This edition, revised by D. Stephen Lane, senior research scientist at the VTRC, builds on the original work. It has been revised and updated to reflect recent advances in techniques and work in concrete petrography. Major additions to the manual include a new chapter (chapter 14, written by Paul E. Stutzman, physical scientist, National Institute of Standards and Technology) on the use of the scanning electron microscope to examine concrete and concretemaking materials, and additional information on the identification and classification of rocks and minerals in aggregates (appendix D). Chapter 10, Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, was reorganized to outline the process one would follow to investigate a case of concrete deterioration and illustrate the features that provide evidence of alkali-silica or alkali-carbonate reactions. It is hoped that the manual will be of great use both to those entering the field of concrete petrography and to the experienced petrographer.
This edition is an example of the continuing cooperation in infrastructure research and development between State and Federal agencies.
The following quotation from K. Mather (1966), serves as a mission statement for concrete petrographers:
The best petrographic examination is the one that finds the right questions and answers them with maximum economy in minimum time, with a demonstration clear to all concerned that the right questions were answered with all necessary and no superfluous detail. In practice, the approach to the ideal varies depending on the problem, the skill with which the questions are asked, and the skill of the petrographer. One measure of the petrographer’s skill is knowing when to stop, either because the problem is adequately solved, or, in some cases, because it has been shown to be insoluble under the circumstances.
Katherine Mather served as chair of the American Society for Testing and Materials Subcommittee on Petrography of Concrete and Aggregates for many years. She was an expert in the practice and use of petrography, contributed to many publications, and participated actively in cement and concrete research carried on by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Gary L. Henderson, Director
Office of Infrastructure Research
and Development
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade and manufacturers’ names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the object of the document.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve Government, industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding. Standards and policies are used to ensure and maximize the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of its information. FHWA periodically reviews quality issues and adjusts its programs and processes to ensure continuous quality improvement.
1. Report No. FHWA-HRT-04-150 | 2. Government Accession No. | 3. Recipient’s Catalog No. |
4. Title and Subtitle
Petrographic Methods of Examining Hardened Concrete: A Petrographic Manual
Revised 2004 | 5. Report Date July 2006 |
6. Performing Organization Code |
7. Author(s) Hollis N. Walker, D. Stephen Lane, and Paul E. Stutzman | 8. Performing Organization Report No. VTRC 04-R21 |
9. Performing Organization Name and Address Virginia Transportation Research Council 530 Edgemont Road Charlottesville, VA 22903 | 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) |
11. Contract or Grant No. |
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address Virginia Department of Transportation 1401 East Broad Street Richmond, VA 23219 Federal Highway Administration Office of Infrastructure R&D 6300 Georgetown Pike, McLean, VA 22101 | 13. Type of Report and Period Covered Revised Manual 1997– 2004 |
14. Sponsoring Agency’s Code |
15. Supplementary Notes Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative (COTR): Richard Meininger, HRDI-11 |
16. Abstract This manual provides a comprehensive discussion of equipment and techniques that have been found useful in performing petrographic examinations of hardened concrete and its constituent materials. It includes an introduction and chapters on equipment, general initial procedures, cracks, preparation of specimens, and voids (including determination of the air-void system); determination of volumetric proportions of constituents; examination with the stereomicroscope; the water-cementitious materials ratio; alkali-aggregate reactions; cementitious materials; and examinations with the petrographic, polarizing/epifluorescence, and scanning electron microscopes. An extensive reading list, glossary, and other appendixes are included. |
17. Key Words
Petrography, hydraulic cements, portland cement,concrete, aggregate, cracking, voids, microscope,alkali silica reaction (ASR), alkali carbonate reaction (ACR). | 18. Distribution Statement
No restrictions. This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. |
19. Security Classification (of this report) Unclassified | 20. Security Classification (of this page) Unclassified | 21. No. of Pages 351 | 22. Price |
AAR |
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction or Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity |
AASHO |
American Association of State Highway Officials |
ACI |
American Concrete Institute |
ACR |
Alkali-Carbonate Reaction or Alkali-Carbonate Reactivity |
ASR |
Alkali-Silica Reaction or Alkali-Silica Reactivity |
ASTM |
American Society for Testing and Materials |
AVA |
Air-Void Analyzer |
BE |
Backscattered Electrons |
BEI |
Backscattered Electron Imaging |
BF |
Barrier Filters |
CH |
Calcium Hydroxide |
COTR |
Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative |
CSA |
Canadian Standards Association |
CSH |
Calcium Silicate Hydrate |
CTE |
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion |
DM |
Dichroic Mirrors |
DOT |
Department of Transportation |
EDS |
Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer |
EDX |
Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Analysis |
FHWA |
Federal Highway Administration |
GGBFS |
Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag |
HCC |
Hydraulic Cement Concrete |
HRB |
Highway Research Board (now the Transportation Research Board) |
ICMA |
International Cement Microscopy Association |
ISO |
International Standards Organization |
ITZ |
Interface Transition Zone |
NIST |
National Institute for Standards and Technology |
P/EF |
Polarizing/Epifluorescence |
PCA |
Portland Cement Association |
PCC |
Portland Cement Concrete (more inclusive term HCC, above, is used throughout) |
RH |
Relative Humidity |
SE |
Secondary Electrons |
SEI |
Secondary Electron Imaging |
SEM |
Scanning Electron Microscope |
SHRP |
Strategic Highway Research Program |
SI |
International System of Units (metric system) |
TFHRC |
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center |
TRB |
Transportation Research Board (formerly the Highway Research Board) |
VTRC |
Virginia Transportation Research Council |
w/cm |
Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio |
XR |
X-Ray Imaging |
XRD |
X-Ray Diffraction |
XRF |
X-Ray Fluorescence |