youth violence and create community change, help organizations divert youth
from destructive activities and involve them in neighborhood projects, and
change the social and physical environment to prevent or reduce youth violence.
Researchers conducted 20 semi-structured interviews with members of the
centers board of directors over a period of 4 years. Data indicate
that the center was able to achieve many of its goals and promote community-level
change for youth violence prevention through pooling of resources among community
partners. One example of the centers success was a project that linked
middle school students with community organizations to work on community
improvement projects. Dr. Griffith is a clinical-community psychologist and
an assistant professor in the School of Public Health at the University of
Michigan. His research examines environmental and contextual factors that
differentially influence health, health behavior, and healthcare quality.
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Lane, J., & Lanza-Kaduce, L. (2007). Before you open the doors:
Ten lessons from Floridas faith and community-based delinquency treatment
initiative. Evaluation Review, 31, 121152.
-
This article is an evaluation of the design and implementation of the pilot
project, Florida Faith and Community-Based Delinquency Treatment Initiative,
for incarcerated juveniles. The pilot project was designed to serve youth
in five moderate- and high-risk residential programs across the State; three
programs served boys and two served girls. The article presents 10 key lessons
learned from Floridas experience to provide guidance to other programs
hoping to develop similar services. Lessons address the challenges of separating
church and State at a government-run facility, the importance of strong and
experienced leadership, effective management of contracting providers, careful
consideration in selecting program participants, and the selection of a program
model that is supported by research. This article does not address the
experiences of the youth participating in the program or the program outcomes.
Dr. Lane is an associate professor of criminology, law, and society at the
University of Florida. The authors primary research interests include
fear of crime, juvenile justice, corrections, crime policy, recidivism,
police-citizen encounters, substance use, and program evaluation.
-
Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2004). The Coping Power Program
for preadolescent aggressive boys and their parents: Outcome effects at the
1-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72,
571578.
-
This study evaluates the effectiveness of the
Coping Power
Program, a preventive intervention for aggressive children. The intervention
addresses deficits in social competence, self-regulation, school bonding,
and positive parental involvement. The study included 1,578 fourth- and
fifth-grade boys and their families, randomly assigned to the intervention
or control group. One year following the intervention, the evaluation found
that the Coping Power Program produced lower rates of covert
delinquent behavior among boys than the rates in the group that did not receive
the program. The evaluation also found improvements in teacher-rated behavior
in school among boys participating in the program. This article is intended
for social science researchers and program providers who may be interested
in implementing the Coping Power Program. Dr. Lochman is a professor in the
Department of Psychology at the University of Alabama. His research interests
include prevention and treatment of aggressive and antisocial behavior in
children and adolescents, as well as contextual and parenting risk factors
for childrens aggressive behavior.
-
Meyer, A. L., Cohen, R., Edmonds, T., & Masho, S. (2008). Developing
a comprehensive approach to youth violence prevention in a small city.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34 (Suppl 3),
S13S20.
-
Using a social-ecological framework, this study describes the implementation
of a community mobilization process to prevent youth violence and promote
positive youth development in the city of Richmond, Virginia. Working
collaboratively with a local university to assess the needs of the community
members, the authors found that many youth felt helpless to change their
environments. Other factors identified as being associated with youth violence
include family violence, child abuse, use of alcohol and drugs, peer influences,
unresponsive school systems, easy access to firearms, and limited access
to positive role models. Youth also identified protective factors, such as
positive parent-child communication, positive caregivers and mentors,
opportunities for fun activities, reducing access to firearms,
and eliminating the availability of drugs and alcohol. Some of the lessons
learned from implementing the community mobilization process include the
need to empower the community, the need to share responsibilities and feedback,
and the need to understand and appreciate respective partners strengths.
Dr. Meyer is an associate professor in the Department of Epidemiology and
Community Health at Virginia Commonwealth University.
-
Mirabal, B., López-Sánchez, G., Franco-Ortiz, M., &
Méndez, M. (2008). Developing partnerships to advance youth violence
prevention in Puerto Rico: The role of an academic center of excellence.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34 (Suppl 3),
S56S61.
-
In this article, the authors discuss a communitys approach to reduce
youth violence in a high-risk Puerto Rican community, as well as the challenges
the authors faced. The article describes the following steps in the community
mobilization initiative: (1) develop partnerships to identify community risk
and protective factors; (2) develop a strategic plan; (3) form an advisory
board; (4) establish a school-community task force; and (5) create and
disseminate a directory of community agencies and organizations that deal
with violence prevention. Some challenges encountered include gaining trust,
diversity within the community, engaging male participants, and overcoming
the medias portrayal of poor neighborhoods. The authors conclude that
a communitys active participation in all stages of the mobilization
process contributes to a sense of ownership. Dr. Mirabal is a pediatrician
in the Department of Pediatrics at the University of Puerto Rico School of
Medicine. She founded and currently directs the Bio-Psychosocial Program
for the multidisciplinary evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of child victims
of intra-family violence.
[ Go to Contents ]
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Carter, E. W., & Lunsford, L. B. (2005). Meaningful work: Improving
employment outcomes for transition-age youth with emotional and behavioral
disorders. Preventing School Failure, 49, 6369.
-
This article is a literature review that seeks to identify the components
of secondary educational programming that may contribute to improved employment
outcomes for adolescents with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). The
authors recommend that comprehensive and effective transitional programming
for young adults with EBD address four key skill areassocial, vocational,
academic, and self-determinationand four key support areascommunity
linkages, workplace supports, family involvement, and student involvement.
This article is intended for practitioners providing secondary transition
services to adolescents with EBD. Dr. Carter is an assistant professor in
the Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison. The authors research interests include
adolescents with disabilities, students with behavioral problems, and secondary
transition from school to adult life.
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Cho, H., Hallfors, D. D., & Iritani, B. J. (2007).
Early initiation of
substance use and subsequent risk factors related to suicide among urban
high school students. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 16281639.
-
This study investigates the association between the age at which young people
began to use drugs and alcohol and their risk factors related to suicide.
Early onset of substance use has been considered to be an important risk
factor for subsequent problem behaviors and psychiatric disorders (DuRant,
Smith, Kreiter, & Krowchuk, 1999). Data were collected from 1,252
adolescents in grades 9 through 11 in 9 high schools in 2 large urban school
districts. Students completed surveys that asked about their substance use,
depressive symptoms, suicide ideation, suicidal ideation specifically during
alcohol and/or drug use, belief in suicide as a personal option, and suicide
attempt. Results show that the earlier onset of hard drug use among boys
was associated with all five suicide risk factors. Among girls, earlier onset
of regular cigarette smoking, drinking, and hard drug use was associated
with some of the suicide risk factors. Findings suggest the importance of
screening for substance use in early adolescence and indicate that both research
and intervention efforts should incorporate gender differences. Dr.
Cho is a research scientist at the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation.
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Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2007).
Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General
Psychiatry, 64, 577584.
-
This epidemiological study assessed posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
and symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PTS) in children and adolescents to
examine factors including their prevalence and co-occurrence with other
disorders. Data were drawn from the larger, longitudinal Great Smoky Mountains
Study; the sample for the present study included 790 boys and 630 girls between
the ages of 9 and 16, of whom almost 70 percent were White and about 25 percent
were American Indian. Results of this study show that by the age of 16, almost
two-thirds of adolescents had been exposed to at least one traumatic event
(e.g., violence, sexual trauma). However, diagnoses of PTSD were rare with
less than 1 percent of adolescents meeting the criteria for this disorder.
In contrast, symptoms of PTS were more common; about 13 percent of adolescents
reported symptoms (i.e., painful recall, subclinical PTSD). Adolescents who
were exposed to a traumatic event were about twice as likely to have a
psychiatric disorder compared with those who were not exposed to traumatic
events. The most common disorders co-occurring with exposure to traumatic
events were anxiety and depressive disorders. Dr. Copeland is an assistant
clinical professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Duke University
Medical Center.
-
Costello, E. J., Compton, S. N., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003).
Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment.
JAMA, 290, 20232029.
-
In this study, the authors examined two alternative explanations for poverty:
social causation (i.e., environmental factors such as stress and adversity)
and social selection (i.e., genetic predisposition toward downward mobility).
They also investigated the link between poverty and mental illness. This
natural experiment examined the effect on psychopathology of an annually
increasing, supplementary income given to American Indians after a casino
was opened on their reservation. Data were drawn from the larger, longitudinal
Great Smoky Mountains Study; the sample for the present study included 790
boys and 630 girls between the ages of 9 and 16, of whom almost 70 percent
were White and about 25 percent were American Indian. Results support a social
causation explanation for poverty. Specifically, movement out of poverty
was associated with a decrease in psychiatric symptoms, whereas psychiatric
symptoms, particularly behavioral disorders including conduct disorder, remained
high among persistently poor children (i.e., children whose families were
poor before the casino opened and remained poor subsequent to the opening
of the casino). Dr. Costello is a professor of medical psychology at Duke
University Medical Center where she also helps run the Center for Developmental
Epidemiology.
-
Costello, E. J., Keeler, G. P., & Angold, A. (2001). Poverty,
race/ethnicity, and psychiatric disorder: A study of rural children.
American Journal of Public Health, 91, 14941498.
-
This epidemiological study examined the prevalence of mental health disorders
in poor and non-poor Black and White children living in rural areas. The
sample was drawn from four rural counties in North Carolina and included
541 Black children and 379 White children between the ages of 9 and 17. Results
show that Black families had a much lower mean income than White families
and that this income gap increased as incomes decreased. There were no racial
differences in psychiatric diagnoses among nonpoor children; however, poor
White children were 60 percent more likely to have a psychiatric diagnosis
than poor Black children. Specifically, the prevalence of emotional disorders
and disruptive behavior disorders was higher among poor White children than
poor Black children. Black and White children reported similar numbers of
risk factors (e.g., parental psychiatric disorder, multiple moves), and poverty
was associated with an increase in the number of risk factors reported for
both groups. However, the association between poverty and psychiatric disorders
was stronger for White children than for Black children. Dr. Costello is
a professor of medical psychology at Duke University Medical Center where
she also helps run the Center for Developmental Epidemiology.
-
Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold,
A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood
and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60,
837844.
-
The objectives of this epidemiological study were to examine the prevalence
of psychiatric disorders among adolescents of different ages, to determine
whether prevalence of these disorders changes over time, and to assess common
comorbidities. Data were drawn from the larger Great Smoky Mountains Study;
the sample for the present study included 790 boys and 630 girls between
the ages of 9 and 16, of whom almost 70 percent were White and about 25 percent
were American Indian. Results of the present study show that the prevalence
of any disorder was highest among 9- to 10-year-olds, lowest among 12-year-olds,
and gradually increased after age 12. By the age of 16, almost 37 percent
of adolescents reached the criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder.
By age 16, boys had a higher prevalence of conduct disorder and ADHD whereas
girls had a higher prevalence of depression and anxiety disorders. There
were significant comorbidities between the behavioral disorders as well as
between anxiety and depression. Dr. Costello is a professor of medical psychology
at Duke University Medical Center where she also helps run the Center for
Developmental Epidemiology.
-
Cotton, S., Larkin, E., Hoopes, A., Cromer, B. A., & Rosenthal,
S. L. (2005). The impact of adolescent spirituality on depressive symptoms
and health risk behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36,
529-543.
-
This article provides an assessment of high school students level of
religiosity (belief in a god or higher power) and existential well-being
(belief that life is good) and correlates those levels to symptoms of depression
and behaviors that risk their health. Results show that 89 percent of the
9th through 12th graders surveyed reported they believed in a god or higher
power, and 77 percent said religion was important in their lives. The 76
percent of students reporting existential well-being also reported fewer
symptoms of depression or risky behaviors, such as drinking and driving,
using drugs, or carrying a weapon. Although males reported more high-risk
behaviors, the authors attributed the finding to gender, rather than a religious
or spiritual interaction. Dr. Cotton is an assistant professor of research
at the University of Cincinnati in Ohio.
-
Courtenay, W. H. (2003). Key determinants of the health and the well-being
of men and boys. International Journal of Mens Health, 2,
127.
-
This article provides an overview of the health and healthcare needs of men
and boys in the United States. A self-administered health risk assessment
identified 30 key elements that determine physical and mental health and
summarized under the following four categories: behaviors of men and boys;
health-related beliefs and the expression of emotions or physical distress;
biological, economic, cultural, and environmental factors; and health care.
The authors reported that 3 of 4 deaths of 15- to 24-year-olds were male;
boys were more likely to report no support when feeling stressed or overwhelmed;
and boys were at a greater risk for mental health problems diagnosed in
childhood. The authors suggest that efforts to address these health risks
through research, practice, and policy could contribute to better health
for boys and men, as well as healthier families and communities. Dr. Courtenay
is a professor at Sonoma State University and director of Mens Health
Consulting in Berkeley, California.
-
Davis, G. Y., & Stevenson, H. C. (2006). Racial socialization
experiences and symptoms of depression among Black youth. Journal of Child
and Family Studies, 15, 303317.
-
This study investigates the relationship of racial socialization experiences
and depression symptoms among 160 Black adolescents. Specifically, this study
examines racial socialization experiences as a predictor of differential
depression symptoms for boys and girls over and above the influence of
demographics. Measures of depression symptoms included tiredness, low
self-esteem, irritability, guilt, difficulty thinking, negativity and sad
mood, and helplessness. Results demonstrated that youth, especially boys,
who reported they were raised to have pride in their race also reported feeling
less tired and having higher levels of self-esteem. Black youth who were
raised to be alert to instances of discrimination reported feeling helpless.
