Chapter 5
Older Adults and Mental Health

Chapter Overview

Overview of Mental Disorders in Older Adults

Depression in Older Adults

Alzheimer’s Disease

Other Mental Disorders in Older Adults

Service Delivery

Other Services and Supports

Conclusions

References

Overview of Mental Disorders in Older Adults

Older adults are encumbered by many of the same mental disorders as are other adults; however, the prevalence, nature, and course of each disorder may be very different. This section provides a general overview of assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders in older people. Its purpose is to describe issues common to many mental disorders. Subsequent sections of this chapter provide more detailed reviews of late-life depression and Alzheimer’s disease. Also, to shed light on the range and frequency of disorders that impair the mental well-being of older Americans, the chapter reviews the impact on older adults of anxiety, schizophrenia, and alcohol and substance abuse.

Assessment and Diagnosis

Assessment and diagnosis of late-life mental disorders are especially challenging by virtue of several distinctive characteristics of older adults. First, the clinical presentation of older adults with mental disorders may be different from that of other adults, making detection of treatable illness more difficult. For example, many older individuals present with somatic complaints and experience symptoms of depression and anxiety that do not meet the full criteria for depressive or anxiety disorders. The consequences of these subsyndromal conditions may be just as deleterious as the syndromes themselves. Failure to detect individuals who truly have treatable mental disorders represents a serious public health problem (National Institutes of Health [NIH] Consensus Development Panel on Depression in Late Life, 1992).

Detection of mental disorders in older adults is complicated further by high comorbidity with other medical disorders. The symptoms of somatic disorders may mimic or mask psychopathology, making diagnosis more taxing. In addition, older individuals are more likely to report somatic symptoms than psychological ones, leading to further underidentification of mental disorders (Blazer, 1996b).

Primary care providers carry much of the burden for diagnosis of mental disorders in older adults, and, unfortunately, the rates at which they recognize and properly identify disorders often are low. With respect to depression, for example, a significant number of depressed older adults are neither diagnosed nor treated in primary care (NIH Consensus Development Panel on Depression in Late Life, 1992; Unutzer et al., 1997b). In one study of primary care physicians, only 55 percent of internists felt confident in diagnosing depression, and even fewer (35 percent of the total) felt confident in prescribing antidepressants to older persons (Callahan et al., 1992). Physicians were least likely to report that they felt “very confident” in evaluating depression in other late-life conditions (Gallo et al., in press). Researchers estimate that an unmet need for mental health services may be experienced by up to 63 percent of adults aged 65 years and older with a mental disorder, based on prevalence estimates from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) study (Rabins, 1996).

The large unmet need for treatment of mental disorders reflects patient barriers (e.g., preference for primary care, tendency to emphasize somatic problems, reluctance to disclose psychological symptoms), provider barriers (e.g., lack of awareness of the manifestations of mental disorders, complexity of treatment, and reluctance to inform patients of a diagnosis), and mental health delivery system barriers (e.g., time pressures, reimbursement policies).

Stereotypes about normal aging also can make diagnosis and assessment of mental disorders in late life challenging. For example, many people believe that “senility” is normal and therefore may delay seeking care for relatives with dementing illnesses. Similarly, patients and their families may believe that depression and hopelessness are natural conditions of older age, especially with prolonged bereavement.

Cognitive decline, both normal and pathological, can be a barrier to effective identification and assessment of mental illness in late life. Obtaining an accurate history, which may need to be taken from family members, is important for diagnosis of most disorders and especially for distinguishing between somatic and mental disorders. Normal decline in short-term memory and especially the severe impairments in memory seen in dementing illnesses hamper attempts to obtain good patient histories. Similarly, cognitive deficits are prominent features of many disorders of late life that make diagnosis of psychiatric disorders more difficult.

