Lead (Pb)

Nature and Sources of the Pollutant: Smelters and battery plants are the major sources of lead in the air. The highest concentrations of lead are found in the vicinity of nonferrous smelters and other stationary sources of lead emissions.

Health Effects: Exposure to lead mainly occurs through inhalation of air and ingestion of lead in food, paint, water, soil, or dust. Lead accumulates in the body in blood, bone, and soft tissue. Because it is not readily excreted, lead can also affect the kidneys, liver, nervous system, and other organs. Excessive exposure to lead may cause anemia, kidney disease, reproductive disorders, and neurological impairments such as seizures, mental retardation, and/or behavioral disorders. Even at low doses, lead exposure is associated with changes in fundamental enzymatic, energy transfer, and other processes in the body. Fetuses and children are especially susceptible to low doses of lead, often suffering central nervous system damage or slowed growth. Recent studies show that lead may be a factor in high blood pressure and subsequent heart disease in middle-aged white males. Lead may also contribute to osteoporosis in post-menopausal women. EPA's health-based national air quality standard for lead is 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³) measured as an annual maximum quarterly average concentration.