Youth who reported living in neighborhoods with positive resources tended
to show a significantly lower degree of helplessness. Additional analytic
models showed that experiences regarding race and discrimination influenced
depressive symptoms over and above the influences of gender, neighborhood
risk, and resources. The authors provide recommendations for families and
mental health professionals and encourage the development of culturally relevant
social interventions. Dr. Davis is a consulting psychologist for Resources
for Change in Philadelphia.
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Eisenberg, M. E., Sieving, R. E., Bearinger, L. H., Swain, C., &
Resnick, M. D. (2006). Parents communication with adolescents about
sexual behavior: A missed opportunity for prevention? Journal of Youth
and Adolescence, 35, 893902.
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This study explores how often and why parents talk to their teens about sexual
health. The sample consisted of 1,069 mostly White parents of 13- to 17-year-olds
who responded to a telephone survey in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Results show
that parents who believed their teens were romantically involved were up
to 2.5 times more likely to have talked to them about sex-related topics
than parents who believed their children had never been in a romantic
relationship. The authors note that parents are more likely to affect their
childrens behavior when conversation takes place before the behavior
is initiated. They also suggest that parents may miss their best opportunity
for preventing risky sexual behaviors by waiting to communicate until they
perceive a need. Dr. Eisenberg is an assistant professor at the University
of Minnesota. Her research focuses on the social influence on high-risk health
behaviors among adolescents.
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Farmer, E. M. Z., Burns, B. J., Phillips, S. D., Angold, A., &
Costello, E. J. (2003). Pathways into and through mental health services
for children and adolescents. Psychiatric Services, 54, 6066.
-
The objectives of this epidemiological study were to examine how children
and adolescents enter into and move through the mental health service system.
The authors examined service use in five areas: specialty mental health,
education, general medicine, juvenile justice, and child welfare. Data were
drawn from the larger Great Smoky Mountains Study; the sample for the present
study included 790 boys and 630 girls between the ages of 9 and 16, of whom
almost 90 percent were White. Results show that more than half (54 percent)
of adolescents had used mental health services at some point in their lives.
The most common point of entry was the education area; however, children
and adolescents who entered the mental health service system through this
sector were the least likely to receive additional services through other
sectors. In contrast, children and adolescents who entered the system through
the specialty mental health sector were the most likely to receive additional
services in other sectors. These findings suggest a need for coordination
among sectors in order to ensure appropriate treatment for children and
adolescents with psychiatric disorders. Dr. Farmer is affiliated with the
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science at the Duke University School
of Medicine.
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Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R.,
& Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset
distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey
Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593602.
-
This epidemiological study examined the lifetime prevalence and age of onset
of psychiatric disorders using data from the National Comorbidity Survey
Replication. Participants were 9,282 individuals ages 18 and older; these
individuals provided retrospective accounts of age of onset of psychiatric
disorders. Results of this study show that the lifetime prevalence for any
disorder was about 46 percent, indicating that almost half of all Americans
meet the criteria for mental illness at some point in their lives. Age of
onset differed for different disorders: anxiety and impulse-control disorders
had a median age of onset of 11 years; substance use disorders had a median
age of onset of 20 years; and mood disorders had a median age of onset of
30 years. With respect to anxiety disorders, the median age of onset was
7 years for specific phobia and separation anxiety disorder and 13 years
for social phobia; the other anxiety disorders had a median age of onset
in adulthood. Dr. Kessler is a professor of healthcare policy at Harvard
Medical School. His research interests include epidemiological study of the
prevalence and correlates of psychiatric disorders among adolescents and
adults in the United States as well as changes in mental health treatment.
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Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K, J., Acierno, R., Saunders, B. E.,
Resnick, H. S., & Best, C. L. (2003). Violence and risk of
PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results
from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 71, 692700.
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The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that risk of posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive episode, and substance abuse/dependence
would increase following exposure to interpersonal violence. Data were drawn
from a national household probability sample of over 4,000 adolescents. The
sample for the present study included 2,002 boys and 1,904 girls between
the ages of 12 and 17; data were weighted so that the sample was representative
of U.S. Census data. About two times the proportion of girls than boys met
the criteria for PTSD and major depressive episode, while the proportion
of girls and boys with substance abuse/dependence was similar. About 75 percent
of adolescents with PTSD had a comorbid disorder versus 40 percent of those
with a major depressive episode or substance abuse/dependence. Findings suggest
that exposure to interpersonal violence (e.g., physical assault, witnessed
violence, sexual assault) was linked to increased risk of PTSD, major depressive
episode, and substance abuse/dependence. Dr. Kilpatrick is the Director of
the National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center within the Department
of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science at the Medical University of South Carolina.
His research interests include measuring the scope and mental health impact
of potentially traumatic events.
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Mandara, J., & Murray, C. B. (2000). Effects of parental marital
status, income, and family functioning on African American adolescent
self-esteem. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 475490.
-
This article examines the effects of family characteristics on African-American
youth. Specifically, the study investigates the effects of marital status,
family income, and parenting styles on adolescent self-esteem. The study
sample included 106 African American adolescents, age 15, and their families.
The study found that African-American adolescent boys with unmarried parents
are at risk for developing low self-esteem compared with other African-American
adolescents. However, the study found that a parenting style that provides
a more structured environment may buffer the effects of having unmarried
parents. Dr. Mandara is an assistant professor of human development and social
policy at the Northwestern University School of Education and Social Policy.
His research examines the nature and effects of socialization and fathers
involvement and how they interact with gender, race, and socioeconomic status
to affect youths academic and social development.
-
Mandara, J., & Murray, C. B. (2002). Development of an empirical
typology of African American family functioning. Journal of Family Psychology,
16, 318337.
-
This study identifies different types of African-American families to determine
whether specific family structures have a positive or negative effect on
adolescent self-esteem. The study sample included 106 African-American
adolescents, age 15, and their families. The authors identified three distinct
types of families based on parenting style and found that these parenting
styles, along with specific demographic factors (e.g., marital status, education,
income) predicted adolescent self-esteem. Of particular concern were
single-parent families with below average education and income who displayed
chaotic family processes, because adolescents in this family structure tended
to suffer from low-self esteem. This article is intended for family and social
science researchers, although the authors feel the findings also have
implications for therapists and policymakers. Dr. Mandara is an assistant
professor of human development and social policy at the Northwestern University
School of Education and Social Policy. His research examines the nature and
effects of socialization and fathers involvement and how they interact
with gender, race, and socioeconomic status to affect youths academic
and social development.
-
Mandara, J., Murray, C. B., & Joyner, T. N. (2005). The impact
of fathers absence on African American adolescents gender role
development. Sex Roles, 53, 207220.
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This article examines the role that fathers play in the development of
traditional gender roles in 15-year-old African-American adolescents.
Based on a sample of 106 African-American adolescents and their families,
results indicate that African-American boys raised in a household in which
the father is present, in particular boys from lower income households, had
higher perceptions of their masculinity than did boys from households in
which the father is not present. Differences in how mothers and fathers socialize
their children (i.e., that fathers are more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble
play with their sons, push them to achieve, and make them work through pain)
may account for the differences in perception of masculinity. The article
is intended for social science researchers and social service providers.
The first author is an assistant professor of human development and social
policy at the Northwestern University School of Education and Social
Policy. The authors primary research interests include the dynamics
of the African-American family, the nature and effects of socialization and
fathers involvement, and how they interact with gender, race, and
socioeconomic status to affect youths academic and social development.
-
Marcotte, D., Lévesque, N., & Fortin, L. (2006). Variations
of cognitive distortions and school performance in depressed and non-depressed
high school adolescents: A two-year longitudinal study. Cognitive Therapy
and Research, 30, 211225.
-
This longitudinal study investigates the presence of depressive symptoms
and cognitive distortions (in the areas of achievement, self-control, and
dependency) among high school students and analyzes the relationship of these
factors to academic performance. U.S.-based standardized measures of depression,
dysfunction, and cognitive style were used to assess 644 adolescents ages
13 to 16. Overall, results show that girls reported more depressive symptoms
than did boys, but their symptoms decreased over time, whereas boys
symptoms remained stable. The authors found that both genders reported higher
levels of cognitive distortions as they became depressed, but girls
distortions decreased as their depression subsided. Boys who remained depressed
throughout the 2-year study expressed higher levels of depressive cognitions
than did the girls and the other groups of boys, and they maintained these
negative cognitions throughout the entire study. Although the influence of
depression on academic performance was difficult to assess, the authors found
that academic performance was most impaired for those adolescents who remained
depressed throughout the three testing points. Dr. Marcotte is a professor
in the Psychology Department at University of Québec in Montréal.
-
May, D. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Virgo, K. (2002). The impact
of parental attachment and supervision on fear of crime among adolescent
males. Adolescence, 37, 267287.
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The authors investigated whether parental attachment and supervision affects
adolescents fear of being victimized. For this study, 318 adolescent
males in prison in a midwestern State were surveyed and reported on their
demographics, perceived safety, perceptions of risk, and the effect of parental
attachment and supervision. Although this sample is not truly representative
of the adolescent male population, the authors note that this samples
experiences might illustrate certain parental conditions that may contribute
to fear of victimization. Of the sample population, males who reported feeling
the most attached to their parents were also less fearful of criminal
victimization and felt safer in their environment than males with weaker
parental attachments. In addition, males who received closer supervision
from their parents were more fearful of criminal victimization but had lower
levels of perceived risk. Dr. May is an associate professor of correctional
and juvenile justice and coordinator of the graduate degree program at Eastern
Kentucky University. His areas of interest include alternative sentencing
effects and gender and racial differences within the criminal justice system.
-
Meadows, S. O. (2007). Evidence of parallel pathways: Gender similarity
in the impact of social support on adolescent depression and delinquency.
Social Forces, 85, 11431167.
-
This study seeks to determine whether the mechanism that leads to depression
in adolescent girls and delinquency in adolescent boys is the same. It also
examines the role social support from parents, peers, and school plays in
the development of depression and delinquency. The author analyzed data from
12,958 adolescents who participated in the Add Health study, a nationally
representative school-based survey of health and health-related behaviors
of adolescents in grades 7 through 12. The author found that the development
of both depression and delinquency follows a similar path. Results also confirmed
that positive support from parents, peers, and teachers provides protection
against depression and delinquency. This article is intended for other social
science researchers. The author is a postdoctoral research associate in the
Office of Population Research and the Center for Research on Child Well-being
at Princeton University. Her primary research interests include mental health,
stress and social support, family and marriage, child well-being, crime and
delinquency, and gender.
-
Moreno, C., Laje, G., Blanco, C., Jiang, H., Schmidt, A. B., &
Olfson, M. (2007). National trends in the outpatient diagnosis and treatment
of bipolar disorder in youth. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64,
10321039.
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This epidemiological study examined the rate of office visits for bipolar
disorder among youth in the United States between 19941995 and
20022003 and compared this to the rate of office visits for bipolar
disorder among adults during the same time periods. Data were drawn from
the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, which collects information from
office-based physicians who provide direct care. The number of office visits
by youth with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder increased by 40 times over
the study period (i.e., from 25 in 19941995 to 1,003 in 20022003)
whereas the number of office visits by adults with a diagnosis of bipolar
disorder increased by only 2 times. Males made up the majority of office
visits for bipolar disorder among youth, whereas females accounted for most
office visits for bipolar disorder among adults. The vast majority of youth
and adults received medication (i.e., mood stabilizers, antipsychotics,
antidepressants) during office visits. Dr. Moreno is affiliated with the
New York State Psychiatric Institute, the Department of Psychiatry in the
College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University, and the Hospital
General Gregorio Marañón in Madrid, Spain.
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Nock, M. K., Kazdin, A. E., Hiripi, E., & Kessler, R. C. (2006).
Prevalence, subtypes, and correlates of DSM-IV conduct disorder in
the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Psychological Medicine, 36,
699710.
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This epidemiological study examined the prevalence, subtypes, and patterns
of comorbidity (i.e., appearance of two or more illnesses) of conduct disorder
using data from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Participants
were a nationally representative sample of 3,199 individuals ages 18 to 44
who provided retrospective accounts of age of onset of psychiatric disorders.
The authors found that lifetime prevalence of conduct disorder was 10 percent.
However, up to 12 percent of boys will develop conduct disorder in their
lifetimes, with a median age of onset of 12 years. Results revealed five
subtypes of conduct disorder of increasing severity: Rule Violations (e.g.,
staying out late, skipping school), Deceit/Theft, Aggressive (i.e., aggression
toward people or animals), Severe Covert (i.e., more severe behaviors, including
property damage and breaking into cars or buildings), and Pervasive. A diagnosis
of conduct disorder was associated with an elevated risk for other mental
health disorders (i.e., mood, anxiety, substance use, and impulse control
disorders). Conduct disorder typically precedes mood and substance use disorders
and follows impulse control and anxiety disorders. Dr. Nock is an associate
professor of psychology at Harvard University. His research interests focus
on the cause, assessment, and treatment of self-injurious and aggressive
behaviors.
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Pardini, D., Obradovic, J., & Loeber, R. (2006). Interpersonal
callousness, hyperactivity/impulsivity, inattention, and conduct problems
as precursors to delinquency persistence in boys: A comparison of three
grade-based cohorts. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,
35, 4659.
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Boys who are inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive and who have conduct
problems may be at risk for exhibiting persistent delinquent behavior. Boys
who have few friends may also be at risk for delinquent behavior. However,
few studies have established the specific issues surrounding these behaviors
or examined how they may predict future delinquent behavior as boys grow
older. Using data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study, the authors explored these
issues with approximately 500 boys in 1st grade, 4th grade, and 7th grades.