Overview of Prevention

Prevention in mental health has been seen until recently as an area limited to childhood and adolescence. Now there is mounting awareness of the value of prevention in the older population. While the body of published literature is not as extensive as that for diagnosis or treatment, investigators are beginning to shape new approaches to prevention. Yet because prevention research is driven, in part, by refined understanding of disease etiology—and etiology research itself continues to be rife with uncertainty—prevention advances are expected to lag behind those in etiology.

There are many ways in which prevention models can be applied to older individuals, provided a broad view of prevention is used (Lebowitz & Pearson, in press). Such a broad view entails interventions for reducing the risk of developing, exacerbating, or experiencing the consequences of a mental disorder. Consequently, this section covers primary prevention (including the prevention of depression and suicide), treatment-related prevention, prevention of excess disability, and prevention of premature institutionalization. However, many of the research advances noted in this section have yet to be translated into practice. Given the frequency of memory complaints and depression, the time may soon arrive for older adults to be encouraged to have “mood and memory checkups” in the same manner that they are now encouraged to have physical checkups (N. Abeles, personal communication, 1998).

Primary Prevention
Primary prevention, the prevention of disease before it occurs, can be applied to late-onset disorders. Progress in our understanding of etiology, risk factors, pathogenesis, and the course of mental disorders—discussed later in this chapter for depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and other conditions—stimulates and channels the development of prevention interventions.

The largest body of primary prevention research focuses on late-life depression, where some progress has been documented. With other disorders, primary prevention research is in its infancy. Prevention in Alzheimer’s disease might target individuals at increased genetic risk with prophylactic nutritional (e.g., vitamin E), cholinergic, or amyloid-targeting interventions. Prevention research on late-onset schizophrenia might explore potential protective factors, such as estrogen.

Prevention of Depression and Suicide
Depression is strikingly prevalent among older people. As noted below, 8 to 20 percent of older adults in the community and up to 37 percent in primary care settings experience symptoms of depression.

One approach to preventing depression is through grief counseling for widows and widowers. For example, participation in self-help groups appears to ameliorate depression, improve social adjustment, and reduce the use of alcohol and other drugs of abuse in widows (Constantino, 1988; Lieberman & Videka-Sherman, 1986). The efficacy of self-help groups approximates that of brief psychodynamic psychotherapy in older bereaved individuals without significant prior psychopathology (Marmar et al., 1988). The battery of psychosocial and pharmacological treatments to prevent recurrences of depression (i.e., secondary prevention) is discussed later in this chapter under the section on depression.

Depression is a foremost risk factor for suicide in older adults (Conwell, 1996; Conwell et al., 1996). Older people have the highest rates of suicide in the U.S. population: suicide rates increase with age, with older white men having a rate of suicide up to six times that of the general population (Kachur et al., 1995; Hoyert et al., 1999). Despite the prevalence of depression and the risk it confers for suicide, depression is neither well recognized nor treated in primary care settings, where most older adults seek and receive health care (Unutzer et al., 1997a). Studies described in the depression section of this chapter have found that undiagnosed and untreated depression in the primary care setting plays a significant role in suicide (Caine et al., 1996). This awareness has prompted the development of suicide prevention strategies expressly for primary care. One of the first published suicide prevention studies, an uncontrolled experiment conducted in Sweden, suggested that a depression training program for general practitioners reduces suicide (Rihmer et al., 1995). Suicide interventions, especially in the primary care setting, have become a priority of the U.S. Public Health Service, with lead responsibility assumed by the Office of the Surgeon General and the National Institute of Mental Health.

Depression and suicide prevention strategies also are important for nursing home residents. About half of patients newly relocated to nursing homes are at heightened risk for depression (Parmelee et al., 1989).

Treatment-Related Prevention
Prevention of relapse or recurrence of the underlying mental disorder is important for improving the mental health of older patients with mental disorders. For example, treatments that are applied with adequate intensities for depression (Schneider, 1996) and for depression in Alzheimer’s disease (Small et al., 1997) may prevent relapse or recurrence. Substantial residual disability in chronically mentally ill individuals (Lebowitz et al., 1997) suggests that treatment must be approached from a longer term perspective (Reynolds et al., 1996).