Data were collected from parents, teachers, and students. Findings from this
study indicate that hyperactivity, impulsiveness, conduct disorder, and
inattentiveness were related from childhood to adolescence. However, conduct
problems significantly predicted ongoing delinquency in first-grade students,
whereas conduct problems and inattentiveness predicted ongoing delinquency
in the fourth-grade students. Interpersonal problems with classmates predicted
ongoing delinquency in seventh-grade students. The results suggest that the
influence of specific predictors of delinquent behavior may change from childhood
to adolescence. Dr. Pardini is a professor at the University of Pittsburgh
Medical Center.
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Pollack, W. S. (2006). The war for boys: Hearing real
boys voices, healing their pain. Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice, 37, 190195.
-
This article examines whether boys are facing a psychological crisis by analyzing
quantitative and qualitative data on more than 200 primarily middle-class,
White boys ages 12 through 18 from the Listening to Boys Voices study.
Results show that boys felt ashamed of painful feelings surrounding early
separation from their parents and that much of the pain they feel often goes
unnoticed, because boys tend to mask their pain and vulnerability. Also,
boys were often confused about appropriate levels and changing definitions
of masculinity and expressed ambivalence about becoming men. Specifically,
as boys become older, they feel social pressures to act tough and
cool, not show emotions, and fulfill traditional masculine roles.
Results also demonstrate that boys become anxious and concerned about what
the future holds for them. Dr. Pollack is an assistant clinical professor
in the Department of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and director of
the Centers for Men and Young Men at McLean Hospital. His research focuses
on the new psychology of men and boys.
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Prevatt, F. F. (2003). The contribution of parenting practices in a risk
and resiliency model of childrens adjustment. British Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 21, 469480.
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In this study, the author examined risk and resiliency among children and
the relation of parenting practices to risk and protective factors. Participants
were 80 children between the ages of 6 and 12 and their mothers. A slight
majority (53 percent) of the children were girls. Most of the mothers were
White (60 percent) and married (82 percent). Family risk factors that were
examined included family stress and conflict, presence of psychological symptoms
among parents, and low socioeconomic status. Family protective factors included
family cohesion and social support and moral-religious orientation. For this
study, positive parenting included parental involvement, whereas negative
parenting included inconsistent discipline and corporal punishment. Results
of this study show that the presence of family risk factors and poor parenting
were strong predictors of child externalizing behaviors (e.g., aggression,
conduct problems), whereas family protective factors and positive parenting
were predictors of child adaptive behaviors (e.g., social skills, leadership).
These results suggest that parenting is best viewed as a continuum of behaviors
rather than a one-dimensional concept. Dr. Prevatt is a professor of psychology
at Florida State University. Her research interests include educational
psychology and empowerment of parents of high-risk, minority children.
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Pruitt, I. T. P. (2007). Family treatment approaches for depression in
adolescent males. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 35,
6981.
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This article describes three approaches in family therapy that may benefit
depressed adolescent males and their families. First, Structural Family Therapy
aims to reduce parental criticism, decrease adolescents isolation,
create more family cohesion, and build more support for parents. Second,
Interpersonal Family Therapy facilitates the interaction between the
adolescents symptoms and family functioning. The family is educated
about irrational beliefs associated with depression and taught to help the
adolescent change his beliefs. In order to improve deficits in
interpersonal functioning, parents are encouraged to provide peer and family
activities for the adolescent and themselves. Finally, Attachment-Based Family
Therapy was developed to help depressed adolescents and their parents repair
the attachment bond by encouraging adolescents to express negative feelings
associated with failed attachment. When parents listen to and acknowledge
the experiences, family tension is reduced and trust is rebuilt. It
is suggested that these therapies may be especially successful for depressed
adolescent males because they rely on reason and action on the part of the
adolescent. Dr. Pruitt is affiliated with the Department of Human
Development at Virginia Tech.
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Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds,
C., et al. (2006). The reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire: Differential
correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys.
Aggressive Behavior, 32, 159171.
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In this study, the authors examine the importance of differentiating between
proactive aggression (lashing out without provocation) and reactive aggression
(responding aggressively to perceived affronts). The authors used the
Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire that they developed to measure
the evolution of aggression in young boys and older adolescents. They
administered the questionnaire to 503 male students, age 16, who were originally
assessed for psychosocial and behavioral aggression at age 7. Results show
that both forms of aggression were associated with excessive fighting at
age 7. Also, adolescents who were proactively aggressive were more likely
to be seriously violent and to come from a poor social background. On the
other hand, adolescents who were reactively aggressive were more likely to
be impulsive, to be anxious, and to distort reality. The authors emphasize
the importance of differentiating between these forms of aggression to get
a better understanding of the causes of aggression among adolescents. Dr.
Raine is a professor of psychology at the University of Southern California.
His research has focused on the neurobiological and biosocial bases of antisocial
and violent behavior in children and adults.
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Roberts, R. E., Roberts, C. R., & Chen, Y. R. (1997). Ethnocultural
differences in prevalence of adolescent depression. American Journal of
Community Psychology, 25, 95110.
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In this study, researchers collected data from an ethnically diverse sample
of 5,423 middle school students in grades 6 through 8. Data were analyzed
for ethnic differences in major depression among these youth. Among the nine
ethnic groups identified in the sample, results demonstrate that students
of Chinese descent had the lowest levels of depression, whereas those of
Mexican descent had the highest levels. Both African- and Mexican-American
youth had significantly higher rates of depression than other groups, but
only the Mexican American youth had significantly higher rates of depression
leading to dysfunction. The results found Mexican-American youth to be at
elevated risk for both depression without and depression with dysfunction,
even when adjusting for the effects of age, gender, and socioeconomic status
(SES). Females had higher rates of depression with and without dysfunction,
as did youth who reported that their SES was somewhat or much worse than
their peers. These findings add to growing evidence that Mexican-American
youth are at increased risk of depression and that community intervention
efforts should specifically target this high-risk group. Dr. Roberts is a
professor of behavioral science at the University of Texas School of Public
Health. His research focuses on minority health.
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Shear, K., Jin, R., Ruscio, A. M., Walters, E. E., & Kessler,
R. C. (2006). Prevalence and correlates of estimated DSM-IV child
and adult separation anxiety disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey
Replication. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 10741083.
-
This epidemiological study examined the prevalence and sociodemographic
correlates of childhood and adult separation anxiety disorder using data
from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. The data were from a nationally
representative sample of 5,692 individuals ages 18 and older; these individuals
provided retrospective accounts of age of onset of separation anxiety disorder
and other psychiatric disorders. Results of this study show that the prevalence
of separation anxiety disorder in children was about 4 percent and the typical
age of onset for children was in early or middle childhood. Separation anxiety
disorder was more common in females than males. Comorbid disorders including
other anxiety disorders and mood disorders were very common among individuals
with separation anxiety disorder. Approximately 22 percent of individuals
with childhood separation anxiety disorder received mental health treatment
before the age of 18, though this disorder was not the focus of treatment
in 75 percent of these cases. Dr. Shear is a Professor of Psychiatry in Social
Work at the Columbia University School of Social Work. Her research interests
include psychotherapy research, anxiety disorders, adult separation anxiety
disorder, and bereavement and grief.
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Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Loeber, R. (2002). Lost opportunities
for intervention: Undetected markers for the development of serious juvenile
delinquency. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 12, 6982.
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This study explores the age at which boys begin to develop serious persistent
juvenile delinquency. The authors investigate the proportion of delinquent
boys who meet the criteria for a disruptive behavior disorder diagnosis and
the proportion of delinquent boys receiving help. The analyses included eight
waves of data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study, along with juvenile court
records, diagnostic information, and information about help for mental health
problems. Findings indicate that almost half the boys who eventually become
persistent serious offenders have already developed serious delinquent behavior
by age 12. Two-thirds of the boys in juvenile court had had behavior problems
for at least 5 years, and one-third had been diagnosed as having a disruptive
behavior disorder by age 13. However, fewer than half of the persistent serious
delinquents had received any help from either mental health professionals
or personnel in schools. The authors conclude that early behavior problems
and a diagnosis of disruptive behavior disorder warrant early intervention.
Dr. Stouthamer-Loeber works with the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic
at the University of Pittsburgh. Her research includes the progression of
antisocial and delinquent behaviors in males, factors associated with the
onset of conduct disorders, and factors involved in parents seeking
help for their childrens behavior problems.
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Taylor, R. D., Seaton, E., & Rodriguez, A. U. (2002). Psychological
adjustment of urban, inner-city ethnic minority adolescents. Journal of
Adolescent Health, 31, 280287.
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In this article, the authors report that urban, inner-city ethnic minority
adolescents and their families face many conditions and experiences that
place their well-being at risk. The condition of economic disadvantage places
families at great risk and is both directly associated with adolescents
maladjustment and also affects young people through the negative impact on
parents well-being. Living in high crime neighborhoods that lack resources
is linked to poor adjustment in both parents and adolescents. According to
the authors, some of the negative effects of economic distress are made better
by adolescents personal attributes and social support offered to their
families from extended relatives and others. Dr. Taylor is a professor of
psychology at Temple University. His research focuses on the social and emotional
development of ethnic minority children and adolescents.
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Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race,
socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the Childrens
Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
111, 578588.
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This study, using scores from the Childrens Depression Inventory, reports
data from a meta-analysis of 310 studies of depressive symptoms in children
and adolescents. The authors examine age, gender, birth cohort, race, and
class differences in depressive symptoms in 61,424 children ages 8 to 16.
They found that girls depression scores stayed steady from ages 8 to
11 and then increased between ages 12 and 16. Boys depression scores
were stable from ages 8 to 16, except for a high depression score at age
12. Girls scores were slightly lower than boys during childhood,
but girls scored higher beginning at age 13. The authors found no significant
differences in depression related to socioeconomic status and no significant
differences between White and Black children. However, Hispanic children
reported significantly more depressive symptoms than both White and Black
children. Dr. Twenge is a professor of psychology at San Diego State University.
Her research focuses on social rejection, birth cohort differences, and
meta-analyses.
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Wassef, A., Mason, G., Collins, M. L., OBoyle, M., & Ingham,
D. (1996). In search of effective programs to address students emotional
distress and behavioral problemsPart III: Student assessment of
school-based support groups. Adolescence, 31, 116.
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In this article, the authors present findings from students assessment
of a school-based support group for emotional and behavioral problems.
Students ages 14 to 19, who were experiencing
emotional distress or behavioral problems, volunteered
to participate in the groups. Students met in classroom settings for 50 minutes
each week during the school year. Discussion sessions were facilitated by
two adult volunteers who were not mental health workers but who had completed
training on group facilitation. Students talked about school- and home-related
issues and ways to cope with stressful situations. At the end of the 3-year
implementation period, data were collected from 131 participants, assessing
the effects of the discussion groups on their schoolwork, relationships with
others, and how they felt about themselves. Students reported developing
new ways to deal with problems, increased self-esteem, and an increased ability
to support friends. The authors suggest these findings can be used by educators
to implement programs for school-based, peer support groups. Dr. Wassef is
an assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
at the University of Texas Medical School at Houston.
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Zuvekas, S. H., Vitiello, B., & Norquist, G. S. (2006). Recent
trends in stimulant medication use among U.S. children. American Journal
of Psychiatry, 163, 579585.
-
This epidemiological study examined the rates of use of stimulant medication
to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among children from
1997 to 2002. Data were drawn from the larger Medical Expenditure Panel Survey;
participants were a nationally representative sample of children younger
than age 19. Although the authors found a significant increase in the use
of stimulant medication among children in the 10 years before the study (i.e.,
between 1987 and 1997), use remained stable at about 3 percent during the
period under study (i.e., 1997 to 2002). In the present study, higher rates
of use of stimulant medication were found among 6- to 12-year-olds, males,
and White children. There was an increase in use among females and Black
children between 1997 and 2002; however, this trend did not reach statistical
significance. Children with either public or private insurance had higher
rates of use of stimulant medications than uninsured children. Rates of use
of stimulant medication were also higher among children with functional
impairments (e.g., interpersonal problems, difficulties in school) than those
without. Dr. Zuvekas is an economist at the Agency for Healthcare Research
and Quality. His research interests include the economics of mental health
and substance abuse.
Mental Health Interventions/Programs
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Fishbein, D. H., Hyde, C., Eldreth, D., Paschall, M. J., Hubal, R., Das,
A., et al. (2006). Neurocognitive skills moderate urban male adolescents
responses to preventive intervention materials. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,
82, 4760.
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This study examines whether adolescent boys with certain neurocognitive and
emotional deficits are less likely to respond to preventive intervention
materials. Approximately half the 120 ninth-grade males who participated
in the study had a current or lifetime diagnosis of conduct disorder, whereas
the other half had no diagnosis of conduct disorder or other reported problem
behaviors. The boys were assessed for executive cognitive function (ECF),
emotional perception, and intelligence. Half the group was then exposed to
a model preventive intervention, Positive Adolescent Choices Training (PACT).
Results showed that adolescents who did not respond favorably to the intervention
had deficits in decisionmaking ability, sensitivity to consequence, ability
to delay gratification, impulsivity, and recognition of emotion in others.
These findings indicate that boys with lower ECF abilities and emotional
perception are less likely to change their behavior in response to a preventive
intervention than adolescents with higher levels of function. Dr. Fishbein
is senior fellow in Behavioral Neuroscience and directs the Transdisciplinary
Behavioral Science program at RTI International.