Prevention of medication side effects and adverse reactions also is an important goal of treatment-related prevention efforts in older adults. Comorbidity and the associated polypharmacy for multiple conditions are characteristic of older patients. New information on the genetic basis of drug metabolism and on the action of drug-metabolizing enzymes can lead to a better understanding of complex drug interactions (Nemeroff et al., 1996). For example, many of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors compete for the same metabolic pathway used by beta-blockers, type 1C antiarrhythmics, and benzodiazepines (Nemeroff et al., 1996). This knowledge can assist the clinician in choosing medications that can prevent the likelihood of side effects. In addition, many older patients require antipsychotic treatment for management of behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, and depression. Although doses tend to be quite low, age and length of treatment represent major risk factors for movement disorders (Saltz et al., 1991; Jeste et al., 1995a). Recent research on older people suggests that the newer antipsychotics present a much lower risk of movement disorders, highlighting their importance for prevention (Jeste et al., in press). Finally, body sway and postural stability are affected by many drugs, although there is wide variability within classes of drugs (Laghrissi-Thode et al., 1995). Minimizing the risk of falling, therefore, is another target for prevention research. Falls represent a leading cause of injury deaths among older persons (IOM, 1999).

Prevention of Excess Disability
Prevention efforts in older mentally ill populations also target avoidance of excessive disability. The concept of excess disability refers to the observation that many older patients, particularly those with Alzheimer’s disease and other severe and persistent mental disorders, are more functionally impaired than would be expected according to the stage or severity of their disorder. Medical, psychosocial, and environmental factors all contribute to excess disability. For example, depression contributes to excess disability by hastening functional impairment in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (Ritchie et al., 1998). The fast pace of modern life, with its emphasis on independence, also contributes to excess disability by making it more difficult for older adults with impairments to function autonomously. Attention to depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders may reduce the functional limitations associated with concomitant mental and somatic impairments. Many studies have demonstrated that attention to these factors and aggressive intervention, where appropriate, maximize function (Lebowitz & Pearson, in press).

Prevention of Premature Institutionalization
Another important goal of prevention efforts in older adults is prevention of premature institutionalization. While institutional care is needed for many older patients who suffer from severe and persistent mental disorders, delay of institutional placement until absolutely necessary generally is what patients and family caregivers prefer. It also has significant public health impact in terms of reducing costs. A randomized study of counseling and support versus usual care for family caregivers of patients with Alzheimer’s disease found the intervention to have delayed patients’ nursing home admission by over 300 days (Mittelman et al., 1996). The intervention also resulted in a significant reduction in depressive symptoms in the caregivers. The intervention consisted of three elements: individual and family counseling sessions, support group participation, and availability of counselors to assist with patient crises.

The growing importance of avoiding premature institutionalization is illustrated by its use as one measure of the effectiveness of pharmacotherapy in older individuals. For example, clinical trials of drugs for Alzheimer’s disease have begun using delay of institutionalization as a primary outcome (Sano et al., 1997) or as a longer-term outcome in a followup study after the double-blind portion of the clinical trial ended (Knopman et al., 1996).

Overview of Treatment

Treatment of mental disorders in older adults encompasses pharmacological interventions, electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosocial interventions. While the pharmacological and psychosocial interventions used to treat mental health problems and specific disorders may be identical for older and younger adults, characteristics unique to older adults may be important considerations in treatment selection.

Pharmacological Treatment
The special considerations in selecting appropriate medications for older people include physiological changes due to aging; increased vulnerability to side effects, such as tardive dyskinesia; the impact of polypharmacy; interactions with other comorbid disorders; and barriers to compliance. All are discussed below.

The aging process leads to numerous changes in physiology, resulting in altered blood levels of certain medications, prolonged pharmacological effects, and greater risk for many side effects (Kendell et al., 1981). Changes may occur in the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of psychotropic medications (Pollock & Mulsant, 1995).