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Reid, J. B., Eddy, J. M., Fetrow, R. A., & Stoolmiller, M. (1999).
Description and immediate impacts of a preventive intervention for conduct
problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27,
483517.
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This article describes the theoretical background, design, and implementation
of a prevention intervention that was specifically aimed at reducing risk
factors for conduct disorders among a random sample of first- and fifth-grade
boys and girls. Students attended public schools in neighborhoods with relatively
high rates of juvenile delinquency. An assessment of childrens,
parents, and school teachers satisfaction levels with the
intervention was conducted. Results indicate that the intervention had immediate
and significant effects on reducing physical aggression among students on
the playground. The authors regarded this finding significant because children
who act aggressively toward their peers are at higher risk for rejection
and subsequent association with antisocial peers. Consistent with the literature,
this study suggests that helping parents with issues, such as depression,
daily stress, substance use, and social isolation, would contribute significantly
to the reduction of childrens conduct disorders. Dr. Reid is a senior
scientist and cofounder of the Oregon Social Learning Center. His work focuses
on the assessment and treatment of abusive families and conduct disorders.
[ Go to Contents ]
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Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D. & OMalley, P. M. (1990).
Explaining the recent decline in cocaine use among young adults: Further
evidence that perceived risks and disapproval lead to reduced drug use.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 173-184.
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This study examined the link between changed attitudes about cocaine and
the decline in its use among adolescents. Data were obtained from the
Monitoring the Future project, an ongoing study of a representative
sample of high school seniors from a state located in the Midwest.
A questionnaire was administered to 3,000 seniors in 13 graduating classes
from 1976 through 1988. Questions assessed cocaine use during the previous
12 months, perceived risk of cocaine use, and disapproval of cocaine use.
Cocaine use rose from 1976 through 1980 and declined from 1986 through 1988.
Among the high school seniors at greatest risk for cocaine use were males,
students with poor grades, and those with high levels of truancy. Analytic
models were used to determine that the decline in cocaine use was accompanied
by increases in perceived risk and disapproval of use, but not by a decline
in perceived availability. The findings indicate they may be useful for drug
abuse prevention efforts by providing information about risks of drug use
that may lower the percentage of drug abusers. Dr. Bachman is a Research
Affiliate at the Population Studies Center at the University of Michigan.
His current research focuses on drug use and attitudes about drugs and the
interface between substance abuse and academic achievement.
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Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., OMalley, P. M. & Humphrey,
R. H. (1988). Explaining the recent decline in marijuana use: Differentiating
the effects of perceived risks, disapproval, and general lifestyle factors.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29, 92-112.
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This study investigated the link between changed attitudes about marijuana
and the decline in its use among adolescents. Data were obtained from the
Monitoring the Future project, an ongoing study with a representative
sample of high school seniors from a state located in the Midwest.
A questionnaire was administered to 3,000 seniors in 11 graduating classes
from 1976 through 1986. Questions assessed marijuana use during the previous
12 months, perceived risk of marijuana use, and disapproval of marijuana
use. Researchers also assessed individual characteristics such as gender,
truancy level, and religious commitment. Results suggest that changes
in information about marijuana led to an overall shift in perceptions of
risk, which has in turn led to trends in disapproval. Disapproval led
to a decrease in actual marijuana use. Findings indicate that measures about
perceived risk or disapproval of cocaine use was a more powerful predictor
than individual characteristics for the decline in cocaine use. Dr. Bachman
is a Research Affiliate at the Population Studies Center at the University
of Michigan. His current research focuses on drug use and attitudes
about drugs and the interface between substance abuse and academic achievement.
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Bartkowski, J. P., & Xu, X. (2007). Religiosity and teen drug
use reconsidered: A social capital perspective. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 32 (Suppl 6), S182S194.
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Using cross-sectional data from the 1996 Monitoring the Future survey, the
authors examined levels of teen drug use (alcohol, marijuana, and other illicit
drugs) for three different components of faith-based social
networksexposure to and internalization of religious norms, integration
within religious networks, and trust in religious phenomena. Findings indicated
that students who regularly attended church were less likely to use drugs.
In addition, the authors found that students participating in secular afterschool
programs (sports, theater, hobby clubs, etc.) were also unlikely to use drugs.
These findings about the protective effects of both faith-based and secular
social networks on preventing drug use among American teens are consistent
with previous research (Smith, 2003; Stark, 1996). Dr. Bartkowski is a professor
of sociology at Mississippi State University and has written extensively
about family issues, gender, and religion.
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Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., Oesterle, S., Fleming, C. B., &
Hawkins, J. D. (2004). The importance of bonding to school for healthy
development: Findings from the Social Development Research Group. Journal
of School Health, 74, 252261.
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Summarizing two longitudinal studies (the Seattle Social Development Project
and Raising Healthy Children), these authors evaluated the importance of
school connectedness on a variety of problem and positive behaviors among
children and adolescents. The study also discussed the theoretical importance
of school connectedness and the influence of selected interventions in improving
school connectedness and socialization. These studies provide evidence that
school bonding is important for the healthy development of young people;
strong school bonding was associated with less tobacco, alcohol, and drug
use, as well as lower rates of criminal involvement, gang memberships, and
dropping out of school. The positive effects of school bonding extended to
high-risk groups in particular, including aggressive boys. The findings are
consistent with prior research (Resnick et al., 1997; Werner, 1992) and suggest
that focusing on how children are taught and teaching children social and
emotional competence are critical to achieving academic success. Dr. Catalano
is a professor of social work at the University of Washington, Seattle. His
professional interests include promoting positive youth development and
preventing problem behaviors.
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Cho, H., Hallfors, D. D., & Iritani, B. J. (2007).
Early initiation of
substance use and subsequent risk factors related to suicide among urban
high school students. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 16281639.
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This study investigates the association between the age at which young people
began to use drugs and alcohol and their risk factors related to suicide.
Early onset of substance use has been considered to be an important risk
factor for subsequent problem behaviors and psychiatric disorders (DuRant,
Smith, Kreiter, & Krowchuk, 1999). Data were collected from 1,252
adolescents in grades 9 through 11 in 9 high schools in 2 large urban school
districts. Students completed surveys that asked about their substance use,
depressive symptoms, suicide ideation, suicidal ideation specifically during
alcohol and/or drug use, belief in suicide as a personal option, and suicide
attempt. Results show that the earlier onset of hard drug use among boys
was associated with all five suicide risk factors. Among girls, earlier onset
of regular cigarette smoking, drinking, and hard drug use was associated
with some of the suicide risk factors. Findings suggest the importance of
screening for substance use in early adolescence and indicate that both research
and intervention efforts should incorporate gender differences. Dr.
Cho is a research scientist at the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation.
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Crum, R. M., Storr, C. L., & Anthony, J. C. (2005). Are educational
aspirations associated with the risk of alcohol use and alcohol use-related
problems among adolescents? Substance Use and Misuse, 40,
151169.
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This longitudinal study examined the relation between students educational
aspirations and alcohol use and use-related problems. Interview data were
collected from 1,183 middle school students from 19 schools in an urban school
district. Students were asked whether they had ever drunk alcohol and their
age at first use. They were also asked about alcohol use-related problems,
including whether they had been scolded for alcohol use, had gotten in trouble
at school or home, or had health problems related to alcohol use. Students
were also asked how far they thought they would progress in school. In initial
interviews, 50 percent of the sample reported using alcohol; a year later,
59 percent reported alcohol use. Contrary to the researchers expectations,
students with lower educational aspirations were not more likely to increase
alcohol use or experience more alcohol-related problems in the year between
interviews. The authors suggested that a year may not have been an adequate
interval to study the relationship between educational aspirations and alcohol
use. Dr. Crum is an associate professor of epidemiology at the Johns Hopkins
University Bloomberg School of Public Health.
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Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., Strycker, L. A., & Chaumeton, N.
R. (2002). Relations between youth antisocial and prosocial activities.
Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 425438.
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This study explores the relationship between prosocial and antisocial behaviors
in youth. In this study, the authors surveyed 356 mostly White 10-, 12-,
and 14-year-olds (179 boys and 177 girls) to determine whether adolescents
prosocial and antisocial activities affected their behavior in other areas.
Prosocial activities included sports, organized activities, volunteering,
and religious activities. Antisocial activities included substance abuse,
stealing, and lying. Results show that students engaged in prosocial activities,
especially sports, were less likely to use drugs or participate in delinquent
behaviors and were more likely to participate in other prosocial activities.
These students were also more likely to be living in two-parent households
that had higher incomes. Youth who were involved in substance abuse were
more likely to engage in other delinquent behaviors. The intended audience
for this paper includes other social science researchers as well as health
and youth policymakers. Dr. Duncan, a scientist at the Oregon Research Institute,
is a member of the Prevention and Health Behavior Group at the Center for
Scientific Review, National Institutes of Health.
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Eckhardt, L., Woodruff, S. I., & Elder, J. P. (1997). Relative
effectiveness of continued, lapsed, and delayed smoking prevention intervention
in senior high school students. American Journal of Health Promotion,
11, 418421.
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This article describes a study to test the relative effectiveness
of continued, lapsed, and
delayed smoking prevention
programs with 1,545 mostly White senior high school students.
The original intervention was conducted during seventh through ninth grades,
with significantly fewer intervention students reporting smoking
than control students. The intervention was reintroduced in the 11th grade
to half the intervention students (continued intervention), was
withdrawn from the other half (lapsed intervention), and was initiated
with half the control group students (delayed intervention). Results
show that continued intervention students reported significantly
less smoking than continued control students and
lapsed intervention students. In addition, the
delayed intervention group exhibited smoking rates lower
than the lapsed intervention and continued control
groups. These findings underscore the importance of continuing
smoking prevention activities, as well as initiating
these activities in the senior high school years. Dr. Eckhardt worked at
the School of Public Health at San Diego State University at the time this
article was published.
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Faden, V. B., & Goldman, M. (2004/2005). Environmental and contextual
considerations. Alcohol Research & Health, 28, 155162.
-
This article describes some of the environmental influences that may increase
the risk of underage drinking, including parenting styles and an
adolescents choice of peer groups. According to the authors, community
factors such as alcohol advertising, the price of alcohol, and the extent
to which underage drinking laws are enforced also play a role. However, the
degree to which alcohol use is influenced by environmental factors is hard
to establish. One finding shows that boys are more inclined to remember beer
ads than girls, and the ads make them want to drink more. Another finding
shows that price increases can affect liquor sales to adolescents, but boys
are less influenced by such practices. Results show that the environmental
strategy of increasing the drinking age to 21 years has been the most successful
intervention in reducing drinking and alcohol-related crashes among people
younger than age 21. Dr. Faden is the deputy director of the Division of
Epidemiology and Prevention Research at the National Institute on Alcohol
Abuse and Alcoholism.
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Faden, V. B., & Goldman, M. (2004/2005). Interventions for alcohol
use and alcohol use disorders in youth. Alcohol Research & Health,
28, 163174.
-
This article discusses the diagnostic criteria for alcohol use disorders
among adolescents. The study also reviews both environmental- and
individual-level approaches to underage drinking prevention, including brief
and complex treatment interventions, school- and family-based programs, and
macro environmental and multicomponent comprehensive interventions. Although
focusing on adolescents in general, the review mentions that young males
have more legal problems and put themselves in more danger as a result of
alcohol use. Young males who abuse alcohol are also more likely to use nicotine
and illicit drugs. The findings indicated that 1.4 million teens abused or
were dependent on alcohol in 2002, but only 227,000 had received treatment.
Because adolescents are different from adults in their reaction to alcohol
intervention and treatment, the authors stress the need for more options
tailored specifically to teens. Dr. Faden is the deputy director of the Division
of Epidemiology and Prevention Research at the National Institute on Alcohol
Abuse and Alcoholism.
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Fishbein, D. H., Herman-Stahl, M., Eldreth, D., Paschall, M. J., Hyde,
C., Hubal, R., et al. (2006). Mediators of the stresssubstance-use
relationship in urban male adolescents. Prevention Science, 7,
113126.
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The study examined 125 low-income, urban adolescent boys to identify
neurocognitive and social competency mechanisms that may affect the relationship
between stress and drug use. Neurocognitive mechanisms included impulsivity,
delay of gratification, emotional perception, and risky decisionmaking. The
findings show that boys with risky decisionmaking and less social competence
may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. Not all of these deficits
lead to drug use, however, implying that they affect risk behaviors differently.
Results suggest that higher levels of social competence can help mitigate
the effect of stress on marijuana, alcohol, and multidrug use. This finding
supports existing research that highlights the importance of social competence
in childhood resilience. Dr. Fishbein is senior fellow in Behavioral Neuroscience
and directs the Transdisciplinary Behavioral Science program at RTI
International.
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Flay, B. R. (2007). The long-term promise of effective school-based smoking
prevention programs. In R. J. Bonnie, K. Stratton, & R. B. Wallace.
(Eds.) Ending the tobacco problem: A blueprint for the nation
(pp. 449477). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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This review examines the literature regarding the potential long-term effects
(i.e., by the age of 25) of nationwide adoption of school-based prevention
programs. Specifically, 7 school-based or
school-plus-community-based programs that included 15 or more sessions
and that demonstrated short-term and medium-term (i.e., high school age)
effectiveness were reviewed. In addition, five school-based or
school-plus-community-based programs with promising medium- and long-term
effectiveness were also reviewed. Based on this review, the author provides
several suggestions including the following: implement evidence-based smoking
prevention programs in all grades at all middle and high schools; governments,
communities, and/or schools should fund these evidence-based programs as
well as complementary community or mass media programs; and fidelity to and
sustainability of these prevention programs should be considered a top priority.