As people age, there is a gradual decrease in gastrointestinal motility, gastric blood flow, and gastric acid production (Greenblatt et al., 1982). This slows the rate of absorption, but the overall extent of gastric absorption is probably comparable to that in other adults. The aging process is also associated with a decrease in total body water, a decrease in muscle mass, and an increase in adipose tissue (Borkan et al., 1983). Drugs that are highly lipophilic, such as neuroleptics, are therefore more likely to be accumulated in fatty tissues in older patients than they are in younger patients.

The liver undergoes changes in blood flow and volume with age. Phase I metabolism (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis) may diminish or remain unchanged, while phase II metabolism (conjugation with an endogenous substrate) does not change with aging. Renal blood flow, glomerular surface area, tubular function, and reabsorption mechanisms all have been shown to diminish with age. Diminished renal excretion may lead to a prolonged half-life and the necessity for a lower dose or longer dosing intervals.

Pharmacodynamics, which refers to the drug’s effect on its target organ, also can be altered in older individuals. An example of aging-associated pharmacodynamic change is diminished central cholinergic function contributing to increased sensitivity to the anticholinergic effects of many neuroleptics and antidepressants in older adults (Molchan et al., 1992).

Because of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic concerns presented above, it is often recommended that clinicians “start low and go slow” when prescribing new psychoactive medications for older adults. In other words, efficacy is greatest and side effects are minimized when initial doses are small and the rate of increase is slow. Nevertheless, the medication should generally be titrated to the regular adult dose in order to obtain the full benefit. The potential pitfall is that, because of slower titration and the concomitant need for more frequent medical visits, there is less likelihood of older adults receiving an adequate dose and course of medication.

Increased Risk of Side Effects
Older people encounter an increased risk of side effects, most likely the result of taking multiple drugs or having higher blood levels of a given drug. The increased risk of side effects is especially true for neuroleptic agents, which are widely prescribed as treatment for psychotic symptoms, agitation, and behavioral symptoms. Neuroleptic side effects include sedation, anticholinergic toxicity (which can result in urinary retention, constipation, dry mouth, glaucoma, and confusion), extrapyramidal symptoms (e.g., parkinsonism, akathisia, and dystonia), and tardive dyskinesia. Chapter 4 contains more detailed information about the side effects of neuroleptics.

Tardive dyskinesia is a frequent and persistent side effect that occurs months to years after initiation of neuroleptics. In older adults, tardive dyskinesia typically entails abnormal movements of the tongue, lips, and face. In a recent study of older outpatients treated with conventional neuroleptics the incidence of tardive dyskinesia after 12 months of neuroleptic treatment was 29 percent of the patients. At 24 and 36 months, the mean cumulative incidence was 50.1 percent and 63.1 percent, respectively (Jeste et al., 1995a). This study demonstrates the high risk of tardive dyskinesia in older patients even with low doses of conventional neuroleptics. Studies of younger adult patients reveal an annual cumulative incidence of tardive dyskinesia at 4 to 5 percent (Kane et al., 1993).

Unlike conventional neuroleptics, the newer atypical ones, such as clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, and quetiapine, apparently confer several advantages with respect to both efficacy and safety. These drugs are associated with a lower incidence of extrapyramidal symptoms than conventional neuroleptics are. For clozapine, the low risk of tardive dyskinesia is well established (Kane et al., 1993). The incidence of tardive dyskinesia with other atypical antipsychotics is also likely to be lower than that with conventional neuroleptics because extrapyramidal symptoms have been found to be a risk factor for tardive dyskinesia in older adults (Saltz et al., 1991; Jeste et al., 1995a). The determination of exact risk of tardive dyskinesia with these newer drugs needs long-term studies.

Polypharmacy
In addition to the effects of aging on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics and the increased risk of side effects, older individuals with mental disorders also are more likely than other adults to be medicated with multiple compounds, both prescription and nonprescription (i.e., polypharmacy). Older adults (over the age of 65) fill an average of 13 prescriptions a year (for original or refill prescriptions), which is approximately three times the number filled by younger individuals (Chrischilles et al., 1992). Polypharmacy greatly complicates effective treatment of mental disorders in older adults. Specifically, drug-drug interactions are of concern, both in terms of increasing side effects and decreasing efficacy of one or both compounds.