Dr. Flay is a professor in the Department of Public Health at Oregon State
University. His research interests include health promotion and disease
prevention, including the use of mass media for health promotion and disease
prevention. Other areas of interest include smoking and drug abuse prevention
and positive youth development.
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Gehle, K., Pharagood-Wade, F., Johnson, D., & Rosales-Guevara,
L. (2001). Case studies in environmental medicine (CSEM): Toluene toxicity.
Retrieved February 6, 2008, from
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/toluene/index.html
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Intended as a fact sheet for primary care physicians and pediatricians, these
case studies address toluene, the solvent most commonly abused by adolescents.
The monograph profiles those at risk and details the physiological effects
of solvent abuse, clinical evaluation of solvent abuse, and treatment options.
The study reports that typical inhalant abusers are 10- to 15-year-old boys
who might also, or later, abuse alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs. Chronic,
intentional exposure to the solvent, which is usually inhaled through glue,
paint, or other materials, can lead to serious health problems and death.
Dr. Gehle works with the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
at the Department of Health and Human Services.
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Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk
and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence
and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention.
Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64105.
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In this article, the authors review risk and protective factors for adolescent
alcohol and drug use and discuss prevention strategies for high-risk youth.
The authors conclude that most risk factors remain stable over time and the
more risk factors that are present in adolescents lives, the greater
the chance that they will abuse drugs. The authors also found that protective
factors can buffer the effects of exposure to risk. Prevention approaches
that enhance protective factors against drug abuse in populations at high
risk include early childhood and family support programs, social competence
skills training, academic achievement promotion, organizational changes in
schools, youth involvement in alternative activities, and comprehensive
risk-focused programs. Findings from later studies by Kellermann and colleagues
(Kellermann, Fuqua-Whitley, Rivara, & Mercy, 1998; see below) and
Larson and colleagues (Larson, Dworkin, & Gillman, 2001; see above)
support the results of this study. Dr. Hawkins is a professor and the founding
director of the Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work,
University of Washington, Seattle. His primary area of interest is translating
research into effective practice and policy to improve adolescent health
and development.
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Johnson, M. K. (2004). Further evidence on adolescent employment and substance
use: Differences by race and ethnicity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,
45, 187197.
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Previous research studies have found that adolescents who spend more time
in paid work report higher levels of substance abuse; this article examines
whether this is also evident across racial and ethnic groups. Using data
from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, the study found
that the effect of work intensity on substance use was mostly limited to
White adolescents. This study does not empirically address the reasons for
the difference across racial and ethnic groups. However, the author suggests
that minority adolescents living in economically depressed areas with fewer
employers and high unemployment rates are less likely to be employed, so
minority teens who are able to find employment may have characteristics that
distinguish them from their peers. In addition, adolescents who are working
to save money for schooling or to contribute to their families may be less
likely to engage in substance use than their peers who are using their earnings
primarily for leisure. The author cautions that restricting the number of
hours per week teens can work could have unintended adverse consequences
for some minority groups. Dr. Johnson is assistant professor of Sociology
at Washington State University. Her research focuses on education and
work-related processes during adolescence and the transition to adulthood.
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Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K, J., Acierno, R., Saunders, B. E., Resnick,
H. S., & Best, C. L. (2003). Violence and risk of PTSD, major
depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results from the
National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
71, 692700.
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The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that risk of posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive episode, and substance abuse/dependence
would increase following exposure to interpersonal violence. Data were drawn
from a national household probability sample of over 4,000 adolescents. The
sample for the present study included 2,002 boys and 1,904 girls between
the ages of 12 and 17; data were weighted so that the sample was representative
of U.S. Census data. About two times the proportion of girls than boys met
the criteria for PTSD and major depressive episode, while the proportion
of girls and boys with substance abuse/dependence was similar. About 75 percent
of adolescents with PTSD had a comorbid disorder versus 40 percent of those
with a major depressive episode or substance abuse/dependence. Findings suggest
that exposure to interpersonal violence (e.g., physical assault, witnessed
violence, sexual assault) was linked to increased risk of PTSD, major depressive
episode, and substance abuse/dependence. Dr. Kilpatrick is the Director of
the National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center within the Department
of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science at the Medical University of South Carolina.
His research interests include measuring the scope and mental health impact
of potentially traumatic events.
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Kurtzman, T. L., Otsuka, K. N., & Wahl, R. A. (2001). Inhalant
abuse by adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28, 170180.
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This review article discusses the prevalence of inhalant abuse in the United
States among students ages 12 to 17. The authors provide a summary of the
psychosocial problems and risk behaviors associated with inhalant abuse,
prevention strategies, and medical management among adolescents. The physical
effects of inhalant abuse on human organ systems and the clinical presentation
of inhalant abuse are also described. The study indicates that usage is higher
among younger students than older students and higher among boys than among
girls. Boys are also more likely to continue using until medical intervention
is needed. The authors find inhalant abuse is associated with lower socioeconomic
status, low self-esteem, depression, and delinquency. The findings in this
article are consistent with Centers for Disease Control and Prevention surveys
that find boys are more likely than girls to abuse inhalants. Dr. Kurtzman
is an assistant professor at the University of Arizona College of Medicine.
Her research interests include childhood obesity and adolescent medicine.
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Labre, M. P. (2002). Adolescent boys and the muscular male body ideal.
Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 233242.
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In this article, the author examines the possible association between the
muscular male body ideal as portrayed in the media and the adolescent
males involvement in harmful weight-control behaviors. The findings
suggest that males appear to perceive an increased pressure to achieve a
muscular ideal. This pressure leads some boys to use steroids and dietary
supplements and others to engage in eating disorders such as anorexia and
bulimia. The article found that male gender was associated with anabolic
steroid abuse and that such abuse among adolescent males is on the rise.
The findings were consistent with other recent surveys of middle school and
high school students and results from the Monitoring the Future study. The
author suggests further study on the muscular male ideal in the media, as
well as on body dissatisfaction and harmful weight-control behaviors among
adolescent males. Ms. Labre is a doctoral candidate at the University of
Florida. Her research centers on issues related to body image.
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Mandara, J., Murray, C. B., & Bangi, A. K. (2003). Predictors
of African American adolescent sexual activity: An ecological framework.
Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 337356.
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This article assessed the personal, familial, and extra-familial risk factors
associated with African-American adolescent sexual activity among a sample
of 101 African-American youth and their parents. It was found that being
older, being male, having lower levels of parental monitoring, and having
friends who use drugs were associated with higher odds of being sexually
active. Consistent with prior research (Perkins, Luster,
Villarruel, & Small, 1998; Raffaelli, Bogenschneider, &
Flood, 1998), the findings in this study indicate that males and older
adolescents are much more likely to have had sex compared with females and
younger adolescents because of less parental monitoring. It was also found
that personal substance use, particularly alcohol use, was a strong predictor
of sexual activity. The authors encourage communities and families to take
a more active role in their childrens lives, and they emphasize the
importance of monitoring adolescents of both genders. Dr. Mandara is an assistant
professor in the School of Education and Social Policy at Northwestern
University. His primary research interests include examining the effect of
parenting, fathers, and other home factors on childrens and
adolescents academic and social development.
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Marshall, L., Schooley, M., Ryan, H., Cox, P., Easton, A., Healton, C.,
et al. (2006). Youth tobacco surveillanceUnited States, 20012002.
MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 55 (SS03), 156.
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This study surveyed the tobacco use of more than 26,000 middle and high school
students across the United States. The results, broken down by gender, race,
and age, indicated that in both middle and high school, male students were
significantly more likely than female students to have ever smoked cigarettes
or cigars or used smokeless tobacco. Male students were also significantly
more likely to have initiated tobacco use before age 11. When current cigarette
smokers younger than 18 were asked how they usually acquired cigarettes,
males were more likely than females to either steal or buy their own cigarettes,
rather than having someone else purchase them. Male students were also more
likely to think smokers have more friends. This report reviews successful
tobacco intervention programs around the country and recommends that States
establish comprehensive tobacco-control programs to reduce disease, disability,
and death related to tobacco use. The corresponding author of this report,
Ms. Marshall, is associated with the Office on Smoking and Health of the
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion at the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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McCabe, S. E., Boyd, C. J., & Young, A. (2007). Medical and
nonmedical use of prescription drugs among secondary school students.
Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 7683.
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This study assesses the prevalence of the medical and nonmedical use of four
categories of prescription drugs (i.e., opioid, stimulant, sleeping, and
sedative/anxiety medication) in a racially diverse sample of more than 1,000
public school students in grades 7 through 12. More than 17 percent of students
reported both medical and nonmedical use of prescription medication, and
3.3 percent reported using medication solely for nonmedical reasons. Pain
medication had the highest prevalence of nonmedical use. There were no
significant racial differences in the results; boys were more likely to report
medical use of stimulants for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
The authors recommend more education for parents, patients, and school
administrators about the risks of nonmedical use of prescription medications.
Modified author abstract. Dr. McCabe is an associate professor at the University
of Michigan Substance Abuse Research Center. His primary research interests
include environmental prevention strategies to reduce collegiate alcohol
abuse, gender and racial differences in substance abuse, and epidemiology
of prescription drug abuse.
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McClelland, G. M., Teplin, L. A., & Abram, K. M. (2004). Detection
and prevalence of substance use among juvenile detainees. Juvenile Justice
Bulletin, 116.
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In this bulletin, the authors compare self-reported drug use to the results
of urinalysis tests for the presence of drugs in a sample of 1,829 juvenile
offenders at a juvenile detention center in Cook County, Illinois. Results
indicate that the adolescents accurately reported their use of marijuana
but not cocaine and other drugs. The authors believe that adolescents underreport
the use of these drugs because the consequences of their use are more severe.
Because urinalysis is more accurate for detecting drug use, the authors recommend
using a combination of both self-report and testing. Boys, across all racial
groups, accurately self-reported their marijuana use, although accuracy improved
with age. The authors point out that marijuana use usually leads to more
serious drug abuse, and 94 percent of the youth surveyed had used drugs in
their lifetimes. The authors, therefore, stress the need for intervention
and treatment programs in juvenile detention centers. The findings from the
study are supported by those of other studies (Dembo et al., 1999; Mieczkowski,
Newel, & Wraight, 1998). Dr. McClelland is a senior analyst in the
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine,
Northwestern University.
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Ringel, J. S., Ellickson, P. L., & Collins, R. L. (2007). High
school drug use predicts job-related outcomes at age 29. Addictive Behaviors,
32, 576589.
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This article examines the relationship of high school drug use and subsequent
job-related outcomes. The authors used data from a longitudinal study of
students who participated in
Project
ALERT, a school-based drug prevention program. Overall, the results suggest
that adolescent hard drug use is linked with poorer occupational and job
quality outcomes as much as 10 years after high school. The results differed
by gender; females who use hard drugs as adolescents tend to end up in lower
skill, lower status jobs, whereas males are more likely to end up in jobs
with fewer benefits (e.g., health insurance, retirement benefits, and paid
vacation). The authors suggest that drug use may have an effect on an
individuals access to high-quality jobs because of limited educational
attainment and/or job performance. In addition, they suggest that early drug
use may continue into early adulthood, affecting current job performance,
job access, and job quality. This article is intended for social science
researchers. Dr. Ringel is an economist with the RAND Corporation. Her primary
research interests include adolescent drug use, the economic costs of substance
abuse, and drug prevention.
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Robertson, E. B., David, S. L., & Rao, S. A. (2003). Preventing
drug use among children and adolescents: A research-based guide for parents,
educators, and community leaders, 2nd Edition. Bethesda, MD: National
Institute on Drug Abuse.
-
This book aims to help prevention practitioners address drug abuse among
children and adolescents in communities across the United States. The guide
provides an outline of risk and protective factors, community planning and
implementation, and 16 prevention principles derived from effective drug
abuse prevention research. In this book, boys were among the high-risk subgroups.
It was found that aggressive behaviors in boys are the primary causes of
poor peer relationships and that ineffective parenting can lead to poor family
relationships. These poor relationships, in turn, can lead to social rejection,
a negative school experience, and problem behaviors, including drug abuse.
The authors emphasize that early intervention is the best way to prevent
risky adolescent behavior. Dr. Robertson is chief of the Prevention Research
Branch at the National Institute on Drug Abuse.
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Ryan, L. G., Miller-Loessi, K., & Nieri, T. (2007). Relationships
with adults as predictors of substance use, gang involvement, and threats
to safety among disadvantaged urban high-school students. Journal of Community
Psychology, 35, 10531071.
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This study examines whether specific types of relationships with parents
and school personnel protect teens from substance use, gang involvement,
and other threats to physical safety. The participants included 342 ethnically
diverse high school students in economically disadvantaged urban areas in
the southwestern United States. Among factors the authors measured were
generalized parental support, open communication between adolescents and
adults (self-disclosure), parental monitoring, and relationships with
teachers/adults at school. The findings indicate that self-disclosure, parental
monitoring, and generalized support from parents and school personnel provide
a protective factor against teen substance use and threats to safety. On
the other hand, the study found that adult relationships are less important
than other factors, such as race/ethnic identity, substance use, and risk-seeking
behaviors in determining gang involvement. Overall, a teens self-disclosure
to parents had the greatest effect on preventing risk behaviors. In light
of this finding, the authors suggest that high-risk adolescents and their
parents could benefit from programs that work toward teaching communication
skills. The first author is affiliated with the Tucson Unified School District.
Dr. Miller-Loessi is a faculty associate in the School of Social and Family
Dynamics at Arizona State University.