Treatment Compliance
Compliance with the treatment regimen also is a special concern in older adults, especially in those with moderate or severe cognitive deficits. Physical problems, such as impaired vision, make it likely that instructions may be misread or that one medicine may be mistaken for another. Cognitive impairment may also make it difficult for patients to remember whether or not they have taken their medication. Although in general, older patients are more compliant about taking psychoactive medications than other types of drugs (Cooper et al., 1982), when noncompliance does occur, it may be less easily detected, more serious, less easily resolved, mistaken for symptoms of a new disease, or even falsely labeled as “old-age” symptomatology. Accordingly, greater emphasis must be placed on strict compliance by patients in this age group (Lamy et al., 1992). Medication noncompliance takes different forms in older adults, that is, overuse and abuse, forgetting, and alteration of schedules and doses. The most common type of deliberate noncompliance among older adults may be the underuse of the prescribed drug, mainly because of side effects and cost considerations. Factors that contribute to medication noncompliance in older patients include inadequate information given to them regarding the necessity for drug treatment, unclear prescribing directions, suboptimal doctor-patient relationship, the large number of times per day drugs must be taken, and the large number of drugs that are taken at the same time (Lamy et al., 1992). Better compliance may be achieved by giving simple instructions and by asking specific questions to make sure that the patient understands directions.

Psychosocial Interventions
Several types of psychosocial interventions have proven effective in older patients with mental disorders, but the research is more limited than that on pharmacological interventions (see Klausner & Alexopoulos, in press). Both types are frequently used in combination. Most of the research has been restricted to psychosocial treatments for depression, although, as discussed below, there is mounting interest in dementia. For other mental disorders, psychosocial interventions found successful for younger adults are often tailored to older people in the practice setting without the benefit of efficacy research.

Despite the relative paucity of research, psychosocial interventions may be preferred for some older patients, especially those who are unable to tolerate, or prefer not to take, medication or who are confronting stressful situations or low degrees of social support (Lebowitz et al., 1997). The benefits of psychosocial interventions are likely to assume greater prominence as a result of population demographics: as the number of older people grows, progressively more older people in need of mental health treatment—especially the very old—are expected to be suffering from greater levels of comorbidity or dealing with the stresses associated with disability. Psychosocial interventions not only can help relieve the symptoms of a variety of mental disorders and related problems but also can play more diverse roles: they can help strengthen coping mechanisms, encourage (and monitor) patients’ compliance with medications, and promote healthy behavior (Klausner & Alexopoulos, in press).

New approaches to service delivery are being designed to realize the benefits of established psychosocial interventions. Many older people are not comfortable with traditional mental health settings, partially as a result of stigma (Waters, 1995). In fact, many older people prefer to receive treatment for mental disorders by their primary care physicians, and most older people do receive such care in the primary care setting (Brody et al., 1997; Unutzer et al., 1997a). Since older people show willingness to accept psychosocial interventions in the primary care setting, new models are striving to integrate into the primary care setting the delivery of specialty mental health services. The section of this chapter on service delivery discusses new models in greater detail.

Gap Between Efficacy and Effectiveness
A problem common to both pharmacological and psychosocial interventions is the disparity between treatment efficacy, as demonstrated in randomized controlled clinical trials, and effectiveness in real-world settings. While this problem is certainly not unique to older people (see Chapter 2 for a broader discussion of the problem), this problem is especially significant for older people with mental disorders. Older people are often undertreated for their mental disorders in primary care settings (Unutzer et al., 1997a). When they do receive appropriate treatment, older people are more likely than other people to have comorbid disorders and social problems that reduce treatment effectiveness (Unutzer et al., 1997a). An additional overlay of barriers, including financing and systems of care, is discussed later in this chapter.


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