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Sussman, S., Dent, C. W., Stacy, A. W., Burciaga, C., Raynor, A., Turner,
G. E., et al. (1990). Peer-group association and adolescent tobacco use.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 349352.
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This study examines whether peer groups influence a young persons decision
to use tobacco. The study was conducted with a sample of 955 7th- and 10th-grade
students in southern California. Approximately half the sample were boys,
and a little more than half were White. The peer groups included adolescents
with problem behaviors, academic performers, athletes, surfers and skateboarders,
and average adolescents. Contrary to Mosbach and Leventhal (1988), but consistent
with other research, this study found that academic performers were least
likely to smoke. Adolescents with problem behaviors were most likely to report
experimentation with different drugs and most likely to be involved in
risk-taking behaviors. Consistent with previous research (Jessor &
Jessor, 1977), the results indicate that peer group identification is an
indicator of tobacco use and other risk-taking behavior. Dr. Sussman is a
professor of preventive medicine and psychology at the University of Southern
California. His primary research interest is in drug abuse prevention and
cessation.
-
VandenBerg, P., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Cafri, G., & Wall, M. (2007).
Steroid use among adolescents: Longitudinal findings from Project EAT.
Pediatrics, 119, 476486.
-
The authors used data from a 5-year longitudinal study, Project EAT (Eating
Among Teens), to assess the prevalence of steroid use in 2,516 middle and
high school students in the Minneapolis/St. Paul area. The authors found
that about 2 percent of adolescents reported taking steroids. There was a
higher rate of steroid use among middle school males involved in sports that
emphasize weight, such as wrestling and football, than among those involved
in other sports. In addition, steroid use was associated with poor physical
health and unhealthy lifestyle habits. Males using steroids exhibited lower
self-esteem and a more depressed mood than nonusers. The predictors of use
for male adolescents included wanting to weigh more and reporting higher
use of healthy weight-control behaviors. The prevalence of steroid use in
this study is similar to, or lower than, those reported in other studies
(Johnston, OMalley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2005). The findings
of a lack of a gender difference for steroid use in this study, however,
are different from the findings in other studies, most of which consistently
found that more male than female adolescents use steroids (Bahrke, Yesalis,
Kopstein, & Stephens, 2000; Cafri et al., 2005; Johnston et al.,
2005). Overall, steroid use was less prevalent than the abuse of other
substances, but findings suggests its mere presence warrants better education
about its consequences. Dr. VandenBerg works with the Division of Epidemiology
and Community Health at the University of Minnesota.
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Van Horn, M. L., Hawkins, J. D., Arthur, M. W., & Catalano, R.
F. (2007). Assessing community effects on adolescent substance use and
delinquency. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 925946.
-
In this study, researchers asked community leaders to rate community-level
risk factors in order to investigate how well these ratings predict adolescent
problem behavior and substance abuse. The sample comprised 30,978 students
in grades 6, 8, 10, and 12 and 602 community leaders in 41 predominantly
White communities. Community leaders rated their communities on four risk
factors: community norms favorable to substance use, community law enforcement
permissive of substance use, low neighborhood attachment (lack of feeling
like part of a community), and community disorganization (problems with the
levels and handling of crime and violence). Results indicate that community
leaders perceptions were valid and useful. Community leaders and students
demonstrated modest agreement in assessments of community risk factors. Leader
ratings of community norms and community law enforcement permissiveness were
directly related to levels of serious delinquency. The findings suggest that
the community leaders ratings of risk factors predict student problem
behaviors. These findings have implications for developing prevention efforts
based on community-level risk and protective factors. Dr. Van Horn is an
assistant professor of quantitative psychology at the University of South
Carolina.
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Williams, J. F., & Storck, M. (2007). Inhalant abuse.
Pediatrics, 119, 10091017.
-
In this clinical report, the authors used data from the National Survey on
Drug Use and Health to provide an overview of inhalant abuse among adolescents.
They detail the substances abused, physical effects, and ways parents, educators,
and physicians can identify adolescents engaged in abuse. According to the
researchers, inhalant abuse peaks at about ages 14 and 15 and declines by
ages 17 to 19. Until age 18, gender use is similar; but from ages 18 to 25,
more males than females abuse inhalants. Abuse is linked to those involved
in delinquent behavior, to people living in poverty, or with family conflict.
Since 2002, the overall rate of abuse has been stable; however, younger students
(8th and 10th graders) now perceive there is less risk in inhalants. As suggested
by Bachman and colleagues (Bachman, Johnston, OMalley, & Humphrey,
1988), perception of decreased risk involving drug use usually takes place
before an upward swing in the use of that particular drug. Based on these
findings, the authors recommend increased education about the risks and improved
treatment for abusers. Dr. Williams is a pediatrician practicing in San Antonio,
Texas.
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Williams, J. H., Davis, L. E., Johnson, S. D., Williams, T. R., Saunders,
J. A., & Nebbitt, V. E. (2007). Substance use and academic performance
among African American high school students. Social Work Research, 31,
151161.
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In this study, the authors examined to what extent substance use, family,
individual, and financial concerns were associated with academic performance
among a sample of 212 African-American students attending an urban high school
located in the midwestern United States. The student body was 99 percent
African American, with approximately equal numbers of boys and girls. The
results indicated that marijuana use, parental substance use, and family
financial concerns were associated with students academic intentions.
Grade point average was associated with both marijuana use and parental substance
use. These results highlight the importance of taking into account parental
substance use when examining the link between substance abuse and academic
performance among African-American students. Based on these findings, the
authors suggest using a family approach in substance abuse interventions.
Dr. Williams is dean of the Graduate School of Social Work at the University
of Denver. His primary areas of research include mental health, delinquency,
youth violence, and social issues of the African-American community.
-
Williams, J. H., Van Dorn, R. A., Ayers, C. D., Bright, C. L., Abbott,
R. D., & Hawkins, J. D. (2007). Understanding race and gender
differences in delinquent acts and alcohol and marijuana use: A developmental
analysis of initiation. Social Work Research, 31, 7181.
-
This study explores the relationship between juvenile crime and adolescent
substance abuse while looking at race and gender differences. Data were drawn
from the Seattle Social Development Project, a longitudinal study that identifies
childhood risk and protective factors relating to delinquency and substance
abuse. The study sample consisted of 588 African-American and Caucasian youth,
with half of them being male. Data were collected at five intervals, from
7th through 12th grades. Results show a significant relationship between
the role of family and peers and the use of substances or delinquent acts.
A family that is less economically well-off and less involved, especially
in a male adolescents life, increases the likelihood the child will
get in trouble. Peers engaging in delinquent behavior increase the odds of
boys becoming involved in substance use. African-American boys have higher
rates of delinquency, violent acts, and involvement with the law than Caucasian
youth, though Caucasian adolescents are more likely to initiate alcohol or
marijuana use. Dr. Williams is dean of the Graduate School of Social Work
at the University of Denver. His primary areas of research include mental
health, delinquency, youth violence, and social issues in the African-American
community.
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Wu, L. T., Pilowsky, D. J., & Schlenger, W. E. (2004). Inhalant
abuse and dependence among adolescents in the United States. Journal of
the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43,
12061214.
-
Inhalant use and how it progresses to dependence and abuse is the subject
of this study, which surveyed more than 36,000 adolescents ages 12 to 17.
Although 9 percent of the surveyed adolescents reported using inhalants at
some point, younger students were especially likely to be users. Glue, shoe
polish, and gasoline were the most commonly abused substances. Inhalant abuse
affected adolescents regardless of gender, age, race, or family income, although
African Americans were the least likely to use inhalants and American Indians
the most likely. The progression from inhalant use to abuse was related to
early first use, use of multiple inhalants, and frequency of use. Adolescents
with inhalant-use disorders reported abusing other drugs, being treated for
mental health issues, and engaging in delinquent behaviors. Because early
use is associated with progression to abuse, the authors recommend that
prevention programs target elementary school-age children. Modified author
abstract. Dr. Wu is an associate research professor in the Department of
Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Duke University.
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Zador,
P. L.,
Krawchuk,
S. A., &
Voas,
R. B. (2000). Alcohol-related relative risk of driver fatalities and
driver involvement in fatal crashes in relation to driver age and gender:
An update using 1996 data. Journal of Studies of Alcohol, 61,
387395.
-
This article presents estimates of age- and gender-specific relative risk
of fatal crash involvement as a function of blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
for drivers involved in a fatal crash and for drivers fatally injured in
a crash. The authors combined crash data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting
System with exposure data from the 1996 National Roadside Survey of Drivers,
in which noncommercial operators of four-wheel motor vehicles were interviewed
and breath-tested during a roughly 1-month period. In general, the relative
risk of involvement in a fatal vehicle crash increased steadily with increasing
driver BAC in every age and gender group among both fatally injured and surviving
drivers. Among 16- to 20-year old male drivers, a BAC increase of 0.02 percent
from a nonzero BAC was estimated to more than double the relative risk of
a fatal single-vehicle crash injury. With few exceptions, older drivers had
lower risk of being fatally injured in a single-vehicle crash than younger
drivers, as did women compared with men in the same age range. Findings indicate
that drivers with a BAC of less than 0.10 percent pose highly elevated risk
both to themselves and to other road users. Dr. Zador is a senior statistician
at the Rockville Institute for the Advancement of Social Science.
Substance Abuse Interventions/Programs
-
Battistich, V., Schaps, E., Watson, M., Solomon, D., & Lewis,
C. (2000). Effects of the Child Development Project on students drug
use and other problem behaviors. Journal of Primary Prevention, 21,
7599.
-
This study examines the effectiveness of the Child Development Project (CDP)
on students drug use and other problem behaviors. CDP is a school-based
prevention program developed to promote childrens resilience to risk
and to foster positive social, emotional, and intellectual development. Study
participants were 5,500 students and 550 teachers at 24 rural, urban, and
suburban elementary schools. The schools had diverse student populations;
approximately half the students were male. Following baseline assessments,
the program was introduced over a period of 3 years. Similar schools in the
same districts served as comparison groups. Evaluation findings indicated
that when the program was implemented widely throughout a school, there were
significant reductions in students use of drugs. Students in the CDP
schools were also significantly less likely to run away from home or be involved
in a gang. Dr. Battistich is an associate professor in the Division of
Educational Psychology, Research and Evaluation at the University of Missouri-St.
Louis.
-
Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E. M., & Diaz,
T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention
trial in a White middle-class population. JAMA, 273,
11061112.
-
This article describes a study that evaluated the long-term efficacy of a
school-based drug abuse prevention randomized trial. With a sample of 3,597
predominantly White 12th-grade students from 56 public high schools, this
study compared 2 intervention groups with a control group. Results indicate
that significant reductions in both drug and polydrug use (tobacco, alcohol,
and marijuana) were found for the two intervention groups relative to the
control group. These findings were consistent with other studies that focused
on the importance of teaching students skills for resisting social influences
to use drugs. Based on these findings, the authors also suggest three strategies
for school-based drug abuse prevention programs: (1) teach a combination
of social resistance skills and general life skills; (2) properly implement
the intervention, and (3) include at least 2 years of booster sessions. Dr.
Botvin is a professor of psychology and director of Weill Medical Colleges
Institute for Prevention Research at Cornell University. He also holds a
joint appointment in the Departments of Public Health and Psychiatry. Dr.
Botvin has a national reputation as a behavioral scientist in the areas of
health promotion and disease prevention and is widely recognized as an expert
in the field of tobacco, alcohol, and drug abuse prevention.
-
Holder, H. D. (2004). Community prevention of young adult drinking and
associated problems. Alcohol Research & Health, 28,
245249.
-
This article briefly summarizes three evidence-based community intervention
programs sponsored by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
to curtail underage drinking. Each program was comprehensive and focused
on changing the attitudes and policies in the entire community. As a result
of the interventions, each of the communities experienced reduced alcohol
sales to youth as well as reduced rates of harm caused by alcohol use among
youth and young adults. Findings, which were consistent with previous studies,
indicate that interventions aimed at restructuring the communitys total
alcohol environment are more likely to be successful than single-intervention
strategies. Dr. Holder is a senior research scientist and former director
at the Prevention Research Center. He works with the Department of Health
Education in the School of Public Health at the University of California,
Berkeley. His research focuses on the prevention of alcohol problems.
-
Kellam, S. G., & Anthony, J. C. (1998). Targeting early antecedents
to prevent tobacco smoking: Findings from an epidemiologically based randomized
field trial. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 14901495.
-
This study tested the effects of two classroom-based interventionsthe
Good Behavior Game and Mastery Learningon the initial tobacco use of
preadolescents. The interventions targeted early predictors of tobacco use:
aggressive/disruptive behavior and academic underachievement. The Good Behavior
Game is a behavior management strategy designed to reduce aggressive and
disruptive behavior. Mastery Learning is aimed at raising reading achievement
scores. A sample of 1,604 children was drawn from schools located in urban
areas ranging from low income to middle class. The interventions were implemented
while students were in the first and second grades. Students were then asked
every year until they were 14 years old whether they had tried tobacco and
their age at first use. By 14 years old, 31 percent of the sample had tried
smoking. Overall, boys in the Good Behavior Game classrooms were less likely
than boys with no intervention to initiate tobacco use and examination of
risk defined at first grade entry showed that boys were also at lower risk
of starting to smoke than boys in the control classrooms. Findings indicate
the potential usefulness of universal prevention efforts in reducing initial
tobacco use, particularly among boys. Dr. Kellam is the director of the
Prevention Research Center at Johns Hopkins University.
-
Kumpfer, K. L., & Alder, S. (2003). Dissemination of research-based
family interventions for the prevention of substance abuse. In Z. Sloboda
& W. B. Bukoski (Eds.). Handbook of drug abuse prevention: Theory,
science and practice (pp. 75100). New York: Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers.
-
In this review, the authors provide support for family-strengthening
interventions for adolescent substance abuse. The authors first review the
literature regarding the prevalence of substance use among adolescents and
the need for family-based substance use interventions. They say that few
(i.e., fewer than 10 percent) of the preventive interventions that are
implemented for adolescent substance use have been scientifically tested.
The authors discuss four family interventions with evidence of effectiveness:
behavioral parent training, family skills training, family therapy, and in-home
family support. Principles of effective family interventions are discussed
(e.g., comprehensive, long term, culturally and developmentally appropriate),
followed by strategies for dissemination (e.g., Internet, regional conferences,
provision of technical assistance). Dr. Kumpfer is a professor in the Department
of Health Promotion and Education at the University of Utah. Her major areas
of research interest are adolescent substance abuse prevention and family
strengthening approaches.
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Sussman, S., Earleywine, M., Wills, T., Cody, C., Biglan, T., Dent, C.W.,
et al. (2004). The motivation, skills, and decision-making model of drug
abuse prevention. Substance Use & Misuse, 39,
19712016.
-
This study reviewed 29 targeted drug use prevention programs for their effects
on drug use or other problem behaviors. Three components of successful programs
were identified: motivation, skills, and decisionmaking. The study goes on
to link each component to theories in clinical psychology, social psychology,
sociology, and chemical dependence treatment. This study further recognizes
the interrelationship among tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use; antisocial
behavior; high-risk sexual behaviors; and depression. Consistent with previous
research (Eggert, Thompson, Herting, & Nicholas, 1995;
Sussman & Ames, 2001), the findings highlight the necessity of providing
comprehensive interventions for youth with multiple problem behaviors and
identifying the context that influences those problems. Dr. Sussman is a
professor of preventive medicine and psychology at the University of Southern
California. His primary research interest is in drug abuse prevention and
cessation.
-
Tebes, J. K., Feinn, R., Vanderploeg, J. J., Chinman, M. J., Shepard,
J., Brabham, T., et al. (2007). Impact of a positive youth development program
in urban after-school settings on the prevention of adolescent substance
use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 239247.
-
This study examines the effectiveness of an afterschool positive youth
development (PYD) program for urban, minority adolescents at risk for substance
use and other problem behavior. Previous research has shown that unsupervised
out-of-school time is associated with various negative youth outcomes, including
criminal behavior and substance use. The PYD program in this study used an
18-session, evidence-based approach to teach substance use prevention skills.
The program also included health education and cultural heritage activities.
The study compared 149 adolescents in the intervention group with 155 adolescents
in a control group. Adolescents in the intervention group were significantly
more likely to view drugs as harmful and showed significantly lower substance
use 1 year after beginning the program. The authors suggest that an afterschool
PYD program can be effective in preventing or reducing substance use and
other problem behavior in at-risk, urban, minority adolescents. Dr. Tebes
is an associate professor of psychology at the Psychiatry and Child Study
Center at Yale University. His research focuses on the prevention and treatment
of mental illness.
-
Wandersman, A., & Florin, P. (2003). Community interventions
and effective prevention. American Psychologist, 58, 441-448.
-
In this article, the authors discuss community intervention programs and
offer ways to improve their success. The authors acknowledge the importance
of community-based intervention and prevention programs and describe several
successful programs in the areas of substance abuse, smoking, drinking, arson
and more. However, the authors find that a larger number of community
programs provide inconsistent results and little tangible success.
In many cases, this failure is because local leaders do not have the resources
or experience needed to develop and implement a program properly. The
authors offer several solutions, including results-based accountability to
ensure that funds go to those programs that work, and an accountability
questionnaire, included as a table in the article, with ten questions local
community leaders should answer before beginning a program. The authors
believe in the power of community-based programs, but argue that more local
resources and planning are required to make the programs effective. Dr.
Wandersman is a professor in the Department of Psychology at the University
of South Carolina. He specializes in the areas of community psychology,
community coalitions, citizen participation and program evaluation.
-
Williams, C. L., & Perry, C. L. (1998). Lessons from Project
Northland: Preventing alcohol problems during adolescence. Alcohol Health
and Research World, 22, 107116.
-
In this article, the authors describe
Project
Northland, a two-phase, community-based alcohol prevention program for
adolescents, and discuss related challenges and lessons learned. Project
Northland followed more than 2,500 students from sixth grade through high
school graduation. Phase 1, which began in 6th grade and was completed in
8th grade, addressed peer leadership, parental involvement, and community-level
change. There were significant reductions in drinking among youth following
Phase 1. Phase 2, which was completed during the students final 2 years
of high school, focused on changing community norms around adolescent alcohol
use (e.g., it is unacceptable for high school students to drink and for adults
to provide them with alcohol), which represented a strategic challenge for
Project Northland. Determining the effects of media and advertising on adolescent
alcohol consumption also represented a challenge faced by Project Northland
researchers. Phase 2 results were not available at the time of this
articles publication. Dr. Williams is a professor in the Division of
Epidemiology & Community Health in the School of Public Health at
the University of Minnesota. Her research interests include drug and alcohol
use among adolescents and prevention of drug and alcohol problems.
[ Go to Contents ]
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Baldry, A. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2005). Protective factors
as moderators of risk factors in adolescence bullying. Social Psychology
of Education, 8, 263284.
-
Researchers examined how protective factors buffer the effects of risk factors
for bullying and victimization in high school boys. The authors surveyed
679 high school boys and found that during the 3-month period preceding the
study, more than 1 in 3 of the boys reported having bullied someone; nearly
14 percent bullied someone at least once a week; 17 percent reported being
the victim of bullying; 5 percent reported victimization at least once a
week; and 50 percent of bullying victims reported being bullies themselves.
Results indicate that experiencing regular parental conflict increases the
risk of both bullying and being bullied; punitive parenting is also associated
with victimization. However, having supportive and authoritative parents
and using problem-solving skills lowered the risk of both bullying and
victimization. The authors assert that family relationships and parenting
styles only partially explain the risk factors for bullying. Other contributing
factors include school context, general social norms, and individual
characteristics. Their findings are consistent with other studies (Ahmed
& Braithwaite, 2004; Bowers, Smith, & Binney, 1994; Rigby,
1996). Dr. Baldry is a senior lecturer in social psychology at the Second
University of Naples, Italy. Her work focuses on bullying, juvenile delinquency,
and victimization issues.
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Cho, H., Hallfors, D. D., & Iritani, B. J. (2007).
Early initiation of
substance use and subsequent risk factors related to suicide among urban
high school students. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 16281639.
-
This study investigates the association between the age at which young people
began to use drugs and alcohol and their risk factors related to suicide.
Early onset of substance use has been considered to be an important risk
factor for subsequent problem behaviors and psychiatric disorders (DuRant,
Smith, Kreiter, & Krowchuk, 1999). Data were collected from 1,252
adolescents in grades 9 through 11 in 9 high schools in 2 large urban school
districts. Students completed surveys that asked about their substance use,
depressive symptoms, suicide ideation, suicidal ideation specifically during
alcohol and/or drug use, belief in suicide as a personal option, and suicide
attempt. Results show that the earlier onset of drug use among boys was
associated with all five suicide risk factors. Among girls, earlier onset
of regular cigarette smoking, drinking, and hard drug use was associated
with some of the suicide risk factors. Findings suggest the importance of
screening for substance use in early adolescence and indicate that both research
and intervention efforts should incorporate gender differences. Dr. Cho is
a research scientist at the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation.
-
Courtenay, W. H. (2003). Key determinants of the health and the well-being
of men and boys. International Journal of Mens Health, 2,
127.
-
This article provides an overview of the health and healthcare needs of men
and boys in the United States. A self-administered health risk assessment
identified 30 key elements that determine physical and mental health were
summarized under the following four categories: behaviors of men and boys;
health-related beliefs and the expression of emotions and physical distress;
biological, economic, cultural, and environmental factors; and health care.
The authors reported that 3 of 4 deaths of 15- to 24-year-olds were of males;
boys were more likely to report no support when feeling stressed or overwhelmed;
and boys were at a greater risk for mental health problems diagnosed in
childhood. The authors conclude that efforts to address these health risks
through research, practice, and policy could contribute to better health
for boys and men, as well as healthier families and communities. Dr. Courtenay
is a professor at Sonoma State University and director of Mens Health
Consulting in Berkeley, California.
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Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K, J., Acierno, R., Saunders, B. E., Resnick,
H. S., & Best, C. L. (2003). Violence and risk of PTSD, major
depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results from the
National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
71, 692700.
-
The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that risk of posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive episode, and substance abuse/dependence
would increase following exposure to interpersonal violence. Data were drawn
from a national household probability sample of over 4,000 adolescents. The
sample for the present study included 2,002 boys and 1,904 girls between
the ages of 12 and 17; data were weighted so that the sample was representative
of U.S. Census data. About two times the proportion of girls than boys met
the criteria for PTSD and major depressive episode, while the proportion
of girls and boys with substance abuse/dependence was similar. About 75 percent
of adolescents with PTSD had a comorbid disorder versus 40 percent of those
with a major depressive episode or substance abuse/dependence. Findings suggest
that exposure to interpersonal violence (e.g., physical assault, witnessed
violence, sexual assault) was linked to increased risk of PTSD, major depressive
episode, and substance abuse/dependence. Dr. Kilpatrick is the Director of
the National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center within the Department
of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science at the Medical University of South Carolina.
His research interests include measuring the scope and mental health impact
of potentially traumatic events.
-
May, D. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Virgo, K. (2002). The impact
of parental attachment and supervision on fear of crime among adolescent
males. Adolescence, 37, 267287.
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The authors investigated whether parental attachment and supervision affects
adolescents fear of being victimized. For this study, 318 adolescent
males in prison in a midwestern State were surveyed and reported on their
demographics, perceived safety, perceptions of risk, and the effect of parental
attachment and supervision. Although this sample is not truly representative
of the adolescent male population, the authors note that this samples
experiences might illustrate certain parental conditions that may contribute
to fear of victimization. Of the sample population, males who reported feeling
the most attached to their parents were also less fearful of criminal
victimization and felt safer in their environment than males with weaker
parental attachments. In addition, males who received closer supervision
from their parents were more fearful of criminal victimization, but had lower
levels of perceived risk. Dr. May is an associate professor of correctional
and juvenile justice and coordinator of the graduate degree program at Eastern
Kentucky University. His areas of interest include alternative sentencing
effects and gender and racial differences in the criminal justice system.
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Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton,
B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among U.S. youth:
Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. JAMA, 285,
20942100.
-
This study examines the prevalence of bullying behaviors among youth to determine
the association of bullying and being bullied with psychosocial adjustment.
Bullying was defined as a specific type of aggression, either physical or
psychological, in which the behavior is intended to harm or disturb; the
behavior occurs repeatedly over time; and there is an imbalance of power,
with a more powerful person or group attacking a less powerful one. Self-report
data were collected from a national sample of 15,686 students in grades 6
through 10 in public and private schools. Psychosocial adjustment was measured
through survey questions about problem behaviors, social and emotional
well-being, and parental influences. Results show that almost 30 percent
of the sample reported moderate or frequent involvement in bullying, as a
bully (13 percent), being bullied (11 percent), or both (6 percent). Males
were more likely than females to be both perpetrators and targets of bullying.
The frequency of bullying was higher among 6th- through 8th-grade students
than among 9th- and 10th-grade students. Perpetrating and experiencing bullying
were associated with poorer psychosocial adjustment; however, different patterns
of association occurred among bullies, those bullied, and those who both
bullied others and were bullied themselves. Dr. Nansel is a researcher at
the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
-
Peterson, D., Taylor, T. J., & Esbensen, F. A. (2004). Gang
membership and violent victimization. Justice Quarterly, 21,
793815.
-
This study examined the relationship between gang membership, victimization,
and reasons for joining a gang. The study used both cross-sectional and
longitudinal data from a 5-year, multistate evaluation of a middle school-based
youth gang prevention program. The cross-sectional data included a sample
of 5,935 students, and the longitudinal data included a sample of 3,500 students.
Results from the cross-sectional data indicate that gang members experienced
higher levels of victimization than nongang youth before gang involvement,
during gang involvement, and after leaving a gang. Longitudinal data showed
that youth who joined gangs for protection did not have lower victimization
rates once in a gang compared with youth who joined gangs for different reasons,
such as being forced to join, thinking it would be fun, or having a sibling
or friend in a gang. The authors suggest that interventions should seek to
lessen youths experiences as victims of violence, whereas prevention
efforts should help dispel the myth that gangs provide a safe haven for their
members. An assistant professor in the University at Albanys School
of Criminal Justice, Dr. Peterson studies the etiology of delinquency and
youth gang membership.
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Resnick, M. D., Ireland, M., & Borowsky, I. (2004). Youth violence
perpetration: What protects? What predicts? Findings from the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of Adolescent Health,
35, 424.e1424.e10.
-
This study used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health
to examine risk and protective factors for violence perpetration among
adolescents. Data were collected from 13,110 adolescents in 7th through 12th
grades at two points in time, about a year apart. About 23 percent of girls
and 39 percent of boys reported engaging in violent behavior in the past
year (e.g., got into a serious physical fight). Adolescents were less likely
to engage in violent behavior when they felt connected to their school, family,
and adults outside of their family; when their parents had high academic
expectations for them; and when their parents were consistently present at
certain times (e.g., after school). Other protective factors included religiosity
and a high grade point average. In terms of risk factors, more boys reported
engaging in violent behavior if they had access to firearms in the home and
if they worked for pay 20 hours or more per week during the school year.
Involvement with alcohol, marijuana, or other drugs was a risk factor for
boys and girls. Dr. Resnick is a professor of pediatrics and public health
and director of research in the Division of Adolescent Health and Medicine
at the University of Minnesota Medical School.
-
Richards, M. H., Larson, R., Miller, B. V., Luo, Z., Sims, B., Parrella,
D. P., et al. (2004). Risky and protective contexts and exposure to violence
in urban African American young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child
and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 138148.
-
This article focuses on factors that may place young people at greater or
lesser risk for exposure to community violence. The study examined what contexts
may increase or decrease the likelihood that youth will be exposed to violence
and whether exposure to violence leads to delinquent behaviors. Researchers
surveyed 167 6th- through 8th-grade, African-American students of different
income levels in Chicago. Results show that the more time adolescents spent
with peers, unmonitored, or engaged in unstructured activities, the more
likely it was that they would be exposed to violence and engage in delinquent
behavior. Overall, boys were more likely than girls to be exposed to violence
and more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. These results are consistent
with previous studies that found that unstructured time with peers is related
to delinquent behaviors (Pettit, Bates, Dodge, & Meece, 1999). On
the other hand, time spent with families and in structured activities was
associated with less exposure to violence and fewer problem behaviors. Dr.
Richards is a professor of clinical psychology at Loyola University Chicago.
Her areas of interest include adolescence, African-American development,
and exposure to violence.
-
Ryan, L. G., Miller-Loessi, K., & Nieri, T. (2007). Relationships
with adults as predictors of substance use, gang involvement, and threats
to safety among disadvantaged urban high-school students. Journal of Community
Psychology, 35, 10531071.
-
This study examines whether specific types of relationships with parents
and school personnel protect teens from substance use, gang involvement,
and other threats to physical safety. The participants included 342 ethnically
diverse high school students in economically disadvantaged urban areas in
the southwestern United States. Among the factors, the authors measured
generalized parental support, open communication between adolescents and
adults (self-disclosure), parental monitoring, and relationships with
teachers/adults at school. The findings indicate that self-disclosure, parental
monitoring, and generalized support from parents and school personnel provide
a protective factor against teen substance use and threats to safety. On
the other hand, the study found that adult relationships are less important
than other factors, such as race/ethnic identity, substance use, and risk-seeking
behaviors in determining gang involvement. Overall, a teens self-disclosure
to parents had the greatest effect on preventing risk behaviors. In light
of this finding, the authors suggest that high-risk adolescents and their
parents could benefit from programs that work toward teaching communication
skills. The first author is affiliated with the Tucson Unified School District.
Dr. Miller-Loessi is a faculty associate in the School of Social and Family
Dynamics at Arizona State University.
-
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Wei, E. H., Homish, D. L., & Loeber, R.
(2002). Which family and demographic factors are related to both maltreatment
and persistent serious juvenile delinquency? Childrens Services:
Social Policy, Research and Practice, 5, 261272.
-
This study examines the prevalence of maltreatment in boys and how maltreatment
is related to persistent serious delinquent behavior. The study sample consisted
of 503 boys in the Pittsburgh Youth Study and followed an experimental design
in which victims of maltreatment were compared with individuals in a
nonmaltreated control group. One-fifth of the sample had substantiated
maltreatment. The study also showed that maltreated boys have a higher rate
than nonmaltreated boys of persistent serious delinquency. Maltreated boys
and persistent, serious delinquents share many family risk factors, including
not living with both biological parents, having a teenage mother, having
a caretaker without a high school diploma, and having an unemployed caretaker.
After controlling for family interaction and family demographics, maltreatment
did not have an independent effect on persistent serious delinquency, which
is consistent with previous research. Dr. Stouthamer-Loeber works with the
Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic at the University of Pittsburgh.
Her research includes the progression of antisocial and delinquent behaviors
in males, factors associated with the onset of conduct disorders, and factors
involved in parents seeking help for their childrens behavior
problems.
-
Sullivan, T. N., Farrell, A. D., & Kliewer, W. (2006). Peer
victimization in early adolescence: Association between physical and relational
victimization and drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among urban
middle school students. Development and Psychopathology, 18,
119137.
-
This study explores whether adolescents who are victimized by a peer will
manifest increased drug abuse, aggression toward others, or delinquent behavior.
The study sample was a group of 276 predominantly African-American 8th graders.
Victimization was defined as physical (being shoved, punched, or kicked)
or relational (damaging someones relationship with peers). Forty-nine
percent of the students reported being victims of physical aggression, whereas
61 percent reported relational victimization. Boys were more likely to be
physically victimized, resulting in increased aggression and marijuana and
alcohol use. Dr. Sullivan is an assistant professor of psychology at Virginia
Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia. Her research focuses on
understanding the effect of aggression and exposure to violence on
childrens healthy psychosocial and emotional development.
-
Sullivan, T. N., Farrell, A. D., Kliewer, W., Vulin-Reynolds,
M., & Valois, R. F. (2007). Exposure to violence in early adolescence:
The impact of self-restraint, witnessing violence, and victimization on
aggression and drug use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 27, 296323.
-
In a rural community, the authors studied the relationship between self-restraint
and exposure to violence in early adolescence to determine whether a combination
of these factors led to aggression or drug use. Approximately half the 900
sixth graders surveyed reported witnessing or experiencing violence, with
boys more likely to have seen a beating or to have been the victim of a violent
act. Results showed that students with lower levels of self-control faced
increased rates of drug use and witnessing or experiencing violence. Findings
suggest that students with lower levels of self-control may be thrill-seekers
or have poor social skills and poor impulse control. Also, these factors
may make these youth more likely to be involved in violent acts. Dr. Sullivan
is an assistant professor of psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University
in Richmond, Virginia. Her research focuses on understanding the effect of
aggression and exposure to violence on childrens healthy psychosocial
and emotional development.
-
Taylor, T. J., Peterson, D., Esbensen, F. A., & Freng, A. (2007).
Gang membership as a risk factor for adolescent violent victimization.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 44, 351380.
-
This article describes a study that used cross-sectional survey data from
a sample of 5,935 eighth graders in public schools in 11 communities across
the United States. The study examined the different rates at which gang members
and nongang members experience violent victimization, what factors may contribute
to those differences, and whether, controlling for other factors, gang membership
is a salient correlate of violent victimization. Results indicate that gang
members were significantly more likely to be violently victimized and experience
a greater number of victimizations than their nongang peers. Gang members
also report greater levels of risk factors and lower levels of protective
factors. In addition, males were twice as likely as their female counterparts
to be violently victimized. These findings are consistent with other studies
that investigated the link between gang membership and violent victimization
(Miller, 1998, 2001; Peterson, Taylor, & Esbensen, 2004; see above).
Dr. Taylor is an associate professor in the Department of Criminology and
Criminal Justice at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. His primary research
interests include juvenile victimization and offending, with an emphasis
on the role of race/ethnicity.
-
Zador,
P. L.,
Krawchuk,
S. A., &
Voas,
R. B. (2000). Alcohol-related relative risk of driver fatalities and
driver involvement in fatal crashes in relation to driver age and gender:
An update using 1996 data. Journal of Studies of Alcohol, 61,
387395.
-
This article presents estimates of age- and gender-specific relative risk
of fatal crash involvement as a function of blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
for drivers involved in a fatal crash and for drivers fatally injured in
a crash. The authors combined crash data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting
System with exposure data from the 1996 National Roadside Survey of Drivers,
in which noncommercial operators of four-wheel motor vehicles were interviewed
and breath-tested during a roughly 1-month period. In general, the relative
risk of involvement in a fatal vehicle crash increased steadily with increasing
driver BAC in every age and gender group among both fatally injured and surviving
drivers. Among 16- to 20-year-old male drivers, a BAC increase of 0.02 percent
from a nonzero BAC was estimated to more than double the relative risk of
a fatal single-vehicle crash injury. With few exceptions, older drivers had
lower risk of being fatally injured in a single-vehicle crash than younger
drivers, as did women compared with men in the same age range. Findings indicate
that drivers with a BAC less than 0.10 percent pose highly elevated risk
both to themselves and to other road users. Dr. Zador is a senior statistician
at the Rockville Institute for the Advancement of Social Science.
Victimization and Mortality Interventions/programs
-
Kellermann, A. L., Fuqua-Whitley, D. S., Rivara, F. P., & Mercy,
J. (1998). Preventing youth violence: What works? Annual Review of Public
Health, 19, 271292.
-
This meta-analysis examines what works in terms of youth violence
prevention programs. More than 100 programs, separated into three category
areas, were examined. Family and early childhood interventions include preventing
teenage pregnancy, teaching parenting skills, and helping children enjoy
school. Youth and adolescent interventions include teaching problem solving
skills, promoting violence prevention, and mentoring. Community-level
interventions involve afterschool programs, innovative teaching, and proactive
policing. Results indicate that early childhood interventions are more effective
than programs that focus on older children. The findings also show that programs
for older children appear to be effective only during actual participation
by youth, and lasting effects are limited. Finally, community-based interventions
are shown to be somewhat effective in preventing youth violence but do not
affect children as much as does a stable family environment. The primary
audience for this study is program developers and policymakers in the youth
violence prevention field. Dr. Kellermann is a professor and the founding
chairman of the Department of Emergency Medicine at Emory University and
founding director of the Center for Injury Control at Rollins School of Public
Health, a collaborating center for injury and violence prevention of the
World Health Organization.
-
Tolan, P. (2001). Youth violence and its prevention in the United States:
An overview of current knowledge. Injury Control and Safety Promotion,
8, 112.
-
This article provides an overview of the current understanding of the development
of youth violence in the United States. The author reviews the research on
different prevention approaches and describes research, practice, and policy
implications of his review. The author states that youth violence continues
to be a serious problem. There is increasingly compelling evidence that the
exceptionally high levels of youth mortality are linked to access to guns
by youth. There is also evidence that youth violence occurs in multiple forms
and that these differing forms call for different prevention strategies.
That is, some youth violence is situational, some is best understood within
its relationship context, some occurs as part of predatory criminal activity,
and some seems to be the result of serious mental disorders. Dr. Tolan is
director of the Institute for Juvenile Research and professor of psychiatry
at the University of Illinois at Chicago. His research focuses on risk and
prevention among children, youth and families as well as their developmental
settings.
[ Go to Contents ]
Ahmed, E., & Braithwaite, V. (2004).
Bullying
and victimization: Cause for concern for both families and schools.
Social Psychology of Education, 7, 3554.
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R. H. (1988). Explaining the recent decline in marijuana use: Differentiating
the effects of perceived risks, disapproval, and general lifestyle factors.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29, 92112.
Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. (1993). How part-time work intensity
relates to drug use, problem behavior, time use, and satisfaction among high
school seniors: Are these consequences or merely correlates? Developmental
Psychology, 29, 220235.
Bahrke, M. S., Yesalis, C. E., Kopstein, A. N., & Stephens, J. A.
(2000). Risk factors associated with anabolic-androgenic steroid use among
adolescents. Sports Medicine, 29, 397405.
Bowers, L., Smith, P. K., & Binney, V. (1994). Perceived family
relationships of bullies, victims and bully/victims in middle childhood.
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 215232.
Brent, D. A., Baugher, M., Bridge, J., Chen, T., & Chiappetta, L.
(2000). Age- and sex-related risk factors for adolescent suicide. Journal
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38,
14971505.
Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J., Klebanov, P. K., & Sealand, N. (1993).
Do neighborhoods influence child and adolescent development? American
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and hair sample testing for drug use: A longitudinal study. In T. Mieczkowski
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influences on the relation of family statuses to adolescent school performance:
Differences between African Americans and non-Hispanic Whites. American
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the schooling decisions of White and Black adolescents. American Journal
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The relationship between early age of onset of initial substance use and
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[ Go to Contents ]
[1] A word about quantitative and
qualitative research: quantitative methods are those that focus on numbers
and frequencies. Quantitative methods (for example, experiments,
questionnaires, and psychometric tests) provide information that is easy
to analyze statistically and fairly reliable. Qualitative methods,
on the other hand, are ways of collecting data that are concerned with describing
meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences. Qualitative
methods (such as case studies and interviews) require smaller sample sizes
and provide more in depth and rich descriptions.
[2] Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C. &
Razavieh, A. (2002). Introduction to research in education
(6th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thompson Learning. The
minimum of 30 cases rule of thumb came as a result of simple sampling simulations
that showed by the time the sample sizes reached 30 to 32, the distribution
of the means started to look normal.
[3] Following are brief descriptions
for each of the traditions of inquiry.
-
Biography tells the story of a single individual through the
collection of data (e.g., stories, conversations, observations) to reconstruct
life experiences.
-
Grounded theory focuses on developing a theory grounded in
data from the field.
-
Phenomenology is an inquiry that focuses on understanding the
meaning of lived experiences about a phenomenon.
-
Ethnography describes and interprets a cultural and social
group through examination of observable and learned patterns of behavior,
customs, and ways of life.
-
Case study is an exploration of a case or multiple cases over
time through detailed in depth data collection involving multiple sources
of information.
Source: Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research
design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
[ Go to Contents ]
To download an electronic copy of this document visit:
http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/08/boys/Biblio
For more information and resources on boys, including promising interventions
and federal approaches to help boys, visit:
Project Page:
http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/08/boys/
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